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Kilim

A kilim is a flat-woven textile, most commonly a rug or carpet, produced using the slit-tapestry weaving technique in which discontinuous weft yarns create distinct color blocks separated by slits along the weave.^[1] This method results in sturdy, pileless fabrics traditionally made from wool, though sometimes incorporating cotton or silk, and is renowned for its bold geometric patterns and vibrant colors derived from natural dyes.^[2] Kilims have been crafted for millennia, with the tapestry weave technique dating back at least to the 15th century BCE in ancient Egypt, and they remain a hallmark of textile traditions in regions spanning Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), Iran, Central Asia, and the Caucasus.^[3] Originating among nomadic and settled communities in West Asia, kilims served practical purposes such as floor coverings, wall hangings, storage bags, and horse blankets, reflecting the mobile lifestyles of pastoral tribes like the Turkmen and Qashqa'i.^[4] Their production is deeply rooted in cultural heritage, with two primary theories on Anatolian origins: one positing introduction by Turkmen nomads migrating from Central Asia around the 11th century CE, bringing the technique from harsher climates where durable flatweaves were essential; the other suggesting an indigenous development tied to ancient local weaving practices.^[5] In these societies, kilims often encoded symbolic motifs—such as protective amulets against evil eyes, fertility symbols, or representations of natural elements—that conveyed personal, tribal, or spiritual narratives, underscoring their role beyond utility as bearers of identity and folklore.^[2] Today, kilims continue to be woven by artisans in traditional settings, though commercial production has adapted techniques for global markets, preserving their status as iconic examples of non-pile Oriental rugs while highlighting ongoing efforts to safeguard associated intangible cultural heritage in places like Uzbekistan and Serbia.^[6]^[7]

Terminology and Etymology

Etymology

The term "kilim" derives from the Turkish word of the same spelling, borrowed from Persian gilīm (گلیم), which denotes a coarse cloth, blanket, or the act of spreading something roughly.^[8]^[9] This Persian root reflects the practical utility of the woven textile in everyday and nomadic life across Central Asia and the Middle East. The word appears in Ottoman Turkish contexts, aligning with the historical development of weaving traditions under the empire. The term's adoption into Turkish, a Turkic language, facilitated its dissemination along Silk Road trade routes, influencing variants in neighboring tongues. In Arabic, it manifests as kilīm (كِلِيم), borrowed via Ottoman intermediaries, denoting similar flat-woven coverings. Etymologically, gilīm connects to ancient Indo-European weaving terminology, akin to Aramaic galīmā ("blanket" or "garment") and ultimately derived from Ancient Greek kálumma ("covering"), from the verb kalúptō ("to cover").^[9]

Regional Terminology

In Persian-speaking regions, the term "gelim" is commonly used to refer to these flat-woven textiles, reflecting a slight phonetic variation from the Turkish "kilim" while denoting the same pileless weaving style.^[10] In Turkey, "kilim" remains the standard name for the rug itself, with "kilimci" specifically designating the artisan or seller who produces or trades these items, highlighting the occupational specialization within the weaving community.^[11] In Caucasian areas, such as those in Azerbaijan and Armenia, "palas" serves as a regional synonym for kilim, often applied to broader flatweaves, while "soumak" distinguishes a related but distinct technique involving weft-wrapping that creates a textured surface without slits, contrasting with the slit-tapestry method of traditional kilims.^[12]^[13] Among Turkmen communities in Central Asia, local dialects employ terms like "palas" for similar flatweaves, with variations such as "pallasi" appearing in some nomadic contexts to describe coarse, utilitarian versions used for tents or saddles.^[14] In modern English and Western contexts, "kilim" has become the predominant term since the late 19th century, with its first known use in 1881, largely supplanting earlier descriptors like "flatweave" or "tapestry rug," which emphasized the construction over cultural origin.^[15] This adoption stems from the etymological roots in Turkish and Persian, where the word broadly signifies a woven spread.^[10] Exporters from the Ottoman Empire and Persia introduced these rugs to Western markets in the 19th century, contributing to the term's recognition in international commerce.

