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Shakedown cruise

A shakedown cruise is a sea voyage undertaken by a newly constructed or recently repaired ship to test its mechanical systems, equipment, and crew performance under simulated operational conditions prior to entering full service.^[1] This process, often conducted in open waters, simulates real-life scenarios to identify and correct deficiencies that may not have been evident during initial dockside or builder's trials.^[2] In the context of the United States Navy, the shakedown cruise typically occurs as a post-delivery phase following the ship's commissioning, serving as an extended period of training and at-sea operations to ensure readiness for final acceptance trials.^[3] Its primary purposes include validating the integration of all onboard systems, evaluating crew proficiency in handling the vessel, and collecting tactical data through activities such as speed trials, weapons testing, and endurance runs.^[3] Any issues uncovered during this cruise are addressed in a subsequent post-shakedown availability (PSA), a maintenance period focused on rectifying faults before the ship assumes its operational role.^[4] Historically, shakedown cruises have been integral to naval shipbuilding since the early 20th century, with notable examples including the USS Missouri (BB-63 in 1944, which conducted its shakedown in the Caribbean to prepare for World War II deployment, and the USS Enterprise (CVAN-65) in 1962, testing its nuclear propulsion during initial operations in the Caribbean, including at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.^[5]^[6] While primarily associated with military vessels, the concept extends to commercial and exploratory ships, as well as occasionally to spacecraft, emphasizing a rigorous "shake-down" to build confidence in the platform's reliability.^[1]

Definition and Purpose

Core Definition

A shakedown cruise is a nautical term referring to a sea voyage undertaken by a newly constructed or significantly refitted ship to rigorously test its overall performance and seaworthiness before entering active service. This final phase of trials simulates real-life operational conditions to evaluate key components, including hull integrity through structural stress tests, propulsion systems via full-power runs, weapons by live firing to assess stability, electronics and navigation aids, as well as crew proficiency through general drills and maneuvers.^[7]^[2] The primary purpose of a shakedown cruise is to identify and address any latent defects, weaknesses, or integration issues in the ship's systems and the crew's operational readiness, thereby ensuring reliability and safety prior to full deployment. By subjecting the vessel to demanding conditions at sea, such as high-speed operations and tactical exercises, it reveals potential failures that might not surface during dockside or preliminary trials, allowing for corrections during the subsequent post-shakedown availability period.^[7]^[2] The phrase "shakedown" derives from nautical slang originating in the transition from sail to steam propulsion in the 19th century, when early steam engines generated intense vibrations that "shook down" loose fittings, equipment, and rigging to the deck, necessitating thorough settling and testing to secure all elements. This etymology underscores the cruise's role in methodically "shaking down" the ship—both literally and figuratively—to eliminate vulnerabilities and achieve a stable configuration.^[2]

Primary Objectives

The primary objectives of a shakedown cruise encompass validating the vessel's technical systems under maximum operational stress, ensuring crew proficiency and integration, and mitigating risks by uncovering latent defects prior to full service entry.^[3] These goals prepare the ship for unrestricted operations by simulating real-world conditions at sea, including full-power runs and high-speed maneuvers to test propulsion, combat systems, and other critical equipment at 100% capacity.^[3] Technical objectives focus on rigorously testing ship systems to confirm reliability and performance limits, such as full-power runs and structural tests to evaluate propulsion and stability.^[3] Damage control systems are stressed through simulated emergencies and casualty drills to verify structural integrity and firefighting capabilities under combat-like pressures.^[7] Armament and tactical systems undergo standardization trials to collect performance data and ensure seamless functionality.^[3] Operational objectives aim to integrate crew procedures with the vessel's equipment, confirming that the ship can execute fleet maneuvers and sustain prolonged sea operations without interruption.^[3] This includes sea trials that assess overall readiness, from propulsion efficiency to environmental systems at full load, fostering a cohesive operational rhythm between personnel and machinery.^[3] Human factors objectives emphasize familiarizing the new crew with the ship's layout and systems through hands-on training, such as fast cruise simulations dockside that mimic underway conditions without leaving port.^[7] Team cohesion is built via watchstander qualifications, emergency scenario drills, and prospective commanding officer-led at-sea periods, simulating combat and crisis responses to enhance decision-making under stress.^[3] Risk mitigation is achieved by identifying and documenting deficiencies in materials or procedures during these trials, allowing corrections in the subsequent post-shakedown availability period to prevent operational failures in active duty.^[3]

