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Shanku

Shanku (Chinese: 衫裤; pinyin: shān kù) is a traditional two-piece garment style within Han Chinese clothing (Hanfu), consisting of a loose-fitting upper garment known as a shan (shirt or blouse) and ku (trousers or pants), designed for everyday wear by commoners.^[1]^[2] Tracing origins to ancient Hanfu and evolving through various dynasties, shanku features a collared shan with wide sleeves that fastens on the right side, often reaching the waist or knees, paired with straight-legged ku made from durable fabrics like cotton, hemp, or silk in subdued colors such as blue or black for simplicity and functionality.^[1]^[2] It was widely worn for practical tasks including farming and labor. By the 19th and early 20th centuries, shanku had spread to overseas Chinese communities in places like Singapore, Hong Kong, and South China, serving as predominant workwear for laborers such as coolies and Samsui women, often in plain black or white cotton versions symbolizing modesty and resilience.^[2] Accessories like bamboo hats for sun protection or headscarves in winter complemented the outfit for regional adaptability.^[1] Though largely replaced by Western-style clothing by the mid-20th century due to modernization, shanku persists as a symbol of ethnic heritage in certain contexts.^[1]^[2]

Terminology

Definition

Shanku (衫裤) is a generic term in Hanfu, the traditional clothing of the Han Chinese, referring to a two-piece ensemble composed of an upper garment known as shan (衫, typically a tunic or jacket) and a lower garment called ku (裤, trousers). This attire represents a fundamental style in Han Chinese dress, emphasizing separation between the upper and lower body for ease of movement.^[3]^[4] Historically, shanku was primarily associated with practical, everyday wear for individuals of lower social status, such as laborers, servants, and commoners, who required functional clothing for manual work or physical activities. It was donned by both men and women across various periods, reflecting its versatility in daily life rather than ceremonial or elite contexts. The trousers component originated from early leg coverings in the Neolithic period, evolving into more structured forms by the late Bronze Age (around 1300–1000 BCE) among cultures like the Subeixi in northwestern China, where woolen trousers facilitated horseback riding and herding.^[3]^[1]^[5] In contrast to one-piece robes like the yuanlingpao, which feature a continuous silhouette suitable for formal or scholarly settings, shanku prioritizes simplicity, durability, and mobility, making it ideal for labor-intensive tasks or equestrian pursuits without the encumbrance of flowing skirts or draped fabrics. This design distinction underscores shanku's role as utilitarian attire in Han Chinese society. In contemporary times, shanku has seen revival within the Hanfu movement as an accessible, casual option for cultural enthusiasts.^[3]^[6]

Alternative Names

Shanku is referred to by several alternative terms in Mandarin Chinese, reflecting variations in style and use. The term aoku (袄裤, literally "coat trousers") describes a fitted jacket paired with trousers, popular among women in the late Qing dynasty and early Republican era. Similarly, ruku (襦裤, "jacket trousers") denotes a shorter upper garment combined with trousers, often associated with everyday or casual wear in historical contexts. For laborer versions, duanda (短打, "short hit") is used to indicate practical, shortened attire made from coarser fabrics like linen or cotton, suited for manual work. Military styles are known as kuzhe (袴褶 or 裤褶, "trouser folds"), featuring a short coat and tight trousers designed for mobility and often worn under armor.^[7]^[8] In overseas Chinese communities, particularly among Hokkien- and Cantonese-speaking populations in Singapore and Malaysia, shanku is commonly called samfu or samfoo, a phonetic adaptation emphasizing the blouse (sam) and trousers (fu). This variant maintains the two-piece structure but adapted to local climates and influences, remaining popular through the mid-20th century among women in rural and urban settings.^[2]^[9] Historical synonyms include jingyi (脛衣, "shank clothing"), an early prehistoric form of legwear consisting of separate tubes covering the lower legs from knee to ankle for warmth. During the Yuan dynasty, Mongol influences introduced terlig, a braided-waist variant of kuzhe with pleats and narrow sleeves, adopted by some Han scholars and commoners. Shanku serves as a key component within the broader category of Hanfu, encompassing traditional Han Chinese attire.^[10]^[11]

Design and Construction

Upper Garment

The upper garment of shanku, known as the shan (衫) or ru (襦), is a tunic-like component characterized by the jiaoling youren (交領右衽) style, featuring a cross-collar design where the right lapel overlaps the left to form a distinctive "Y" shape at the front.^[12]^[13] This right-lapped closure adheres to traditional Han Chinese conventions of wrapping the right side over the left, often secured with ties, bands, or later buttons for a secure yet adjustable fit.^[14] The oblique collar edges facilitate ease of movement while maintaining the garment's ritualistic and practical form, originating from early dynastic practices and persisting as a core element of Hanfu ensembles.^[12] Variations in collar design include simpler tanling (坦領), or flat collar styles, which present parallel front edges without the pronounced overlap, suitable for everyday or less formal shanku versions during periods like the Tang and Song dynasties.^[15] By the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the shan evolved to incorporate standing collars, such as liling (立領), which rose vertically around the neck for added structure and protection, reflecting a synthesis of earlier Han and Tang influences under imperial decree to revive classical styles.^[14]^[16] These adaptations maintained the jiaoling youren principle in more elaborate forms while simplifying construction for broader use. Sleeve configurations in the shan vary between wide, flowing types for ceremonial or elite contexts and narrow or straight-cut styles optimized for mobility, particularly in shanku worn for labor, martial activities, or daily wear across dynasties from Han to Ming.^[12]^[15] Straight-cut sleeves, often ending in cuffs, allow unrestricted arm movement without excess fabric, aligning with the ensemble's utilitarian design when paired with trousers.^[16]