History

Origins and Early Use

Archaeological evidence for early flat-woven textiles, precursors to kilims, emerges from sites across Anatolia, Iran, and Central Asia dating to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. At Çatalhöyük in central Anatolia, fragments of tabby-woven cloth made from plant fibers such as oak bast, dated to approximately 6700–6500 BCE, represent some of the earliest known woven textiles in the region, preserved through charring in house fires and used in burial contexts.^[16] In Iran, impressions of plain-woven fabrics appear on pottery from Sen Gabi in the 5th millennium BCE, while linen pseudomorphs on metal artifacts from Tepe Hissar and Susa in the 3rd millennium BCE indicate widespread textile production using flax and other fibers.^[17] Further east, in the Altai Mountains of Siberia—a key area of the Eurasian steppes—tapestry-woven woolen fragments from Pazyryk burials, dated to the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, demonstrate advanced flat-weaving techniques among ancient nomadic groups.^[18] The origins of kilim production are closely tied to nomadic pastoralists inhabiting the vast Eurasian steppes, where sheep and goat domestication around the 9th millennium BCE provided wool for weaving, predating the development of pile rugs.^[19] These mobile herders, including proto-Iranian tribes like the Scythians, relied on portable looms to create durable, reversible flat-woven textiles that suited their migratory lifestyles, with evidence from Pazyryk showing continuity in steppe weaving traditions over millennia.^[18] Proto-Turkic groups, emerging later in Central Asia, similarly adopted and refined these practices as they expanded westward.^[19] Early kilims served practical functions as portable blankets for warmth during migrations, saddle covers (shabraks) for horses central to nomadic transport, and tent dividers to partition living spaces in portable yurts or tents.^[18] These uses among proto-Turkic and Iranian tribes emphasized utility over decoration, with textiles often wrapped around belongings or used in burials to signify status.^[19] Such traditions drew influence from broader ancient weaving practices in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, where plain-weave technologies using plant fibers like flax at Jarmo (7th–6th millennia BCE) laid foundational methods for flat textile production that spread via trade and migration routes.^[17]

Development Across Cultures

The spread of kilim weaving traditions across Eurasia intensified from the 10th century CE onward, facilitated by the Silk Road trade networks that connected Central Asia, Persia, and Anatolia. Nomadic Turkmen groups migrating westward brought flat-weave techniques, incorporating Islamic geometric motifs that emphasized symmetry and abstraction in line with aniconic principles, as seen in early Anatolian examples influenced by Persian and Byzantine styles.^[19] These exchanges transformed kilims from utilitarian tent coverings into culturally hybrid artifacts, blending Turkic pastoral patterns with Islamic arabesques traded along caravan routes.^[20] In the Ottoman Empire, spanning the 14th to 20th centuries, kilims evolved from nomadic essentials to items of prestige within imperial contexts, often used in military campaigns and court settings as symbols of tribal allegiance and status among elites.^[21] Similarly, during the Safavid dynasty in Persia (16th-18th centuries), kilims—known locally as gelim—played a role in royal textile production as floor coverings in palaces, reflecting the era's emphasis on intricate flat-woven designs that denoted wealth and cultural refinement among nobility.^[22] Ottoman administration regulated nomadic weaving through migration oversight, fostering regional variations while maintaining kilims' practical yet symbolic value in daily and ceremonial life.^[19] The 19th-century industrialization in Europe introduced synthetic dyes and machine-loomed textiles, disrupting traditional kilim methods by flooding markets with cheaper alternatives and pressuring weavers to adopt aniline colors, which altered the vibrancy and authenticity of handwoven pieces. This shift compounded in the 20th century with state-driven nomadic displacements and sedentarization policies in Turkey and Iran, forcing tribes like the Yörük and Qashqai to settle, reducing the scale of production and leading to smaller, less intricate kilims as portable nomadic lifestyles waned.^[23] These changes threatened the continuity of oral design traditions passed among women in migratory communities.^[24] Post-World War II scholarly efforts, led by figures like Kurt Erdmann, focused on documenting and preserving kilim heritage amid these disruptions, with Erdmann's curatorial work at the Islamic Museum in Berlin and publications such as Oriental Carpets (1953) emphasizing the need for systematic classification to combat cultural loss from modernization and displacements. Exhibitions in the 1970s, including those at the Textile Museum, further highlighted preservation challenges, drawing on museum collections to revive interest in Anatolian and Persian kilims as endangered nomadic arts.^[25]^[19]