Historical Context

Origins in Naval Tradition

The practice of conducting post-construction trials for newly built warships emerged in the 19th-century sailing navies, particularly within the British Royal Navy, where informal sea voyages served to assess seaworthiness, rigging integrity, and overall performance after launch. These early tests, often integrated into initial deployments or training cruises, allowed crews to identify structural weaknesses and operational flaws before full combat readiness. For instance, during the Age of Sail, Royal Navy vessels underwent such evaluations to ensure masts, sails, and hulls withstood open-sea conditions, reflecting a tradition rooted in the need to mitigate risks from handcrafted wooden construction. The transition to steam-powered ships in the late 19th century transformed these informal practices into more structured procedures, as iron and steel hulls combined with complex machinery demanded rigorous evaluation of propulsion systems and stability. In the British Royal Navy, this shift was exemplified by HMS Warrior, the world's first iron-hulled armored warship, which underwent extensive sea trials in October 1861 following her commissioning, achieving speeds of up to 14.3 knots while testing her trunk engine and sail-rig compatibility. Similarly, the U.S. Navy adopted comparable trials for its emerging steam fleet, with the USS Wampanoag's 1868 sea trials marking a milestone in evaluating high-speed steam performance, reaching 17.75 knots over long distances despite challenges like high coal consumption. The term "shakedown cruise" itself originated during this era of sail-to-steam transition, referring to the vibrations that settled or "shook down" loose fittings in early engines. By the late 1890s, the U.S. Navy had formalized shakedown cruises as standard procedure amid rapid fleet expansion, particularly during the Spanish-American War of 1898, when newly commissioned vessels required swift validation to meet wartime demands. This formalization ensured systematic testing of armaments, engines, and crew coordination before deployment to combat zones like the Philippines and Cuba. A notable early example was the USS Olympia, commissioned in February 1895, which conducted official speed trials in the Santa Barbara Channel, attaining 21.7 knots. Following commissioning in San Francisco, she departed Mare Island Navy Yard on 25 August 1895 for her shakedown cruise to join the Asiatic Squadron, crossing the Pacific Ocean and arriving at Yokohama, Japan, on 9 November 1895. During this voyage, the ship encountered severe weather that caused repeated coal bunker fires. The growth of industrial shipbuilding in the 19th century further necessitated these formalized testing protocols, as mass-produced components and innovative materials like iron plating introduced unprecedented complexities and potential defects. Shipyards transitioned from artisanal wooden construction to mechanized processes powered by steam, enabling faster production but amplifying the risks of unproven integrations, such as boilers and propellers. This industrial evolution, evident in both British and American yards, underscored the importance of shakedown cruises to verify reliability under real-world stresses, preventing costly failures in operational service.

Evolution Through Major Conflicts

The entry of the United States into World War I in 1917 prompted the U.S. Navy to accelerate testing protocols for destroyers and submarines to counter the German U-boat threat, with programs in 1917-1918 facilitating rapid fleet expansion. This urgency is illustrated by the Wickes-class and Clemson-class destroyers, many of which underwent post-construction trials before deployment to European waters, enabling the Navy to contribute around 70 destroyers to convoy escort duties by late 1918. World War II marked a period of standardization for shakedown cruises, as the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Ships mandated comprehensive trials for all new vessels to ensure operational readiness amid massive wartime construction. This included adaptations for aircraft carriers, such as the USS Hornet (CV-8), which completed its shakedown in late 1941 and early 1942 in the Caribbean and Atlantic, testing flight operations and integrating with the Pacific Fleet shortly after Pearl Harbor. The Bureau's oversight ensured that shakedowns addressed design flaws and crew training under combat-like conditions, contributing to the swift commissioning of over 1,000 warships during the conflict. During the Cold War, shakedown cruises incorporated advanced testing for nuclear propulsion systems, reflecting the Navy's shift toward strategic deterrence. The USS Nautilus (SSN-571), the world's first nuclear-powered submarine, conducted submerged trials during its May 1955 shakedown cruise, traveling 1,381 miles in 89.8 hours to validate reactor performance and underwater endurance, setting records that influenced subsequent nuclear submarine designs. These trials, overseen by the Bureau of Ships' Nuclear Power Division, emphasized safety and reliability in prolonged submerged operations. Post-Vietnam War refinements focused on cost-efficiency and the integration of simulation technologies to minimize sea time and expenses in shakedown cruises. By the late 20th century, the Navy began incorporating computer-based simulations and land-based testing to replicate sea conditions, reducing traditional cruise durations and associated fuel costs in some programs. This approach, advanced through facilities like the Naval Surface Warfare Center, allowed for earlier identification of issues while aligning with budget constraints in the post-war era.

