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Shamsa

In Islamic art, a shamsa (Persian: شمسه shamseh, Arabic: شمسة shums, Ottoman Turkish: شمسه [Turkish: Şemse]) is an intricately decorated rosette or medallion used in many contexts, including manuscripts, carpets, ornamental metalwork, and architectural decoration such as the underside of domes. It can take a number of overall shapes, from circles to stars. The name means "little sun", as a diminutive of shams, the Arabic word meaning "sun",^[1] and the work is often stylised as a sunburst. It is characterized by the recurrent motifs present in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal forms in a repetitive design known as an arabesque. The arabesque is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God, and as with other patterns and forms of Islamic art, the shamsa also has a religious significance, such as symbolizing the unity of God.^[2] Shamsa is also a female first name in Arabic, Urdu, and Somali, for example of Sheikha Shamsa bint Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Sheikha Shamsa bint Suhail Al Mazrouei, Shamsa Ali, and Shamsa Araweelo.

Etymology and Definition

Linguistic Origins

The term "shamsa" originates from the Arabic word shams (شمس), meaning "sun," and functions as its diminutive form, connoting "little sun" or "sunburst."^[3] This linguistic derivation underscores the motif's radiant, circular form, evoking solar imagery central to Islamic cosmology.^[3] From the medieval period onward, "shamsa" was adopted into Persian as shamseh (شمسه), retaining the Arabic root while integrating into Persianate artistic terminology.^[4] Similarly, in Ottoman Turkish contexts, it appeared as şemse, reflecting the broader incorporation of Arabic-Persian vocabulary into Turkish during the Islamic cultural synthesis of the 13th century and later.^[3] The earliest attestations of "shamsa" in texts referencing artistic motifs date to the 14th century, with documented uses in Ilkhanid manuscripts from Azerbaijan around 1335, initially in secular works before extending to religious ones.^[3] By the mid-14th century, such as in a 1338 illuminated medallion, the term had become established in descriptive references to decorative elements in Persian and Arabic-script manuscripts.^[3]

Core Characteristics and Symbolism

The shamsa is an intricately decorated rosette or medallion in Islamic art, typically rendered as a circular form or star-shaped design with radiating points, such as 8- or 12-pointed stars that extend outward in symmetrical patterns.^[5]^[6] This motif emphasizes centrality, with layered geometric and floral elements—often incorporating arabesques, fantastic flowers, birds, and animals—arranged to evoke a sense of radiance and expansion from a unified core.^[6] Crafted using vibrant colors, multiple tones of gold, ink, and opaque watercolors on paper, the shamsa achieves a luminous quality that highlights its role as a focal ornament in manuscripts and decorative arts.^[6]^[7] Visually, the shamsa's core traits include perfect symmetry and a radial structure, where intricate motifs radiate from the center, creating an illusion of infinite extension while maintaining balance and harmony.^[8] This design principle underscores its function as an illuminated frontispiece element, drawing the viewer's eye inward to a central inscription or void, often bearing calligraphic text such as Qur'anic verses or imperial titles.^[5] The term "shamsa" derives from the Arabic word for "sun," reflecting its sunburst-like appearance that mimics solar rays piercing through layered patterns.^[6] Symbolically, the shamsa embodies the unity of God (tawhid), serving as a visual metaphor for divine oneness and the indivisible nature of the divine essence in Islamic theology.^[9] Its radiant form represents divine light, alluding to Qur'anic descriptions of God as the source of illumination, such as in the Light Verse (Surah an-Nur 24:35), where light emanates from a central point to encompass all creation.^[4] Furthermore, the motif evokes cosmic order, with its central hub and orbiting elements symbolizing the harmonious structure of the universe under divine governance, a concept reinforced by the shamsa's frequent placement as a unifying opener in sacred and imperial contexts.^[10]