Weaving Techniques

Materials and Tools

Kilim production traditionally relies on natural fibers, primarily wool sourced from sheep or goats, valued for its durability, warmth, and ability to absorb dyes effectively.^[26] In some regions, cotton or silk may be incorporated for the warps to provide strength and a smoother texture, while the wefts are typically wool.^[27] These materials are selected for their local availability, ensuring that nomadic and rural weavers use fibers from their own livestock, which are soft and lustrous.^[26] Preparation of the wool begins with carding, a process that aligns and cleans the fibers using hand-held carders to remove impurities and disentangle them, followed by spinning into yarn.^[28] Traditional spinning employs drop spindles, simple wooden or bone tools that allow weavers to twist fibers into consistent yarn while remaining mobile, a practice essential for nomadic lifestyles.^[29] Dyeing involves vegetable-based colorants extracted from plants, such as indigo for blues, madder roots for reds, and saffron for yellows, often supplemented by animal or mineral sources for a broader palette.^[30] To fix these dyes to the wool, mordants like aluminum or iron salts, or traditional plant extracts, are used in a pre-treatment bath, enhancing colorfastness and preventing fading over time.^[31] The primary tools for weaving include horizontal ground looms, favored by nomadic groups for their portability and ease of setup on the ground with stakes, and vertical upright looms, which are fixed structures used by settled communities to produce larger pieces.^[32] Weavers pass the dyed weft yarns using simple shuttles—often sticks or notched tools—and employ combs made of wood, bone, or metal to beat the wefts tightly into place, ensuring the characteristic flat, dense texture of kilims. Traditional kilim production emphasizes sustainability through the use of locally sourced, organic wool and eco-friendly vegetable dyes, which are biodegradable and require minimal chemical intervention, contrasting with modern synthetic dyes that offer brighter colors but contribute to water pollution and resource depletion.^[33] This approach not only preserves cultural practices but also aligns with contemporary environmental priorities by reducing reliance on industrial processes.^[34]

Core Weaving Methods

Kilim weaving is characterized by a flatweave structure, primarily employing a weft-faced plain weave where the wefts completely cover the warps, creating a reversible textile without pile.^[19] This technique allows for the creation of bold geometric patterns through color changes in the weft yarns, typically made of wool.^[35] The slit tapestry weave is one of the most fundamental methods in kilim production, where discontinuous wefts in adjacent color areas turn back around a shared warp without interlocking, resulting in vertical slits along color boundaries.^[19] These slits enable sharp, precise geometric designs such as diamonds, triangles, and lozenges, though they limit the feasibility of curvilinear motifs due to structural constraints.^[2] To mitigate potential weaknesses, slits are often kept short or sewn closed after weaving, ensuring the textile's durability while preserving the pattern's integrity.^[2] In contrast, the interlocking weft technique prevents slit formation by having wefts from neighboring color areas loop around each other or share warps at junctions, producing a seamless join known as dovetailing.^[19] This method, less common in traditional Anatolian kilims but evident in some historical examples, allows for more fluid pattern transitions and added strength, particularly in areas of frequent color changes.^[19] Warp sharing and soumak variations introduce supplementary wefts that brocade over the warps, adding texture and outline details without creating pile.^[35] In soumak, an extra weft wraps around two or more warps (such as in a 2/1 or 4/2 pattern) before returning under one or two, forming slanted or herringbone effects that enhance decorative borders or motifs.^[35] These techniques, often combined with the primary plain weave, provide subtle relief and prevent the flat surface from appearing monotonous.^[19] The weaving process begins with setting up the warp on an upright or horizontal loom, using undyed wool yarns plied in an S-direction and tensioned at densities of 30 to 90 ends per decimeter.^[19] Weaving proceeds row by row from the bottom upward, with the weaver inserting wefts motif by motif using finger-held hanks, beating them down with a comb to ensure even coverage.^[19] Finishing involves securing edges through methods such as warp fringes, weft-faced plain weave skirts, stripped bindings, or kilim knots to prevent unraveling and complete the flat structure.^[19]

Design Elements

Motifs and Patterns

Kilim motifs and patterns are characterized by their bold, abstract designs, which arise directly from the constraints of the slit-tapestry weaving technique used in their production. This method, where discontinuous wefts create distinct color blocks, favors rectilinear forms to minimize slits and ensure structural integrity, resulting in patterns that emphasize sharp angles and interlocking shapes.^[19]^[2] Geometric motifs dominate kilim designs, including diamonds, stars, medallions, and zigzags, which are often arranged in repeating fields or borders to fill the loom's rectangular format. Diamonds appear as central elements or in diagonal rows, creating a sense of movement, while stars and medallions form focal points with hexagonal or octagonal outlines. Zigzags, derived from the weave's diagonal weft shifts, add dynamic edges to borders and separate design zones, enhancing the overall rhythm without requiring curved lines. These elements reflect the weavers' adaptation to the medium's linear vocabulary.^[19]^[2] Stylized natural forms further enrich kilim patterns, transforming organic inspirations into abstracted geometries suitable for flatweave execution. The ram's horn motif, rendered as symmetrical, hooked curves, evokes spiraling growth while maintaining angular precision. Eye shapes, simple almond or circular forms, serve as protective accents in borders. The tree of life appears as vertical, branching structures aligned with the warp, symbolizing continuity through layered, ladder-like extensions. These motifs blend natural observation with the weave's geometric imperatives.^[19] Color schemes in kilims employ bold contrasts to accentuate pattern clarity, typically using 4 to 10 hues per piece for visual depth. Red, blue, and white predominate, providing strong foundations—red for warmth in fields, blue for cool borders, and white for highlighting outlines—while secondary tones like yellow, green, purple, and orange introduce variety without overwhelming the design. This palette creates striking juxtapositions, such as red against green or blue paired with pink, amplifying the motifs' impact across the flat surface.^[19]^[2] The evolution of kilim patterns traces from early simple stripes and bands in foundational examples to intricate all-over fields in later developments. Initial designs relied on horizontal stripes for basic utility, gradually incorporating geometric repeats through weaver innovations like motif variation and distortion. Over time, this led to complex compositions where diamonds and stars interlock across the entire field, with natural forms integrated as accents, reflecting cumulative refinements in design elaboration while adhering to traditional constraints.^[19]^[2]