Lower Garment

The ku trousers form the essential lower garment of the shanku ensemble, providing mobility and protection for the legs while complementing the upper garment in traditional Han Chinese attire. Originating from practical needs in early societies, these trousers evolved from simple leg coverings to more structured forms, reflecting adaptations to lifestyle, climate, and cultural influences. Archaeological findings trace the prehistoric origins of trousers to knee-high coverings designed specifically for horse riding, with the earliest known examples discovered in the Yanghai Tombs near Turpan in western China. These woolen trousers, dating to around 1300–1000 BCE during the late Bronze Age, featured straight-cut legs and crotch seams tailored for mounted pastoralists, marking a shift from skirts or unbound lower garments to bifurcated designs that enhanced equestrian efficiency.^[17] This innovation, likely spreading from Central Asian steppes, laid the groundwork for later Chinese ku.^[18] By the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), loose kun-style trousers had become established, featuring open-crotch constructions with waistbands for ease of movement during warfare and daily labor. These early ku, unearthed in sites like the No. 1 Chu Tomb at Mashan, were typically made of cotton and represented a departure from earlier leg wrappings (jingyi), prioritizing functionality for horseback activities.^[10] The adoption of hufu—nomadic-style clothing including such trousers—was promoted by reforms like those of King Wuling of Zhao to bolster cavalry effectiveness, though it faced cultural resistance initially.^[19] In the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), ku trousers diversified into practical variants suited to both elite and common use, including the wide-legged dashao for ample movement and the dakouku with wide cuffs or knee ties for securing during activity. These were often split-crotch designs without a sewn seam at the inseam, allowing convenience in an era before widespread indoor plumbing, and constructed from durable linen derived from hemp fibers to endure rigorous wear in agricultural and military contexts.^[20] Linen's robustness made it ideal for lower-class laborers, providing breathability in humid climates while resisting tears from fieldwork.^[21] During the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE), ku trousers shifted toward narrower silhouettes with the xiaoku, featuring slim legs that aligned with the era's refined, urban aesthetics and were worn by the general populace for both men and women.^[22] This evolution emphasized comfort and social propriety, contrasting the broader Han styles while maintaining linen's role for its lasting strength against frequent use.^[10]

Fitting and Materials

The shanku features a loose, straight-cut silhouette designed for practicality and ease of movement, making it suitable for everyday activities and labor. The upper garment typically has an overlapping front closure secured by ties, loops, or toggles, while the lower garment employs a wide waistband fastened with belts, cords, or drawstrings for adjustability.^[2] Side slits on the upper garment, often extending to the waist or hips, further enhance mobility, and excess fabric in the trousers can be tucked under the securing belt.^[2] Common materials for shanku emphasize durability and breathability, particularly for rural and labor-intensive use. Coarse cotton and hemp were prevalent among commoners, providing hardwearing fabrics that allowed air circulation in warm climates.^[2] Elites, by contrast, favored finer options like silk or satin for their smoothness and status, though shanku remained simpler than formal attire.^[23] In the mid-20th century, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, Western influences led to tighter silhouettes in shanku designs, with nipped waists and shorter hemlines replacing some traditional looseness for a more fitted appearance.^[2] Accessories such as sashes or belts for waist definition and simple hats were occasionally incorporated, but overall, shanku avoided the elaborate adornments seen in formal Hanfu.^[2] Across dynasties, the garment's looseness adapted slightly to reflect changing social needs, maintaining its core emphasis on functionality.

Colors and Patterns

The traditional palette for shanku worn by commoners emphasized subdued, practical colors such as black, blue, and grey, reflecting the use of affordable natural dyes and the functional needs of everyday labor.^[24] These hues were derived primarily from plant-based sources, with indigo being a staple for achieving durable blue tones through fermentation and immersion processes that bound the dye to cotton or hemp fibers.^[25] For festive occasions or among certain subgroups, brighter shades like reds or vibrant blues were occasionally incorporated to signify celebration or cultural identity, as seen in Hakka communities' preference for indigo-dyed blue garments symbolizing resilience and tradition.^[26] Patterns on shanku remained minimal and utilitarian, favoring solid colors or simple vertical stripes to enhance durability without compromising mobility, in contrast to the elaborate embroidery and motifs found on formal robes reserved for elites.^[25] This restraint in design aligned with sumptuary laws that restricted ornate decoration to higher classes, ensuring shanku's role as unadorned workwear while allowing subtle woven stripes for variation in coarser fabrics.^[24] Dyeing techniques for shanku relied on natural materials like indigo plants (Indigofera spp.) for blues and greys, or mineral and vegetable sources for blacks, involving labor-intensive methods such as vat dyeing to achieve even coloration on plant fibers.^[25] The introduction of synthetic aniline dyes in the early 20th century, imported from the West, expanded access to more vivid and fade-resistant colors, gradually influencing common shanku production and blending with traditional practices for modern adaptations.^[25]