Operational Process

Pre-Cruise Preparation

Prior to commencing a shakedown cruise, the crew is assembled through coordinated efforts by the Type Commander (TYCOM) and Immediate Superior in Command (ISIC), involving screening of personnel for qualifications, medical fitness, and vessel-specific requirements.^[3] This process establishes crew rosters, verifies officer qualifications, and incorporates experienced personnel to mentor new members, ensuring training on the ship's systems and operations. Crew certification varies by ship type and TYCOM policy, typically involving phased assessments to achieve readiness for sea trials, including familiarization by the Prospective Commanding Officer (PCO).^[3] Dockside equipment checks are essential, encompassing material inspections to certify system readiness for sea trials. These include verification of radar, sonar, armaments, and other critical systems through alongside tests and dock trials to assess operability. A fast cruise simulates at-sea conditions while moored, providing crew training. Additional checks cover habitability, casualty control, watertight integrity, and compliance with Coordinated Shipboard Allowance List (COSAL) documentation to resolve deficiencies before departure.^[3] Route planning involves developing and approving a sea trial agenda by the PCO, TYCOM, and ISIC, specifying operational limits, test sequences, and suitable areas for high-speed runs and maneuvers. The agenda accounts for crew rest and may include multiple at-sea periods, with shakedown duration typically spanning several weeks to months depending on ship class and scope.^[3] Regulatory compliance includes coordination for habitability inspections and adherence to safety protocols per OPNAVINST 4700.8 series for maintenance and trials. These steps involve preventive maintenance, equipment certifications (e.g., nuclear propulsion where applicable), and alignment with Navy standards to mitigate risks.^[8]

Key Activities and Testing

During a shakedown cruise, naval vessels undergo rigorous system stress tests to evaluate performance under operational limits. These include high-speed maneuvers and full-power runs to assess propulsion efficiency and structural integrity, as well as emergency stops and tactical diameter tests to verify handling and stability in dynamic conditions.^[7] Weapon firings, such as structural test shots from main guns, are conducted to confirm armament functionality without compromising the hull or systems.^[7] For example, during the USS Fanning's 1938 shakedown, full power runs and gun firings were performed to identify any vibration or alignment issues.^[7] Crew drills form a critical component, simulating combat and emergency scenarios to build proficiency and team coordination. Damage control exercises involve simulated flooding, structural repairs, and hazmat casualty responses, while fire-fighting drills test the crew's ability to contain and extinguish blazes using shipboard equipment.^[9] Man-overboard recoveries and general quarters drills ensure rapid response times, often reducing alert-to-station intervals from minutes to seconds through repeated practice.^[10] Engineering-specific drills, such as hot bearing simulations and loss of steering, are conducted quarterly to maintain proficiency in core operations.^[9] In the USS Hunt's 1943 shakedown, general quarters drills evolved to achieve response times under 10 seconds, alongside ammunition loading exercises emphasizing safety protocols.^[10] Environmental challenges are incorporated to test the vessel's resilience in varied conditions, including heavy weather operations and night evolutions. Crews perform underway fueling, torpedo evasion, and degaussing in rough seas or low visibility to evaluate stability, navigation accuracy, and ballast systems.^[9] During the USS Fanning's cruise, operations in rough seas and a tropical disturbance near Sombrero Island assessed the ship's seaworthiness and crew adaptability.^[7] Annual heavy weather drills include rigging for sea states that simulate storms, ensuring potable water sampling and oily water separator functionality under stress.^[9] Data collection is continuous, with metrics logged to analyze system reliability and inform post-cruise adjustments. Key parameters include fuel efficiency via oil sampling and testing, vibration levels during propulsion trials, and overall reliability through post-event data cards.^[9] The Training Resource and Information System (TORIS) tracks proficiency with a 90-day rolling window, incorporating weekly reports on material readiness and engineering evolutions (as of 2015).^[9] For instance, deep-sea soundings and celestial navigation data gathered during the USS Fanning's shakedown verified chart positions and supported acoustic analysis.^[7] Quarterly Level of Knowledge exams ensure average scores on these logs, prioritizing self-assessment.^[9]