Symbolism and Interpretation

Kilim designs are rich with protective symbols intended to safeguard against misfortune and malevolent forces. The evil eye motif, frequently depicted as an eye or nazarlık amulet, serves to deflect envy and harm, a common feature across Anatolian and Central Asian traditions where such patterns are woven into borders and fields to create a barrier of spiritual defense.^[36] Similarly, hand motifs, such as the "elibelinde" or "hands on hips," represent fertility, motherhood, and abundance, with the five fingers symbolizing protection against the evil eye while invoking blessings for progeny and prosperity; this imagery draws from ancient cultural beliefs associating hands with warding off negativity and ensuring familial continuity.^[37]^[19] Narrative elements in kilims convey deeper stories of communal identity and spiritual concepts, embedding tales of migration, clan heritage, and existential balance. Animals like birds or dragons often serve protective roles, with birds representing the soul's journey or immortality alongside the Tree of Life motif, which evokes paradise and continuity.^[37]^[36] These scenes of tribal migrations or protective creatures narrate historical movements and environmental ties, transforming the kilim into a visual chronicle that reinforces social bonds and cosmological views without relying on written language.^[38] Women, as primary weavers across regions including Anatolia and North Africa, infuse kilims with personal and collective narratives, encoding ethnographic stories of resilience, identity, and daily life through motif choices and weaving techniques. Ethnographic studies, such as those on Moroccan Berber artisans, highlight how female weavers use the loom as a medium for empowerment, passing down skills intergenerationally while subtly incorporating elements of their experiences, such as fertility symbols reflecting marital or communal aspirations, thereby preserving cultural memory in a traditionally oral society.^[38] This gendered practice positions kilims as repositories of women's voices, where patterns become encoded expressions of societal roles and emotional narratives.^[37] In contemporary contexts, kilim symbolism has undergone reinterpretation, transitioning from talismanic purposes to predominantly decorative roles in global markets. Modern production incorporates synthetic dyes and commercial designs, prioritizing aesthetic appeal for international consumers while diluting original protective intents, as seen in Egyptian revival projects that blend traditional motifs with impressionistic elements for broader artistic acceptance.^[39] This shift reflects economic pressures post-nomadic settlement, where kilims evolve into traded commodities inspiring fashion and interior design, yet efforts in education and restoration aim to retain cultural depth amid commercialization.^[19]

Regional Variations

Anatolian Kilims

Anatolian kilims originated with the arrival of Turkmen nomads in the region around the 11th century, who brought weaving traditions from Central Asia, evolving under the influence of Ottoman and nomadic Turkish tribes such as the Yörüks. These tribes integrated kilim production into their semi-migratory lifestyles, using the textiles for tent furnishings, storage, and trade, with Ottoman court records noting their use in military campaigns from the 16th to 17th centuries. Production reached a peak in the 19th century, particularly in Western and Central Anatolia, where highly developed designs and fine execution marked a commercial expansion, often featuring long formats woven in two parts for practical transport.^[19] Distinct features of Anatolian kilims include bold reds derived from natural dyes, dominating the color palette alongside blues and browns, which provided vibrant contrast in their slit-tapestry weave. Many incorporate prayer rug formats known as seccade, characterized by mihrab arches symbolizing the niche in a mosque, adapted for personal devotion in nomadic settings. The "Memling gul" motif, a stepped octagonal medallion with hooked corners and central geometric elements like eight-pointed stars, appears frequently, originating in 15th-16th century examples and persisting as a hallmark of regional austerity. Local weavers adapted core slit-tapestry techniques to emphasize geometric patterns suited to wool yarns.^[19]^[40] Key production centers included Bergama in northwest Anatolia, renowned for tribal-influenced geometric kilims dating back to the 11th century; Melas (Milas) in the southwest, serving as a hub for collecting rugs from surrounding villages with bold, earthy designs; and Sivas in central Anatolia, producing niche-format pieces with intricate borders. These areas thrived on both nomadic and settled weaving communities, exporting kilims that reflected local tribal identities.^[41]^[42]^[43] Notable 18th-century examples, preserved in museums, showcase Islamic influences through mihrab motifs and stylized Islamic geometric patterns, such as a Central Anatolian kilim (168 × 107 cm) with a red-field prayer arch and apricot borders, and another (181.5 × 138 cm) featuring complex mihrab designs evoking mosque architecture. These pieces, often from the Textile Museum collection, highlight the fusion of nomadic functionality with religious symbolism, using wool in slit-tapestry for durability.^[19]^[44]