Historical Development

Prehistoric Origins

The prehistoric origins of shanku are rooted in the Neolithic period, particularly the Yangshao culture (ca. 5000–3000 BC), which flourished along the Yellow River in northern China. Archaeological excavations at sites such as Wanggou in Zhengzhou, Henan Province, have uncovered carbonized silk balls and fabric residues, providing early evidence of sericulture and weaving in China. These findings, dated to approximately 3500 BC, indicate that early inhabitants produced silk and hemp textiles for clothing, marking the beginning of garment construction that would later evolve into the upper and lower components of shanku. Hemp, in particular, was widely used for durable fabrics suited to agrarian life.^[27]^[28] During this era, full upper-lower garment sets like shanku did not exist; clothing consisted of separate pieces, with upper wraps or tunics paired with basic leg protections. This evolution laid the groundwork for shanku's distinctive structure, bridging prehistoric practicality with later dynastic developments.^[29]

Shang to Zhou Dynasties

During the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE), the foundational form of Chinese attire consisted of a basic yòurén yī (right-lapel upper garment) paired with cháng (skirt-like lower garment), forming simple ensembles that emphasized functionality and social hierarchy.^[30] Archaeological evidence from royal tombs at Anyang, such as wooden and terracotta figurines, depicts these outfits as knee-length tunics crossed right-over-left with wide skirts reaching the ankles, often in plain or minimally patterned fabrics like hemp or early silk.^[30] These artifacts, including those from the tomb of Fu Hao, illustrate ensembles suited to ritual and daily life, with no evidence of trousers, reflecting a skirt-based paradigm that prioritized modesty and ceremonial display. In the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE), this attire spread through the feudal system, as the Zhou kings enfeoffed regional lords who disseminated cultural practices, including clothing styles, across expanding territories.^[31] Early Western Zhou artifacts, such as bronze inscriptions and figurines, show continuity in the shàng yī xià cháng (upper garment and lower skirt) structure, with refinements in silk weaving and color use—predominantly red and yellow from mineral dyes—to denote rank.^[30] By the Eastern Zhou, particularly in the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE), interactions with northern nomads began influencing designs, though skirts remained dominant among elites. The adoption of hùfú (nomadic-style clothing) marked a pivotal shift during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), when King Wuling of Zhao (r. 325–299 BCE) mandated short jackets, trousers, and boots for his cavalry forces to enhance mobility against Hu raiders.^[32] This reform, known as hùfú qíshè (donning Hu attire and practicing mounted archery), introduced kūn trousers—loose-fitting pants with a crotch covering tied at the waist—standardizing them for warriors and blending indigenous Han elements like right-lapel uppers with practical nomadic features for horseback combat. Such ensembles, evidenced in Zhao state bronzes and texts like the Zhanguo ce, represented the earliest widespread use of shānkù (upper-and-pants) forms in central China, prioritizing utility over tradition.^[32]

Qin and Han Dynasties

During the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), shanku underwent standardization as part of the imperial unification efforts, with short duanda-style upper garments and trousers becoming prominent in military contexts. Archaeological evidence from the Terracotta Army reveals soldiers depicted in practical short jackets, often armored, paired with trousers suited for combat mobility, reflecting the adoption of hufu-style attire for efficiency in warfare. This design, inherited from the Zhou dynasty's late innovations, emphasized functionality over ceremonial robes, aligning with Legalist principles that prioritized disciplined, pragmatic uniforms for the unified army.^[33]^[30] In the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), shanku evolved into everyday wear for commoners while influencing palace and military attire, with varieties of kun trousers adapting to different roles. Commoners, including laborers, favored simple shanku ensembles with short ru upper garments and practical trousers for daily activities, promoting accessibility and ease of movement as endorsed by Legalist-influenced policies favoring utilitarian clothing over elaborate robes. For palace maids, specialized qiongku trousers— a derivative form with decorative elements—were used, as inferred from tomb artifacts showing varied lower garments for female attendants.^[30] Shanku's impact extended to elite spheres, where dashao-style trousers with wide legs appeared in tomb murals, harmonizing with longer robes for officials and guards. These depictions in Han sites like Mawangdui illustrate military personnel and attendants in shanku variants, underscoring the attire's role in both ceremonial and operational settings during the empire's expansion. Such standardization solidified shanku as a versatile staple, bridging civilian practicality and imperial hierarchy.^[30]