Historical Development

Origins in Early Islamic Art

The shamsa motif, characterized by its radiating rosette form, first emerged in early Islamic art during the 9th to 12th centuries as an adaptation of geometric and solar-inspired designs, appearing in Abbasid and Fatimid contexts to emphasize centrality and harmony in decorative schemes. In Abbasid Iraq and Fatimid North Africa, these proto-shamsa elements were incorporated into architectural tiles and early manuscript illuminations, where circular medallions with radiating petals served as focal points devoid of figural representation, aligning with aniconic principles. This development drew heavily from pre-Islamic Persian Sasanian traditions, where solar rosettes symbolized divine radiance in Zoroastrian iconography, and Byzantine influences, which introduced intricate medallion patterns in mosaics and textiles that were repurposed into abstract Islamic forms to evoke spiritual illumination without idolatrous intent. The shamsa thus represented divine light in these early applications, bridging ancient solar symbolism with emerging Islamic aesthetics. A prominent example is found in 10th-century Samanid pottery from northeastern Iran and Central Asia, where central rosettes adorned slip-painted earthenware bowls, often integrated with Kufic inscriptions and geometric borders to create balanced compositions on everyday vessels.^[11]^[12] Similarly, 12th-century Seljuk metalwork from Khorasan featured rosettes in silver-inlaid bronze objects, such as ewers and basins, where the sun-like motifs were engraved or inlaid to denote auspiciousness and structural focus amid arabesque surrounds. These artifacts illustrate the motif's initial versatility across media, laying the groundwork for its later elaboration.

Evolution in Persian and Mughal Traditions

During the Ilkhanid period (1256–1353) in Persia, shamsa designs advanced through the integration of intricate geometric patterns, including intersecting lines and knot motifs that introduced complex interlacing, often rendered in colors such as cyan, brick red, and azure to create visual depth.^[13] A notable example is the 1338 shamsa from a Qur'an manuscript produced in Maragha, Iran, which features elaborate radial symmetry and polychrome illumination as a frontispiece medallion.^[14] These innovations blended Perso-Islamic traditions with East Asian influences, enhancing the motif's symbolic representation of divine light in manuscript arts.^[15] In the subsequent Timurid era (1370–1507), shamsa evolved further with heightened complexity in interlacing arabesques and the use of vibrant color tonalities, allowing for subtle gradients that emphasized radial expansion and ornamental density in illuminations.^[8] This period saw shamsa motifs standardized in royal manuscripts, where geometric precision and layered designs reflected the patronage of rulers like Shahrukh, fostering workshop practices that prioritized mathematical harmony. By the 16th century, under Safavid rule, particularly Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629), these elements matured into elaborate gold-embellished forms with detailed floral integrations, supported by state-sponsored ateliers in Isfahan that produced high-volume, refined illuminations for Qur'ans and poetic texts.^[16] Mughal adaptations in 16th–17th century India built on Persian foundations, incorporating three-dimensional shading techniques influenced by European realism to add depth to arabesques and floral elements within shamsa compositions.^[17] Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) played a pivotal role through his imperial karkhanas, which standardized workshop production of albums and manuscripts featuring opulent shamsa frontispieces blending Persian geometry with Indian motifs.^[17] A prime illustration is the circa 1645 rosette from the Shah Jahan Album, where Shah Jahan's titles are encircled by shaded floral arabesques, birds, and animals in layered golds and bright pigments, exemplifying the era's luxurious imperial style.^[6] This patronage-driven evolution under rulers like Akbar and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) elevated shamsa from symbolic medallions to dynamic expressions of sovereignty in muraqqa albums.^[8]

Design Principles

Geometric Construction

The geometric construction of shamsa patterns relies on traditional tools of the compass and straightedge, which enable the creation of precise radial symmetries central to Islamic geometric art.^[18]^[19] The process begins with drawing a central circle, which serves as the foundational element, and dividing its circumference into equal segments—commonly 8, 12, or 16 divisions—to establish the pattern's rotational symmetry.^[20] These divisions are achieved by setting the compass to the circle's radius and marking successive points around the perimeter, ensuring even angular spacing such as 45° for 8-fold symmetry or 30° for 12-fold symmetry.^[19]^[18] The step-by-step drafting process then builds complexity through intersecting elements. From the division points on the central circle, additional circles are drawn with radii equal to or derived from the original, intersecting to form the pointed tips of stars or petals that radiate outward.^[20] For instance, in an 8-pointed configuration, semicircles are drawn from the endpoints of a horizontal diameter, followed by arcs from their intersections to create overlapping lobes; straightedge lines connect these intersections to outline the star form.^[19] To introduce interlacing, intersecting polygons—such as squares rotated at 45° relative to the initial grid or decagons for higher symmetries—are superimposed, with their vertices and edges crossing the existing circles to generate woven strapwork effects.^[18]^[20] This layering continues iteratively, refining the design by erasing construction lines while preserving the visible interlaced structure. At its core, shamsa construction draws from the mathematical principles of Islamic geometry, which emphasize harmony through proportional systems. The golden ratio (φ ≈ 1.618), derived from the division of a line segment such that the ratio of the whole to the larger part equals the ratio of the larger part to the smaller, is frequently employed to scale motifs and ensure aesthetic balance in radial expansions.^[10]^[20] For example, edge lengths in polygonal elements may follow sequences like φ : φ + 1 : φ + 2, creating self-similar growth that mirrors natural and cosmic orders without relying on measurement beyond the initial radius.^[20] This approach underscores the shamsa's symbolic centrality as a "little sun," radiating unity from a divine core.^[10]