Post-Shakedown Phase

Availability Period

The availability period, commonly known as the Post-Shakedown Availability (PSA) in the U.S. Navy, refers to a scheduled dockside maintenance window following the shakedown cruise, typically lasting 45 to 120 days, during which repairs and modifications address deficiencies identified during trials and operations.^[11]^[12] This period ensures the vessel achieves full operational readiness by correcting issues uncovered in testing data from sea trials, such as system performance metrics and crew feedback.^[12] In the U.S. Navy, the PSA is governed by NAVSEA guidelines outlined in the Joint Fleet Maintenance Manual (JFMM), requiring completion within 11 months of the ship's delivery to obligate Shipbuilding and Conversion, Navy (SCN) funds effectively, with submarines targeting finalization one month before the end of this window to align with fleet integration timelines.^[12] The process involves coordination between the Supervising Authority, Type Commander (TYCOM), and Immediate Superior in Command (ISIC) to prioritize work packages that resolve trial deficiencies while incorporating authorized improvements.^[12]^[13] Common repairs during this phase include addressing structural issues like hull cracks, as seen in Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) vessels where cracks and undersized chocks were rectified; electrical system faults, such as coupling malfunctions in amphibious transport dock ships; and crew-identified ergonomic or habitability problems, encompassing ventilation, noise, and vibration adjustments.^[14]^[13]^[12] These fixes focus on material inspections, system turnovers, and safety enhancements to prevent operational disruptions.^[12] Resource allocation for the PSA emphasizes efficiency to minimize downtime, drawing on shipyard industrial workers, technical specialists from NAVSEA, and the ship's force for execution, all under budget constraints tied to SCN appropriations that limit non-essential modifications.^[12]^[13] This collaborative approach, involving pre-planned work packages and post-repair validations, balances repair scope with fleet readiness demands.^[12]

Certification and Transition to Service

Following the post-shakedown availability period, where deficiencies identified during the cruise are addressed, naval vessels undergo rigorous inspection protocols to verify operational readiness. In the United States Navy, the Board of Inspection and Survey (INSURV) conducts independent acceptance trials, auditing the ship's systems against contract specifications and military standards such as MIL-STD-1399 for electrical interfaces.^[8] These trials include evaluations of propulsion, navigation, combat systems, and crew proficiency, with any unresolved issues documented as material deficiencies requiring correction or waivers approved by the Chief of Naval Operations.^[3] Documentation plays a central role in certification, involving the compilation of comprehensive test reports, deficiency logs, and compliance certifications from the Supervising Authority of Shipbuilding.^[3] This includes the Test Documentation Booklet and Electronic Trial Cards, which detail outcomes from builder's trials, shakedown activities, and post-delivery tests, ensuring traceability to standards like those in OPNAVINST 4700.8M.^[8] Upon successful audits, the Secretary of the Navy authorizes the commissioning date, marking the formal transition.^[8] The commissioning ceremony represents the official handover, where a flag officer, acting on behalf of the Chief of Naval Operations, transfers custody from the naval supervisory authority to the prospective commanding officer and the operational fleet command.^[8] This event signifies the end of the shakedown phase, with the vessel declared ready for tasking, though a brief period follows for final crew integration and system tweaks.^[3] Transition challenges often include crew rotations to align with fleet requirements and addressing minor habitability issues, such as berthing or firefighting systems, to achieve full deployment status within approximately six months post-commissioning.^[8] For commercial vessels, classification societies like the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) perform analogous audits during and after sea trials, which serve a similar function to shakedowns.^[15] Surveyors conduct on-site inspections of hull integrity, machinery performance, and safety systems to confirm compliance with ABS Rules for Building and Classing Marine Vessels, incorporating international standards such as SOLAS and MARPOL.^[16] Documentation entails engineering plans, survey reports, and trial results reviewed by ABS committees, culminating in the issuance of a Certificate of Classification upon satisfactory completion.^[15] In the commercial sector, there is no formal commissioning ceremony akin to naval traditions; instead, the transition to service involves handover to the owner or operator once the class certificate is granted, enabling the vessel to enter international trade.^[16] Challenges during this phase may include coordinating crew familiarization and resolving any trial-noted defects through builder warranties, ensuring the ship meets flag state and port authority requirements before full operations.^[15] The certificate remains valid for five years, subject to periodic surveys to maintain class status.^[16]