Wei-Jin to Tang Dynasties

During the Wei-Jin period (220–420 CE), shanku underwent significant adaptations due to ethnic fusions between Han Chinese and nomadic groups such as the Xianbei, resulting in the emergence of kuzhe styles that blended traditional Han upper garments with wider, more practical trousers inspired by steppe attire.^[30] This hybridization reflected the era's political instability and cultural exchanges, with kuzhe gaining popularity among scholars and literati for its simplicity and alignment with the philosophical ideals of naturalism and unrestraint, as exemplified by the loose, open-collared shirts worn by figures like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove.^[34] Archaeological evidence from murals and tomb figurines shows these garments prioritizing ease of movement over ornate Han precedents, marking a shift toward functional daily wear.^[30] In the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589 CE), non-Han influences from Xianbei and other northern minorities further widened trouser designs, promoting the kuxi variant—a two-piece ensemble of jacket and pants—that emphasized durability for horseback riding and labor, contrasting with the more skirt-based southern styles.^[30] These adaptations persisted amid regional divisions, with shanku serving as a versatile option for commoners and military personnel, while retaining elements of Han simplicity that appealed to intellectuals evading court formalities.^[34] The Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE) and early Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) saw shanku continue alongside more formal yuanlingpao robes, as ethnic integrations stabilized under unified rule, allowing practical trouser-based outfits to complement the cosmopolitan robe fashions in urban settings.^[30] By the mid-Tang, shanku became a staple for urban laborers, who favored narrow-sleeved, straight-cut versions in coarse fabrics for mobility in trades like construction and transport, while merchants adopted silk variants to signify status within sumptuary limits, often pairing them with belts for a polished appearance in bustling markets like those in Chang'an.^[30] Tomb murals from this period illustrate these distinctions, highlighting shanku's role in everyday economic life amid the dynasty's prosperity and openness to Central Asian influences.^[30]

Song-Yuan and Ming Dynasties

During the Song Dynasty (960–1279), shanku evolved to emphasize practicality and restraint, influenced by the rise of Neo-Confucianism, which promoted simplicity and moral austerity in daily life. Commoners favored trousers paired with a straight-cut upper garment, facilitating urban mobility in bustling cities like Kaifeng and Hangzhou. This style marked a departure from the Tang Dynasty's more elaborate ensembles, adopting subdued colors and minimal ornamentation to align with neo-Confucian ideals of humility and elegance.^[35]^[36] The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), under Mongol rule, introduced foreign elements to shanku while preserving Han traditions, creating hybrid forms for diverse social classes. Mongol influences, particularly the terlig—a pleated, narrow-sleeved robe braided at the waist—were adopted by Han scholars and officials, often layered over traditional shanku for ceremonial or administrative wear to denote status. This integration reflected the era's multicultural court, where Han and Mongol styles coexisted, though commoners largely retained simpler, unadorned versions for everyday use.^[11] In the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), shanku saw a revival of native Han aesthetics, with refinements that became iconic from the 14th to 17th centuries. Men's and women's upper garments featured standing collars (liling) for a structured silhouette, fastened with frog buttons (pankou)—knotted fabric closures originating from earlier periods but popularized in Ming workshops for their durability and decorative appeal. Women frequently paired the shanku upper with pleated skirts like the mamianqun, blending mobility with modesty in a style that echoed Tang continuities in layering but prioritized Confucian propriety.^[37]^[38]

Qing Dynasty to 19th Century

During the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), established by the Manchu conquerors, Han Chinese clothing, including the shanku ensemble of an upper garment (shan) and lower garment (ku), underwent adaptations influenced by Manchu dominance while retaining core Han elements. High collars, a feature inherited from Ming Dynasty fashions, became more standardized in Han women's attire, often appearing as standing or pipa-shaped collars on jackets paired with trousers or skirts.^[39] For lower-class Han women, the shanku typically consisted of a half-length jacket over trousers without an overlying skirt, prioritizing practicality for labor-intensive tasks; this style contrasted with the more formal aoqun (jacket and skirt) worn by higher-status women on ceremonial occasions.^[40] Manchu rulers enforced their qizhuang robes on Han men but permitted Han women greater continuity in traditional dress, allowing shanku to persist as everyday wear among the working class.^[41] In the 19th century, amid the turmoil of the Opium Wars (1839–1842 and 1856–1860), shanku maintained strong persistence in rural Han communities, where economic and social disruptions had limited impact on daily attire. Rural women continued favoring simple, durable shanku sets made from cotton or hemp, often home-stitched, reflecting unchanging agrarian lifestyles despite imperial decline and foreign incursions.^[40] This era also saw stylistic pairings with the mandatory Manchu queue hairstyle imposed on Han men, while women retained elaborate traditional updos or buns, such as the liangbatou-inspired styles, to coordinate family appearances without adopting the queue themselves.^[42] Manchu bannermen, the elite military households, facilitated blending between Manchu and Han styles in shanku adaptations, incorporating Han embroidery motifs like phoenixes and cranes into rank badges (bu fu) on upper garments to symbolize integrated imperial hierarchy.^[43] These fusions, refined through regulations from the Shunzhi era onward, allowed bannermen women to wear hybrid ensembles—such as Han-style jackets with Manchu narrow sleeves—promoting cultural assimilation while preserving shanku's functional duality across social strata.^[40]