Persian Kilims

Persian kilims represent a pinnacle of Iranian flatweave artistry, deeply intertwined with the nomadic traditions of tribes such as the Bakhtiari and Qashqai, whose weaving practices trace back to at least the Safavid era (1501–1736), when such textiles coexisted with the era's renowned piled carpets in both court and tribal contexts.^[45] The Bakhtiari, a Persian-speaking group in western Iran, crafted kilims for practical uses like tent coverings and storage bags, incorporating motifs drawn from their mountainous environment, while the Turkic Qashqai nomads of the Fars region produced similar items during seasonal migrations, blending functionality with symbolic expression.^[4] These tribal kilims emphasize portability and durability, woven on portable looms with slit-tapestry techniques that create bold, interlocking patterns.^[46] Distinguishing Persian kilims are their finer weaves, often achieving higher thread densities than nomadic variants from neighboring regions, enabling intricate floral designs such as palmettes and arabesques alongside animal figures like birds and quadrupeds that evoke pastoral narratives.^[45] Silk accents frequently highlight borders or central elements, providing subtle sheen and elevating the pieces beyond utilitarian roles, particularly in works from settled weaving centers.^[47] Key production hubs include Bijar in Kurdistan, famed for dense, moisture-resistant kilims using pure sheep's wool in geometric-floral compositions, and Senneh (Sanandaj), where Kurdish artisans wove finer examples with wool and occasional cotton warps for enhanced clarity in motifs. Tribal workshops among the Bakhtiari and Qashqai, often mobile and family-based, relied on handspun, vegetable-dyed wool to maintain authentic tribal aesthetics, peaking in refinement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.^[48] Notable examples include 19th-century verneh kilims from Senneh and Bijar regions, characterized by embroidered or supplementary-weft techniques that depict narrative scenes of daily tribal life, such as herding or rituals, framed by protective borders.^[49] These pieces often integrate universal symbols like the tree of life, representing renewal amid the nomads' cyclical existence.^[45]

Caucasian and Central Asian Kilims

Caucasian and Central Asian kilims represent a rugged, portable tradition shaped by nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyles, emphasizing utility in tent dwellings and storage. Production was carried out by ethnic groups such as the Kazakh and Turkmen in Central Asia, and Armenian communities in the Caucasus, where weaving served both practical needs and cultural expression. These flat-woven textiles trace their roots to the 18th and 19th centuries, when production flourished in caravanserais along Silk Road trade routes, allowing weavers to create items for travelers and local use amid the region's geopolitical shifts.^[50]^[51] Characteristic features include elongated formats like chuval bags, which Turkmen weavers crafted for storing household goods, often with a flat-woven kilim back and decorative front panels featuring geometric motifs. Tent stripes, also known as kilims, were essential for dividing yurt interiors, displaying bold horizontal bands and repeating guls such as the iconic "Turkmen tent band" pattern, which incorporates hexagonal medallions symbolizing tribal identity and protection. These designs prioritized durability and portability, using wool warps and wefts dyed with natural vegetable sources for resistance to wear in harsh steppe environments.^[52]^[53] Key production regions encompassed Karabagh and Kazak in the Caucasus, where Armenian and Azerbaijani weavers produced kilims with vibrant geometric patterns in red, blue, and cream tones, reflecting influences from Persian and local folk art. In Central Asia, Afghan Baluch areas contributed kilims noted for their repetitive geometric motifs—such as cubes, rectangles, and pyramids—in earthy shades of dark red, brown, and ivory, woven on wool foundations for water resistance and longevity. These regional variations highlight shared geometric patterns across tribes, adapted to specific terrains and migrations.^[51]^[54] Notable examples from the 20th century include pieces that exhibit hybrid styles blending traditional guls with simplified motifs and synthetic dyes due to limited resources and cultural mixing. For instance, Karabagh kilims from this period often combined classic medallion designs with asymmetrical borders, showcasing resilience amid historical disruptions.^[55]