Motif Integration and Variations

In Islamic art, shamsa motifs are embellished by layering arabesque, floral, and calligraphic elements onto underlying geometric frameworks, such as star-and-polygon grids, to impart depth, rhythm, and symbolic resonance. Arabesque tendrils and vegetal scrolls intertwine with the radial structure of the shamsa, often filling interstices between points to evoke infinite growth and divine order, while floral motifs like lotuses or peonies add naturalistic vitality; calligraphic inscriptions, typically Qur'anic verses, are integrated into the central medallion or borders for spiritual emphasis. This integration, rooted in medieval traditions blending Sasanian and Byzantine influences, creates dynamic compositions that balance angular geometry with fluid organic forms, as seen in Timurid and Safavid illuminations where curvilinear islīmī patterns overlay girih lattices.^[21]^[22] Shamsa designs exhibit significant variations across eras and regions, evolving from simpler configurations to more complex ones while adapting to local aesthetics. Early examples, such as those from Ilkhanid Azerbaijan in the 14th century, feature basic 8-pointed stars with minimal embellishment, serving as frontispieces in Qur'anic manuscripts to symbolize divine light. By the Ottoman period (16th–17th centuries), designs grew more elaborate, incorporating 16-pointed stars intertwined with cloud bands and dense arabesques, reflecting a shift toward opulent, polychromatic expressions in manuscript albums and architectural tiles. Color schemes similarly progressed from monochromatic ink outlines on paper in medieval Persian works to vibrant gilding with gold leaf, lapis blue, and crimson accents in Mughal and Safavid examples, enhancing the motif's radiant quality.^[3]^[22]^[23] Regional adaptations further diversify shamsa styles, with Persian traditions favoring denser vegetal motifs—such as spiraling floral scrolls in gold and blue—to evoke abundance within radial geometric bases, as in Safavid frontispieces. In contrast, North African variants, influenced by Moorish geometry in sites like the Alhambra, emphasize more angular forms with restrained arabesques, prioritizing interlocking stars over lush foliage for a stark, luminous effect. Ottoman shamsa, meanwhile, blend Persian density with Anatolian flair, often featuring intricate 12- or 16-pointed rosettes accented by tulip-like florals in illuminated muraqqa albums. These differences arise from the motif's radial symmetry, which allows flexible adaptation to cultural and material contexts without altering the core geometric foundation.^[22]^[21]^[24]