Notable Examples

Historical Shakedowns

One notable example of a shakedown cruise during World War II occurred with the battleship USS Massachusetts (BB-59, commissioned in May 1942 shortly after the Pearl Harbor attack. Following fitting out and shakedown operations in the Chesapeake Bay area, she proceeded to Casco Bay, Maine, for battle practice and final training before departing on 24 October 1942 as flagship of Rear Admiral H. Kent Hewitt's Eastern Naval Task Force for Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa.^[17] During this period, the shakedown revealed the ship's operational readiness amid urgent wartime demands, enabling her rapid transition to combat support off Casablanca, where she engaged French naval forces on 8 November 1942.^[17] The USS Essex-class aircraft carriers exemplified accelerated shakedowns in response to Pacific Theater needs during 1942–1943. The lead ship, USS Essex (CV-9), was commissioned on 31 December 1942 and underwent an expedited builder's trial and shakedown cruise before departing Norfolk in May 1943 for Pearl Harbor, arriving to join Task Force 14 as its flagship by August. Subsequent carriers in the class, such as USS Yorktown (CV-10) and USS Intrepid (CV-11), followed similar rushed timelines—commissioned in 1943 after brief shakedowns in the Atlantic—allowing rapid deployment to the Pacific for operations like the Gilbert Islands campaign, where they bolstered carrier strength against Japanese forces.^[18] These shakedowns prioritized essential systems testing to meet the Navy's need for fleet augmentation amid escalating island-hopping campaigns. In the post-World War II era, the nuclear-powered submarine USS Triton (SSRN-586) conducted a landmark shakedown cruise in 1960, which doubled as Operation Sandblast, the first submerged circumnavigation of the globe. Departing Groton, Connecticut, on 15 February 1960, Triton submerged off St. Peter and St. Paul Rocks on 24 February, navigating 26,723 nautical miles through the South Atlantic, around Cape Horn, across the Pacific, through the Philippine and Indonesian archipelagos, and via the Indian Ocean back to the starting point by 10 April—completing the underwater voyage in 60 days and 21 hours while surfacing only once for medical reasons.^[19] This cruise tested the endurance and capabilities of nuclear propulsion for long-duration submerged operations, collecting valuable oceanographic data, and upon completion, earned the Presidential Unit Citation from President Dwight D. Eisenhower, with Captain Edward L. Beach receiving the Legion of Merit.^[19] The British battleship HMS Vanguard's shakedown in 1946 highlighted post-war challenges in capital ship operations. Completed as the Royal Navy's last battleship, she undertook North Sea trials in April–July 1946, achieving a maximum speed of 31.57 knots on 136,000 shaft horsepower during official tests.^[20] However, these trials revealed persistent issues with her 15-inch gun turrets—refurbished from World War I-era designs originally fitted to HMS Courageous and Glorious—including limitations in manning, weight distribution, and full operational reliability, which restricted gunnery exercises primarily to the forward 'A' turret ahead of her 1947 royal tour.^[21] These problems underscored the difficulties of integrating outdated components into a modern hull amid demobilization and shifting naval priorities.^[22]

Modern and Commercial Instances

In the post-Cold War era, the United States Navy's USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78), the lead ship of its class, underwent an extended shakedown cruise following its delivery in May 2017, primarily to test advanced systems like the Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS).^[23] The trials revealed multiple critical failures in EMALS, including 10 such incidents across 747 aircraft launches, which contributed to delays in achieving initial operational capability until December 2021 after the post-shakedown availability period that began in July 2018 and extended into 2019, as well as further testing and incremental availabilities.^[24]^[25] This phase addressed integration issues with the catapult system. The carrier completed its first deployment in 2022–2023, demonstrating improved operational readiness.^[26] Commercial applications of shakedown cruises have adapted the naval tradition to test hospitality and operational systems on new passenger vessels, often incorporating discounted inaugural voyages to simulate full loads. Carnival Cruise Line's Mardi Gras, the first LNG-powered cruise ship for the North American market, completed sea trials in October 2020, evaluating propulsion, navigation, and onboard amenities under real-sea conditions before its July 2021 maiden voyage from Port Canaveral.^[27] The inaugural sailing served as a practical shakedown, allowing crew familiarization with guest services, entertainment zones, and safety protocols while carrying paying passengers at promotional rates to assess high-occupancy performance.^[28] Internationally, the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) conducted shakedowns for its Type 055-class destroyers during 2019-2020, focusing on stealth, radar, and missile integration in contested waters. The second ship, Lhasa (102), began sea trials in late 2019 following its launch, with subsequent operational testing extending into 2020 in the South China Sea to verify combat readiness and endurance.^[29] These trials emphasized multi-domain coordination, including anti-air and anti-submarine warfare simulations, preparing the vessels for fleet integration amid regional tensions.^[30] Modern shakedowns increasingly incorporate sustainability testing, particularly emissions compliance for eco-friendly designs. For LNG-equipped vessels like Mardi Gras, sea trials included evaluations of fuel systems to ensure reduced sulfur oxide and nitrogen oxide outputs, aligning with International Maritime Organization standards for lower greenhouse gas emissions.^[31] Naval examples, such as recent U.S. carrier trials, similarly assess hybrid propulsion efficiencies to minimize environmental impact during extended operations.^[32]

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None
### Summary of Certification, Commissioning, and Transition to Service for US Navy Ships
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None
### Summary of Certification Process for Commercial Vessels After Sea Trials
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