20th Century Evolution

During the Republican era (1912–1949), shanku underwent significant modifications influenced by urbanization and Western fashion trends, evolving from the loose, long garments prevalent in Qing rural contexts into shorter, more fitted versions suitable for modern daily wear. Women, in particular, adopted jacket-and-trousers ensembles with narrower cuts, mandarin collars, and shorter hemlines, as seen in Shanghai styles that emphasized practicality for activities like schooling or sports, reflecting a blend of traditional forms with European-inspired tailoring. These changes marked a departure from the voluminous Qing-era designs, prioritizing comfort and mobility amid rapid industrialization and the May Fourth Movement's push for gender equality in attire.^[1] By the 1930s, such fitted shanku became commonplace among urban working women and students, symbolizing national modernization while retaining elements like side fastenings. In the early People's Republic (1949–1976), the rise of the Mao suit in urban areas largely supplanted shanku among city dwellers, as the standardized Zhongshan suit promoted ideological uniformity and rejected pre-1949 fashions deemed bourgeois. However, shanku persisted in rural regions, where farmers continued wearing durable, loose-fitting versions made from cotton, often patched or adorned with simple floral patterns for practicality during agricultural labor. During the 1950s and 1960s, limited Western tailoring influences filtered into rural designs through state-supplied fabrics and urban-rural migrations, resulting in slightly more structured jackets paired with straight-leg trousers, though overall simplicity aligned with Maoist austerity. This survival in countryside communities underscored shanku's adaptability as workwear, contrasting with the Mao suit's dominance in factories and cities. Overseas Chinese diaspora communities retained shanku as a cultural staple through the mid-20th century, particularly in Southeast Asia, where it served as everyday attire for women in Singapore and Malaysia, often in loose, breathable forms echoing Qing rural bases but adapted to tropical climates.^[2] In these settings, the garment—known locally as samfu—featured short-sleeved blouses with trousers, preserving ethnic identity amid colonial and post-colonial influences without the political shifts affecting mainland China.^[2] This retention highlighted shanku's role in maintaining ties to ancestral traditions among emigrants from southern China.

Ethnic and Regional Variations

Han Chinese Subgroups

Among Han Chinese subgroups, adaptations of the shanku—a basic upper (shan) and lower (ku) garment ensemble—reflect regional lifestyles, occupations, and cultural practices, emphasizing practicality while incorporating local materials and colors. These variations maintain the core structure of the shanku but adjust for environmental demands, such as labor-intensive farming or maritime activities, drawing from broader historical Hanfu traditions without significant deviation from mainland customs. The Hakka people, known for their migratory history from northern China to southern regions, favor a simple, durable shanku suited to agrarian life. This everyday attire features a collared shan with wide sleeves and straight-cut ku pants, typically in blue or black fabrics like cotton for warmth, sweat absorption, and ease of movement during fieldwork. Women’s versions fasten near the right armpit to facilitate breastfeeding, while men opt for knee-length aprons (weiqun) for protection; both genders pair it with bamboo hats featuring cloth rims for sun shielding in summer or headscarves in winter, underscoring the frugal, monochromatic style adapted for migrant communities.^[1] Hoklo (also known as Minnan or Hokkien) communities in southern China, particularly in Fujian, adapt shanku for everyday wear in agrarian and coastal settings, maintaining the loose-fitting design for practicality in humid climates. These ensembles use durable cotton or hemp in subdued colors, with minor regional adjustments for local customs, though specific festive variations are less documented compared to other subgroups. The Tanka, or boat-dwelling Han subgroup along southern coasts, modify shanku for aquatic lifestyles with lighter, functional designs prioritizing mobility and weather resistance. Their attire includes high-collared shirts with horseshoe sleeves for arm flexibility and wide, short-cut trousers in breathable fabrics like printed cloth, often in blues, blacks, or beiges to blend with maritime surroundings; simple ties or buckles secure garments against wind and water, complemented by broad-brimmed bamboo hats with beaded straps and accessories like silver bracelets for sun and rain protection during fishing. Brides wear brighter red versions for weddings, but daily wear emphasizes practicality for boat life.^[44]^[45]

Overseas Chinese Communities

In overseas Chinese communities, shanku evolved into practical adaptations known as samfu (a Cantonese term for the upper garment sam and trousers fu), particularly among migrants from southern China who arrived in Southeast Asia during the 19th and early 20th centuries as laborers and traders.^[2] In Singapore and Malaysia, samfu became a staple casual wear for working-class women, including the Samsui women who migrated from Guangdong province between the 1920s and 1940s to take up construction and domestic roles.^[2] These outfits were modified for tropical climates, featuring loose-fitting cotton fabrics for breathability and ease of movement, contrasting with the more formal silk versions worn in China; by the 1960s, samfu was widespread as everyday work attire among Chinese women in urban Singapore.^[46]^[2] In Suriname and Indonesia, shanku variants persisted as rural farmer and labor attire among 19th- and 20th-century Chinese indentured workers, who were primarily Hakka migrants engaged in agriculture and plantation labor.^[47] In Suriname, where Chinese arrived as contract laborers post-1853 to replace enslaved workers on plantations, the migrants wore practical labor clothing reflective of their origins, underscoring the outfit's historical role as lower-class workwear.^[48] Similarly, in Indonesia, early Chinese coolies and rural settlers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries utilized simple two-piece garments for fieldwork in humid environments, with Chinese cultural elements influencing local textiles over time.^[49] Despite assimilation pressures, shanku and its samfu adaptations are maintained in cultural festivals across these communities, serving as symbols of heritage. In Singapore and Malaysia, samfu is donned during Chinese New Year and other celebrations to evoke ancestral ties, with modern versions incorporating mandarin collars and side fastenings for festive appeal.^[2] In Suriname, events like the 2023 Chinese Costume Festival in Paramaribo featured Hanfu displays, including shanku-inspired attire, reenacting historical scenes and drawing over 400 participants to promote traditional dress amid the diaspora.^[50] These occasions help preserve shanku against Western influences, fostering ethnic identity in multicultural settings.^[51]