Artistic Applications

In Manuscripts and Book Arts

In Islamic manuscripts, the shamsa serves primarily as a frontispiece medallion or headpiece in Qur'ans and poetic works, where its radiating, sunburst-like designs frame and illuminate the opening text, symbolizing divine light and marking the commencement of sacred or literary content.^[4] These circular motifs, often centered on the page, extend outward with intricate rays or arabesques that draw the viewer's eye toward the script, enhancing the manuscript's aesthetic and spiritual hierarchy.^[25] Artisans employed sophisticated techniques to create shamsas, including gold leaf for luminous highlights, delicate ink arabesques for swirling vegetal patterns, and vibrant lapis lazuli pigments for deep blue grounds, all applied to high-quality paper or occasionally vellum.^[26] A notable example is the Ruzbihan Qur'an, produced around 1550 in Shiraz by the calligrapher Ruzbihan Muhammad al-Tab'i al-Shirazi, which features paired shamsas as its opening illumination; these medallions burst with gold-embellished rays emerging from lapis lazuli borders, intertwining arabesques, and subtle pigment layers to evoke a radiant dawn.^[26] The underlying geometric principles of these designs, derived from compass and ruler constructions, ensure symmetrical precision in their radiating forms.^[3] The shamsa's application evolved significantly within manuscript traditions, transitioning from modest marginal decorations in 14th-century Persian works—such as the Ilkhanid Marāgha Qur'an (dated 1338), where small rosettes adorned edges—to expansive full-page compositions by the 17th century in Safavid albums and Qur'ans.^[3] This development reflected broader influences from secular book arts, where shamsas initially appeared in historical and scientific texts before dominating religious frontispieces, allowing for more elaborate integrations of color and pattern that filled entire openings.^[3] By the Safavid period, these motifs had become central to album layouts, showcasing the shamsa's versatility in poetic anthologies while maintaining its role in framing Qur'anic divisions like juz'.^[25]

In Carpets and Textiles

In Islamic carpets and textiles, the shamsa motif frequently appears as a central medallion in prayer rugs and palace carpets, serving as a focal point that symbolizes a sacred space reflective of divine centrality and Islamic cosmology.^[27] This radiant design, evoking the sun's light, anchors the composition and often radiates outward to unify surrounding patterns.^[4] A renowned example is the Ardabil Carpet, woven in 1539–40, which features a prominent shamsa medallion at its center, intended for the shrine of Sheikh Safi al-Din Ardabili in a sacred context.^[28] Weavers achieve the shamsa's geometric precision through intricate knotting techniques, typically using wool pile on a silk foundation with asymmetrical knots to allow for fine detail and curvature in the radiating elements.^[29] These carpets often incorporate symmetrical borders of arabesques and cartouches, with densities reaching up to 340 knots per square inch to replicate the motif's intricate interlace.^[29] Silk or wool threads are dyed in vibrant hues—such as blues, reds, and golds—prior to knotting, enabling the shamsa's luminous effect while ensuring durability for both devotional and palatial use.^[28] The shamsa motif spread historically from 15th-century workshops in Tabriz, where Safavid patronage elevated carpet weaving to a courtly art form, to later Ottoman traditions in the 19th century. In Anatolian production centers, it adapted to local materials, incorporating coarser wool and vegetable dyes while retaining the central medallion structure in courtly rugs, though simplified in flat-woven kilims with geometric approximations.^[30] This evolution reflects the motif's versatility across regions, blending Persian intricacy with regional patterns for both export and domestic markets.^[31]

In Architectural Decoration

In Islamic architecture, the shamsa motif is prominently incorporated as a central rosette or sunburst pattern in structural elements such as dome interiors, mihrab panels, and ceiling decorations within mosques and tombs, symbolizing celestial light and divine unity. For instance, in the 14th-century Sultan Hasan Complex in Cairo, the mihrab hood features a shamsa composed of interlocking geometric stars, enhancing the prayer niche's focal point and evoking cosmic harmony. Similarly, the 11th-century Kharraqan tomb towers in Iran utilize shamsa-like sun figures in muqarnas transitions to dome bases, integrating the motif into the building's vertical progression to represent heavenly ascent.^[32]^[22] Architects employed diverse materials and techniques to render shamsa patterns, adapting them to surfaces for both aesthetic and symbolic depth. Glazed ceramic tiles, often produced using the cuerda seca technique—which applies a waxy resist to delineate colors and prevent glaze runoff—allowed for vibrant, multicolored depictions in mihrabs and wall panels, as seen in turquoise-glazed examples from 12th-13th century Iranian structures like the Gunbad-i Qabud. Stucco carving provided three-dimensional effects, particularly in muqarnas vaults and domelets, where shamsa forms emerged as fluted, sun-like motifs to create illusions of light penetration and infinite recursion.^[33]^[22] Shamsa designs scaled variably to suit architectural contexts, from modest insets in 14th-century madrasas—such as those in the Sultan Hasan Madrasa, where compact rosettes adorned wall niches—to expansive vaulted patterns spanning ceilings in 16th-century Ottoman palaces like the Ibrahim Pasha Palace in Istanbul, where the motif radiated across large domes to unify expansive interiors. This adaptability stemmed from underlying geometric constructions based on star polygons and girih templates, enabling seamless integration into curved surfaces without disrupting structural flow.^[22]