Commerce and Modern Context

Traditional Production and Trade

In the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century, craft guilds known as esnaf organized weavers and textile producers in urban centers like Istanbul, regulating production standards, apprenticeships, and market access for items including kilims, which were essential for both local use and trade.^[56] Similarly, in Safavid Persia, bazaars in cities such as Tabriz and Isfahan featured guilds clustered by product type, including textile artisans who produced kilims under structured oversight from the 16th century onward, ensuring quality control and facilitating intra-regional commerce.^[57] These guild systems integrated kilim production into broader economic networks, where master weavers supervised workshops and negotiated with merchants for raw materials like wool and dyes.^[58] Among nomadic tribes in Anatolia, Central Asia, and Persia, kilims served as portable wealth and functional items, reflecting their durability and cultural significance in sustaining nomadic livelihoods.^[19] Regional variations in motifs, such as geometric patterns from Caucasian influences, often enhanced the perceived value of these kilims. By the 19th century, exports of oriental textiles, including flatweaves, surged to Europe, driven by demand amid industrialization and orientalist tastes, with major hubs in Istanbul's Grand Bazaar and Tabriz's markets serving as gateways for shipments to ports like Venice and London.^[59] Ottoman and Persian merchants capitalized on this boom, exporting textiles through established trade routes, which boosted local economies but also intensified production pressures on rural and nomadic weavers.^[59] Entering the early 20th century, commercialization posed significant challenges to traditional kilim production, particularly through over-dyeing with synthetic aniline dyes introduced in the late 19th century, which produced unnaturally bright colors to appeal to Western buyers but often faded quickly and compromised wool integrity.^[60] This shift, accelerated by European exporters demanding standardized, mass-produced items, eroded authentic dyeing techniques and led to market saturation with lower-quality pieces, diminishing the artisanal value of genuine nomadic and village kilims.^[61]

Contemporary Uses and Market

Since the 1980s, kilim weaving in Turkey has seen a revival through women's cooperatives that emphasize traditional techniques and sustainable practices, such as the use of natural dyes and locally sourced wool to preserve environmental and cultural integrity. In western Turkey, cooperatives like those in the Izmir province have empowered female artisans by providing training and market access, fostering economic independence while reviving regional patterns from nomadic traditions.^[62] Similarly, in Iran, rural women's cooperatives established in the 1990s, such as the National Union of Rural Women Cooperatives formed in 1994, have promoted sustainable handicraft production, including kilim weaving, to support livelihoods and eco-friendly methods amid economic challenges.^[63] These initiatives build on historical trade foundations by adapting them to modern ethical standards, ensuring the craft's continuity. The global market for kilims remains niche but growing, with Turkey's handwoven kilim exports reaching approximately $8.7 million in 2024, contributing to the broader carpet sector's $2.8 billion in total exports that year.^[64] Iran's handwoven carpet exports, including flatweaves and kilims, totaled $41.7 million in the Iranian calendar year 1403 (March 2024–March 2025), down from ~$50 million in 2023 due to U.S. sanctions that have severely impacted the industry, reducing revenues by over 95% from 2017 peaks and threatening rural women artisans' livelihoods.^[65] Despite these constraints, niche international sales provide some resilience. Kilims have gained popularity in Western interior design for their bold geometric patterns and durability, appearing in high-end decor from Europe and North America, where demand for authentic, sustainable textiles drives a market segment valued in the tens of millions annually.^[66] Beyond traditional floor coverings, contemporary uses of kilims have expanded to include wall hangings for artistic displays, upholstery on furniture like chairs and ottomans, and fashion accessories such as bags and scarves, leveraging their lightweight, reversible nature.^[66]^[67] These applications highlight kilims' versatility in modern lifestyles, blending cultural heritage with practical innovation. The kilim market faces challenges from authenticity issues, as machine-made imitations flood online and retail spaces, often mimicking traditional patterns with synthetic materials that lack the flexibility and imperfections of handwoven pieces.^[68]^[69] Debates over cultural appropriation also arise in Western contexts, where kilims are sometimes decoupled from their symbolic origins and used decoratively without acknowledging the artisans' heritage, prompting calls for ethical sourcing to respect originating communities.^[70]