Modern Revival and Influences

Hanfu Movement

The Hanfu Movement emerged in 2003 through online forums, where individuals like Wang Letian, a resident of Henan Province, began crafting and publicly wearing homemade Hanfu garments, sparking initial discussions and media coverage among young Chinese seeking cultural reconnection. This grassroots initiative quickly spread via digital platforms, evolving from niche online communities to a widespread phenomenon by the 2020s, with the Hanfu market reaching approximately 14.47 billion RMB in 2023 and sales exceeding 3.14 billion yuan in the first quarter of 2025 alone, reflecting participation by millions of enthusiasts. Social media has accelerated this growth, enabling sharing of outfits, styling tips, and event invitations, while annual festivals such as the Xitang Hanfu Cultural Week and International Hanfu Day—observed on the third day of the third lunar month since the 2020s—have drawn thousands to parades, performances, and workshops, fostering community and visibility.^[52]^[53]^[54] Within the movement, the shanku style—a basic two-piece ensemble of an upper garment and trousers—has become a popular entry point for younger participants due to its simplicity and resemblance to contemporary casual attire, allowing beginners to experiment without the complexity of layered robes. Modern adaptations often incorporate breathable fabrics like cotton and linen blends for everyday comfort, making shanku suitable for urban outings, school events, and social gatherings, and appealing to youth who blend it with accessories for personalized looks. This accessibility has democratized Hanfu participation, particularly among those under 35, who view it as an approachable way to engage with tradition amid fast-paced modern lifestyles.^[55]^[56] The movement carries profound cultural significance, serving as a vehicle for reinforcing national identity and resisting Western cultural dominance by celebrating Han Chinese heritage and historical aesthetics. Participants often describe wearing Hanfu as an act of soft nationalism, evoking pride in ancestral values like familial harmony and ritual propriety while countering perceptions of cultural erasure from colonial and global influences. Events like Hanfu Day in the 2020s underscore this, promoting themes of unity and self-expression, with enthusiasts using the attire to assert a distinct Chinese modernity that honors the past. This revival briefly draws on 20th-century rural traditions where simpler garment forms persisted, providing a familiar bridge to contemporary practice.^[57]^[58]^[59]

Derivatives in Other Cultures

The adoption of shanku-style attire, characterized by a tunic paired with trousers, significantly influenced Vietnamese traditional clothing during and after the Ming dynasty's occupation of Vietnam from 1407 to 1427. During this period, Chinese authorities mandated that Vietnamese women wear Chinese-style pants beneath tunics to enforce cultural assimilation, elements of which persisted post-independence under the Lê dynasty (1428–1789).^[60] This contributed to the evolution of the áo tứ thân, a four-panel tunic often worn over trousers or skirts by northern Vietnamese women from the 15th century onward, blending Ming-inspired silhouettes with local adaptations for tropical climates.^[61] Precursors to the modern áo dài, such as the áo ngũ thân (five-panel tunic), further incorporated these trousers under a long, fitted overgarment, maintaining the shanku form through the 20th century as a symbol of national identity while allowing greater mobility.^[60] Broader transmissions of Hanfu elements, including shanku trousers, occurred via the Silk Road, facilitating the integration of practical pant styles into neighboring East Asian traditions. In Korea, the loose baji trousers of the hanbok—worn by both men and women since the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392)—derived from Chinese nomadic influences adopted through cultural exchanges, emphasizing ease of movement for horseback riding and daily activities.^[62] Similarly, in Japan, traditional pants known as baji or early forms of hakama in samurai attire reflected Silk Road-mediated adaptations of Chinese trousers, evolving from Tang dynasty (618–907) imports to suit feudal mobility needs by the Heian period (794–1185).^[63] These adaptations highlight how shanku's functional design spread as a cross-cultural staple, distinct from robe-centric garments in each region. In the 21st century, shanku has inspired casual streetwear across Asia, particularly post-2010s, as part of the "new Chinese style" trend blending Hanfu aesthetics with contemporary urban fashion. Young consumers in China, Korea, and beyond pair simplified shanku tunics with modern pants, sneakers, and oversized layers, evident in the popularity of mamianqun skirts and tunic hybrids that evoke historical forms while prioritizing everyday wearability.^[64] This revival, amplified by social media platforms like Xiaohongshu, has driven market growth, with hanfu-inspired items generating over 1 billion yuan in sales in 2023 alone, reflecting a fusion of cultural heritage and global youth trends.^[64]