Notable Examples

Illuminated Manuscripts

One notable early example of a shamsa in Persian illuminated manuscripts is the medallion from a Qur'an produced in Maragha, Iran, dated 1338 (AH 738), housed in the Chester Beatty Library (Is 1470, f.1a).^[14] This circular rosette exemplifies early Ilkhanid geometric design through its intricate interlaced patterns on paper, serving as a frontispiece that radiates symmetry and precision, symbolizing the sun-like illumination of divine text and influencing subsequent Persian book arts. A later Safavid masterpiece featuring shamsas appears in the Ruzbihan Qur'an, created around 1550 in Shiraz and copied by calligrapher Ruzbihan Muhammad al-Tab'i al-Shirazi, now in the Chester Beatty Library (Is 1558).^[34] The double frontispiece includes two facing multi-layered gold shamsas, each approximately 40 cm in diameter, filled with delicate floral motifs and inscribed with Qur'anic verse 17:88 in white tawqi script against a lapis lazuli ground, demonstrating advanced gilding and arabesque integration that elevates the manuscript's aesthetic and spiritual depth.^[35] These elements highlight Shiraz's 16th-century prowess in combining calligraphy, illumination, and geometry to frame sacred content. In Mughal book arts, the Shah Jahan Album folio from circa 1645, held by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, showcases a shaded 12-point shamsa measuring 38.6 by 26.5 cm, blending Persian geometric traditions with Indian stylistic flourishes in ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper.^[6] This rosette, bearing the names and titles of Emperor Shah Jahan, features subtle tonal shading and floral infills that create a dynamic, sunburst effect, underscoring the album's role in imperial patronage and the synthesis of cultural motifs during the 17th century.^[6] Such designs in Mughal folios not only adorned elite collections but also advanced techniques in layered pigmentation for visual depth.^[36]

Textile and Carpet Designs

One of the most renowned examples of shamsa integration in textile design is the Ardabil Carpet, woven in Tabriz, Iran, between 1539 and 1540 during the Safavid dynasty. This massive carpet measures approximately 10.51 meters by 5.34 meters and employs a wool pile knotted on a silk foundation, showcasing exceptional technical mastery with over 26 million knots. At its center is a prominent yellow shamsa medallion, radiating intricate oval pendants and surrounded by floral motifs, with a foundational inscription in the upper cartouche attributing it to Maqsud of Kashan.^[28]^[29] In smaller-scale devotional textiles, the 16th-century Safavid prayer rug from the Metropolitan Museum of Art exemplifies a compact application of geometric motifs tailored for personal use. Measuring about 1.61 meters by 1.10 meters, this silk-and-wool piece features a central geometric motif in vibrant red and blue within the mihrab-like niche, accented by Qur'anic inscriptions and brocaded silver threads that enhance its luminous quality. The design's restrained geometry underscores its role in facilitating intimate prayer rituals, reflecting Safavid courtly refinement in portable formats.^[37]^[38] Shifting to Ottoman traditions, 18th-century kilim fragments demonstrate simplified geometric shamsas in flat-woven cotton textiles, often produced by Anatolian weavers for utilitarian purposes. These fragments, typically under 2 meters in length, employ slit-tapestry techniques to render stark, angular rosettes with 8- or 16-pointed forms in earthy tones, prioritizing bold symmetry over ornate detailing. Such examples, preserved in collections like the Murad Megalli holdings, highlight the motif's adaptation in nomadic and village contexts, where durability and symbolic protection were paramount.^[39]^[40]