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Kurt Erdmann (1901-1964) - ePapers Repository
Kurt Erdmann was a German art historian of the first half of the 20th century. Beginning with European architecture and paintings he developed a special ...Missing: kilim documentation post WWII
[28]
CARPETS ii. Raw materials and dyes - Encyclopaedia Iranica
In Fārs local wool is used by the Qašqāʾī, Ḵamsa, and settled rural weavers, often from their own sheep. It is soft, lustrous, and absorbs dyes very well ( ...
[29]
Kilim - MAP Academy
Apr 21, 2022 · Named after the Turkish for 'rug', the kilim is also known as gelim, killim and kelim in various regions. It has traditionally been handwoven ...
[30]
[PDF] The State of Traditional Albanian Kilims, their Motifs and Narratives
Kilims, as defined by. Professor Emeritus Dr Aferdita Onuzi (former director of the Institute of Cultural Anthropology and Art Studies), are flat woven rugs ...
[31]
(PDF) The World of Spindles - Academia.edu
Spindles, distaffs, old photos and postcards that show men and women spinning - information on spinning with hand held spindles (no spinning wheels) ...
[32]
Materials and natural dye sources in plants and minerals
Sep 21, 2017 · The most abundant natural dye sources were indigo for blue, and madder for red. The third primary colour yellow is sourced in many plants but few were ...
[33]
The Role of Mordants in Fixation of Natural Dyes - Wiley Online Library
Apr 14, 2023 · In traditional processes, the mordants applied were plant extracts, minerals, or human and animal waste, but that range has widened in modern ...
[34]
CARPETS v. Flat-woven carpets: Techniques and structures
Villagers tend to use vertical looms fixed permanently in place, but recently settled nomads, including some Baḵtīārī, favor their traditional horizontal looms, ...
[35]
Advancements in Sustainable Natural Dyes for Textile Applications
This review discusses the topic of natural dyes, providing a description of their main features and differences compared to synthetic dyes.Missing: kilim | Show results with:kilim
[36]
Innovations in natural dye production: bridging tradition and modern ...
By blending tradition with innovation, natural dyeing continues to evolve as a viable alternative to synthetic dyes, promoting cultural heritage while advancing ...Missing: kilim | Show results with:kilim
[37]
Weaving Techniques | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Sep 25, 2017 · To achieve the characteristic sumak pattern, the weaver wraps what is called "extra-weft" thread around two warp threads and then back under one ...Missing: interlocking scholarly
[38]
[PDF] Symbolic Meanings and Characteristics of ANATOLIAN KILIMS
Kilim is the best-known type of flat weave, and an indispensable component of social life in Turkey. CARPET. KILIM. Page 6. 6. In recent years, being eloquent ...
[39]
Reading Motifs on Kilims : A Semiotic Approach to Symbolic Meaning
The paper explores the semiotics of motifs found in Anatolian kilims, focusing on their symbolic meanings, cultural significance, and the historical context.
[40]
[PDF] The Hands that Weave Stories - SIT Digital Collections
The symbols express tribal identity, ceremonial meanings, and marriage status (McCabe, 2019). Just as in the rugs, the signs hold meaning; protection, fertility ...
[41]
[PDF] Revival and reuse of traditional design of carpets and kilim and ...
In fact, most of old carpets and kilims have those vertical splits as a distinguished feature, which was noticed while executing some of our own designs, ...
[42]
The “Memling” Gul Motif, The Lecture | R. John Howe
Oct 14, 2010 · The Konya yellow ground rugs, importantly, feature the Memling gul. But there are a number of other Anatolian usages. First, there are Konya ...Missing: bold prayer seccade
[43]
Bergama Oriental Rugs
The history of rug weaving in the Bergama district, both hand-knotted pile rugs and flat-woven pileless kilims, dates back to approximately the 11th century.
[44]
Anatolian Rugs - Explore the Turkish Carpet Photo Gallery
Our photo gallery explores the various types of Anatolian rugs, including kilims and pile carpets, showcasing their unique designs and weaving traditions.
[45]
“Kilims from Your Collection” with Walter Denny, Sumru Krody and ...
Dec 4, 2018 · Owner's comment on K44: Sivas niche kilim with red mihrab on blue-green field and apricot border. Size: 144 x 184 cms. 18th century ...
[46]
https://nazmiyalantiquerugs.com/gashgai-qashqai-rugs/
[47]
[PDF] Islamic Carpets: The Joseph V. McMullan Collection
This smooth-faced rug (kilim, Figure 4) happens to come from the Persian town for which the Persian knot (Figure 3) is named. The lighter weight of the.
[48]
https://rugandkilim.com/blogs/what-makes-qashqai-kilims-unique-inside-the-world-of-persian-tribal-rugs-and-flatweaves/
[49]
Carpet - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
This carpet, from ca. 1800, is a flatwoven kilim from the Islamic world, made of wool, cotton, and silver thread, with a birth goddess motif and believed to ...Missing: Persian | Show results with:Persian