References

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[PDF] Black Silk, Brown Silk: China and Beyondâ - UNL Digital Commons
“97/167/2 Outfit (aoku), women's, jacket and trousers, glazed cotton/gummed silk/linen,. Hong Kong, 1875-1900,” D*Hub: Your Online Design Resource ...
[8]
Standard Style of Han Chinese Clothing
Mar 29, 2013 · Ruqun : a top garment with a separate lower garment or skirt. Kuzhe : a short coat with trousers. Zhiduo/zhishen : a Ming Dynasty style robe ...
[9]
Traditional Chinese 'samfoo' - Roots.sg
Nov 18, 2024 · The 'samfoo' consists of a top ('sam') with side fastenings and a mandarin collar, worn over pants ('foo'). Traditionally, the 'samfoo' is loose fitting.Missing: shanku malaysia
[10]
A Brief Talk on Trousers in Ancient China - Silk Divas - Hanfu Dress
Apr 29, 2025 · Our ancestors invented hanfu trousers a long time ago. Archaeological evidence shows that trousers have a history of at least four or five ...Missing: neolithic | Show results with:neolithic
[11]
THE DRESS OF THE MONGOL EMPIRE - jstor
After the Yuan dynasty in China, the terlig underwent further changes. An example from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) has been excavated from Zhu Tan's (1370 ...Missing: shanku | Show results with:shanku
[12]
2. Apparels and Costumes – Chinese Culture
The major features of yi are 交领右衽(jiaoling youren, wrapping the right side over before the left) and 宽袍大袖 (kuan pao da xiu, closed full-body garment ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[13]
[PDF] Application of Jiangxi intangible cultural heritage in modern fashion ...
the emergence of the "Jiaoling Youren" is directly connected with the lapel collar, lapel cross in the chest, right on the left side of the skirt pressed ...
[14]
There Is A Difference: Views of the Traditional Fashions of East Asia
... Ancient China since the Qin Dynasty (221 BC-206. BC). We also have to mention the culturally-Chinese rule of jiaoling youren, or wrapping your. robe from the ...
[15]
Guide to Traditional Chinese Clothing - Hanfu - Newhanfu
Nov 2, 2020 · Jiaoling Youren (交领右衽), that is, the left lapel covers the right lapel (when wearing, but if viewed from the front, that is the right lapel ...Missing: Shanku lapped
[16]
History Of Jiaoling Youren 交领右衽 - 张儒英 Zhang Ruying
Sep 30, 2023 · Jiaoling Youren is a cross-collar design with a history of over 5,000 years, dating back to the Zhou dynasty, and is a prominent feature of ...
[17]
3000 year old trousers discovered in Chinese grave oldest ever found
Jun 3, 2014 · These artifacts along with the cut of the pants, suggest the trousers were created and worn to allow for easier horse riding over long periods ...
[18]
First pants worn by horse riders 3,000 years ago - Science News
May 30, 2014 · A new study indicates horse-riding Asians wove and wore wool trousers by around 3000 years ago.
[19]
China's early clothing system intertwined with social hierarchy
Jun 27, 2024 · The origins of Chinese clothing can be traced back to the late Paleolithic era. Bone needles, suitable for sewing, were discovered at the ...
[20]
(PDF) Han Dynasty costume aesthetics and class - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · (simple garments) and “ku” (trousers). The “ku” in Han attire refers to trousers without a crotch. These regular uniforms were often modi ...
[21]
4 Traditional Chinese Clothing and Dress: Hanfu, Qipao...
The Hanfu, Zhongshan suit (Mao suit), Tang suit, and cheongsam (qipao) are the four most distinctive types of traditional Chinese clothing.
[22]
The History of Traditional Chinese Pants - Newhanfu
Jul 5, 2021 · Kun is an ancient underpants with the crotch, according to the present archaeological evidence, Kun can be traced back to the late Neolithic. It ...
[23]
Chinese Dress: From the Qing Dynasty to the Present Day
... books on the subject, including Chinese Dragon Robes, Chinese Clothing: An Illustrated Guide and Traditional Chinese Clothing in Hong Kong and South China.
[24]
What did Ancient Chinese Peasants Wear? - Newhanfu
Apr 27, 2020 · So, the original meaning of the Shu He was coarse clothes woven with hemp fabric or animal hair. What did Ancient Chinese Peasants Wear? Of ...
[25]
[PDF] CHINESE TEXTILES - The Cutters Guide
the colors and the distinction of pattern in the two robes make it an even more plausible supposition. The delicate pastel shades on a powder-blue ground of ...
[26]
Hakka Blue Shirts
Jan 27, 2021 · Hakka blue shirts have buttons extending from the collar to the right, are stain-resistant, and are dyed with indigo from a local plant. They ...
[27]
World's earliest silk fabrics discovered in central China's ruins
Dec 4, 2019 · Chinese archaeologists have used new technology to ascertain the carbonized texture residue in an urn coffin buried in the Neolithic Yangshao Culture ruins.
[28]
Restored treasures of thousands of years of Chinese silk clothing
Oct 27, 2022 · An exhibition chronicling its restored antiques from the Neolithic period to the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).
[29]
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yangshao-culture
[30]
Chinese Writing from 5000 B.C. to Present
The oracle-bone inscriptions are the earliest body of writing we yet possess for East Asia. They were written in a script (Shang-dynasty script) that was ...
[31]
Historical changes of Chinese costumes from the perspective of ...