Architectural Implementations

In the Tomb of Hafez in Shiraz, constructed in the 14th century over the poet's grave and featuring a reconstructed dome from the 1930s in traditional Persian style, the interior displays a tiled shamsa rosette at the dome's apex, crafted with vibrant mosaic tiles that radiate outward like celestial rays, symbolizing divine illumination and poetic inspiration.^[41] This geometric centerpiece, integrated into the octagonal pavilion's vault, employs interlocking star patterns and floral accents in blues, golds, and whites, enhancing the space's spiritual ambiance while drawing on Zand-era influences for its muqarnas capitals and arch-net (rasmi bandi) framework.^[42] The Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque in Isfahan, completed in 1618 during the Safavid era under Shah Abbas I, incorporates a prominent 16-point shamsa within its muqarnas-vaulted dome interior, rendered in rich blues and golds through intricate tilework and stucco reliefs that create a fractal-like progression of motifs.^[43] This central rosette, embedded amid cascading stalactite forms and arabesque borders, forms part of a larger radiant pattern comprising 288 surrounding shamsas orbiting a core medallion, evoking the merciful light of divine grace (Al Rahim) through its numerical symbolism and biomorphic curves.^[44] The design's layered geometry, analyzed for its self-similar fractal properties, transitions from the dome's peacock-hued base to the golden apex, emphasizing the mosque's role as a private women's prayer space with luminous, womb-like enclosure.^[45] Ceilings in the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, developed from the 15th to 16th centuries as the Ottoman sultans' residence, often feature painted stucco shamsas overlaid with arabesque vines, as seen in privy chambers and pavilion vaults like the Qinili Kosk, where radial sunburst rosettes in gold and azure integrate with muqarnas niches to mimic heavenly firmaments.^[22] These motifs, derived from Timurid-Turkmen geometric traditions preserved in palace workshop scrolls, employ twelve- to sixteen-point star configurations in stucco reliefs, combining with floral rinceaux to balance abstraction and naturalism in the empire's architectural aesthetic.^[22] Such implementations highlight the shift toward ornate, light-diffusing surfaces that unified imperial spaces, with shamsas serving as focal points for cosmic symbolism amid the palace's eclectic Persian-Ottoman synthesis.

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(PDF) Evolution of Islamic Geometrical Patterns - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · This research demonstrates the suitability of applying Islamic geometrical patterns (IGPs) to architectural elements in terms of time scale accuracy and style ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
Shaped Tiles in the 'Cuerda Seca' Technique
In the cuerda seca process, thin bands of waxy resist maintain color separation between glazes during firing, but leave behind "dry cords" of unglazed tile.
[42]
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hafez-xiii
[43]
Shamsa - Ruzbihan Muhammad al-Tab'I al-Shirazi
The words spread across both shamsas are written in the white tawqi script and depict verse 17:88 of the Qur'an (al-Isra / The Night Journey), found at the ...
[44]
The Shah Jahan Album - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Apr 1, 2010 · The album now exists as separate leaves, but the bound original would have opened to a shamsa, or sunburst vignette carrying the imperial cipher ...
[45]
Carpet - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
This prayer rug or sajjadah, identified by its central niche design, the Qur'anic inscriptions in its border, and the names of God in its spandrels.
[46]
Isaac D. Fletcher Collection, Safavid Prayer rug in silk foundation
Safavid prayer rug, 16th century, Shah Tahmasb I or Muhammed Khudabanda Period. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Medium: Silk (warp and weft).
[47]
A Nomad's Art: Kilims of Anatolia | The George Washington University
This exhibition marked the public debut of treasures from the museum's Murad Megalli collection of Anatolian kilims dating from the 18th and 19th centuries.
[48]
CARPETS ix. Safavid Period - Encyclopaedia Iranica
CARPETS. ix. Safavid Period. The high point in Persian carpet design and manufacture was attained under the Safavid dynasty (907-1152/1501-1739).Missing: shamsa | Show results with:shamsa
[49]
Archnet > Site > Aramgah-i Hafez
### Architectural Decorations in the Dome of the Tomb of Hafez
[50]
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hafez-xiii
[51]
https://doi.org/10.30495/ijaud.2021.16769
[52]
Lotfollah Shamsah Dome - Art of Islamic Pattern
This course will cover a pattern analysed by Adam Williamson. In this class we will draw this geometric pattern for the famous Lotfollah Dome in Isfahan.
[53]
A comparative study of the decorative motifs of the domes the Rock ...
... Sheikh Lotfallah, the eight Shamsa can be seen. Also, the type of ... the dome the Rock mosque of Jerusalem Sheikh Lotfollah of Isfahan mosque ...