[50]
https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carpets-xvi
[51]
Verneh Rug, 19th Century For Sale - 1stDibs
In stock Rating 4.7 (6) Verneh Rug, 19th Century ; Dimensions, Width: 44 in (111.76 cm)Length: 65 in (165.1 cm) ; Materials and Techniques, Wool,Hand-Knotted ; Place of Origin, Iran ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
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[53]
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[54]
Storage Bag (Chuval) Face - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
A type of deep storage bag. Suspended from the trellislike structure of a Turkmen tent interior, these chuval served to hold family belongings.Missing: kilims band characteristics
[55]
Oriental rugs glossary - Azerbaijan Rugs
seen in some small Turkmen weaving such as chuvals or mafrash. Ak Chuval: (Turkmen), literal translation - white chuval, a type of chuval with horizontal bands ...
[56]
Rugs From Baluchistan: History, Design, and Characteristics - Qaleen
Nov 17, 2022 · Baluchi handmade rugs are not only extremely durable and long-lasting since they are crafted of superior-grade wool, but they are also water and ...
[57]
Knots of Culture: Central Asia's Carpet Weaving Heritage
May 22, 2025 · Central Asia's rich tradition of carpet weaving reflects the region's history, culture, and identity. From the ancient nomads of the Pazyryk Valley to the ...Missing: kilims 18th- caravansary
[58]
Ottoman Guilds in the Early Modern Era* | International Review of ...
Dec 1, 2008 · This study provides an overview of the history of Ottoman craft guildsFootnote 1 from the seventeenth century to the early nineteenth ...
[59]
BĀZĀR ii. Organization and Function - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Product groups or guilds were found in clusters in the bāzār as early as 390/1000 in Iranian cities. The degree of concentration, however, differed from trade ...Missing: 16th scholarly
[60]
Ottoman Guilds in the Early Modern Era
This study provides an overview of the history of Ottoman craft guilds1 from the seventeenth century to the early nineteenth century, focusing on.Missing: kilim 16th
[61]
The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600-1730
Aug 7, 2025 · In the 16th century, Yazd's weavers rose to such fame that even India's Emperor, Akbar, craved for their products ( Tapper and McLachlan, 2003 ; ...
[62]
the material culture of the Turkish hand-knotted carpet in England
Abstract. Final dissertation for MRes Humanities, Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, University of Exeter. Using medieval port records, paintings, court ...
[63]
[PDF] Ottoman Cotton Textiles, 1500s to 1800: The Story of a Success that ...
Kate Fleet,. European and Islamic Trade in the Early Ottoman State, The Merchants of Genoa and Turkey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 99 ...<|separator|>
[64]
(PDF) Natural and Artificial Dyes in Spinning and Carpet Industry
Oct 3, 2025 · Natural and Artificial Dyes in Spinning and Carpet Industry: Substitution and Effects. Examples from the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century.Missing: kilim | Show results with:kilim
[65]
[PDF] Natural and Artificial Dyes in Spinning and Carpet Industry
Sep 29, 2025 · By the early 20th century, synthetic dyes had nearly replaced natural dyes in the production of yarns and carpets, although there was still some ...Missing: kilim | Show results with:kilim
[66]
Conflicts and Conundrums in a Women's Cooperative in Western ...
In a Turkish village, Western expatriate intellectuals founded a carpet cooperative to promote natural dyeing and women's artistic heritage as weavers.
[67]
[PDF] 2025 Iran Snapshot - ICA-AP
In 1994, National Union of the Rural Women Cooperatives was formed by the CORC to empower rural women, strengthen household livelihoods, and promote sustainable ...
[68]
https://knotnco.com/blogs/rugs/how-to-spot-a-real-authentic-handmade-kilim-rug
[69]
Knotted Carpets in Iran Trade
Oct 13, 2025 · In 2023, Iran exported a total of $53.5M in Knotted Carpets, primarily to Germany ($19.1M), Japan ($15.5M), and Switzerland ($2.96M).
[70]
How to decorate with kilims and jajims | House & Garden
Sep 13, 2024 · Kilims and jajims are part of a rich, centuries-old tradition of textile weaving in Turkey, Iran and Central Asia. Here's how to use these versatile fabrics in ...
[71]
https://rugsource.com/creative-ways-to-use-kilim-rugs-beyond-the-floor/
[72]
https://knotnco.com/blogs/rugs/how-to-spot-a-real-authentic-handmade-kilim-rug
[73]
Buying Turkish Carpets: How Not To Get Scammed - Forbes
Jul 7, 2016 · ... genuine fake expensive watch copies. Turkey is recognized throughout ... Handmade or machine made: Hand-woven carpets are often thought ...
[74]
When A Rug Isn't Just a Rug: The Hidden Context Behind Popular ...
Aug 13, 2019 · Cultural appropriation is taking a culture as your own when you have no connection to it, and misuse or denigrate cultural symbols, even when it's ...