Dec 30, 2022 · This paper analyzes the representative costume-related artifacts of each dynasty, and through the understanding of the costume history and culture of each ...Missing: Shanku | Show results with:Shanku
[32]
Zhou dynasty - Asia for Educators - Columbia University
Early China had settlements and the Shang Dynasty with bronze tech. Japan had pottery and clan rulers. Korea had settled agricultural communities. Vietnam had ...Missing: shanku credible
[33]
King Wuling of Zhao 趙武靈王(www.chinaknowledge.de)
Mar 9, 2019 · He is famous for his military reform. The reform was motivated by the permanent raids of northern tribes of the Hu people 胡who used cavalry ...
[34]
The Terracotta Warriors - Smarthistory
The Terracotta Warriors—discovered in the tomb of Qin Shi Huangdi, the First Emperor of China—are one of the most recognizable images of Chinese heritage ...Missing: trousers | Show results with:trousers
[35]
https://www.chinaxiantour.com/travel-guide/traditional-chinese-clothing.html
[36]
Traditional Chinese Clothing: Main Types in Major Dynasties
Sep 22, 2025 · Following the Tang Dynasty, the rise of Neo-Confucianism and its associated values of elegance and simplicity led Song Dynasty clothing to be ...
[37]
Song Dynasty Hanfu's Gentle Spirit in Today's World - Newhanfu
Aug 7, 2025 · Men wore simple robes like the round-collared Yuanlingpao (圆领袍), while women chose pieces that balanced modesty with grace. The art of " ...
[38]
https://www.newhanfu.com/17898.html
[39]
Guide of the Ming Dynasty Shan/Ao Types for Girls - Newhanfu
Jul 2, 2021 · It is Jiaoling Youren (交领右衽, wrapping the right side before the left) in general, with a button near the right shoulder to secure the lapel.
[40]
History of Chinese standing collars (part 1: Ming & Qing)
Apr 16, 2021 · Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) The first mature 立领 liling standing collars were applied to women's robes in the late 15th/early 16th century.
[41]
Han Women's Style | Chinese Traditional Dress - Online Exhibitions
Han women wore a half length coat or jacket accompanied by trousers or leggings worn underneath. They paired a panel skirt that wrapped similarly to an apron.
[42]
Abridged History of Qing Dynasty Han Women's Fashion (part 1
The standard ensemble for Han Chinese women was the 袄裙 aoqun (alternatively named 衫裙 shanqun) ensemble consisting of a robe and a skirt. In the 1620s and ...Missing: traditional | Show results with:traditional
[43]
A brief discussion of the Queue in Imperial China
Dec 21, 2022 · The Queue was a Manchu hairstyle forced on Han Chinese men by the Qing Dynasty, with shaved front and plaited back, to show submission. It was ...
[44]
[PDF] The Inheritance and Development of Han Ethnic Ornaments in Qing ...
Nov 15, 2023 · They adopted flexible approaches to incorporate both Manchu and Han ethnic clothing elements, avoiding rigid adherence to past styles. The Bu Fu ...
[45]
Council for Hakka Affairs, Kaohsiung City Government-Costume
Nov 28, 2024 · Hakka costume is credited by its simple, frugal, monochromatic, unified style, convenient and durable qualities, striving for warmth with little attention to ...
[46]
Shanku - Wikipedia
The shanku was originally worn by both genders. ... Up until the mid-20th century, it was popular in China and outside of China where it was worn by overseas ...
[47]
Time-honored Tales of Sanya's Tanka People - HICN
Nov 9, 2023 · Maritime Fashion. The Tanka's traditional clothing—like everything else about the Tanka—hearkens back to their maritime culture. Wide short ...Missing: lighter fabrics ties shanku
[48]
Gamification of Culture: A Strategy for Cultural Preservation and ...
Given the living environment and characteristics of the Tanka, as they have been drifting on the sea, the Tanka wear clothes that have the color of the sea.
[49]
Anushka Tay, Yarwood Grant winner 2016 - The Costume Society
A Cantonese term meaning literally top, trousers, samfu is a unisex, two-piece outfit that was frequently worn by working-class Chinese people around the world ...
[50]
The Chinese Come to Suriname | Pulitzer Center
May 4, 2012 · A story about immigrant Chinese families trying to find opportunity and a better way of life in a small Amazonian country of half a million people.
[51]
The Chinese in Suriname Facts and Origins – My China Roots
The first Chinese migrants to Suriname arrived in the 19th century as indentured labourers, with subsequent waves of migration in the 1950s and 1960s.Missing: samfu | Show results with:samfu
[52]
When Chinese elements meet Indonesian clothing - CGTN
Nov 13, 2022 · A traditional dress called "batik." This attire is recognized as Indonesia's national costume, worn throughout the country, especially on important occasions.
[53]
China National Silk Museum's 6th Chinese Costume Festival Held in Hangzhou and Suriname - PR Newswire APAC
### Summary of Chinese Costume Festival in Suriname
[54]
Hanfu Culture: Traditional Beauty Marching Towards the World
On the evening of April 30, the Chinese Embassy in Suriname held this Hanfu-themed cultural event, which attracted more than 400 participants, including ...
[55]
The Forgotten Drivers of China's 'Hanfu' Movement - Sixth Tone
Nov 27, 2024 · The hanfu movement was kickstarted by Wang Letian, a power worker in the central Chinese province of Henan, who attracted widespread media attention.Missing: origins forums
[56]
Full article: Decoding cultural expressions in Hanfu design: a Kansei ...
The origins of Han Chinese attire predate the Han Dynasty and extend over 3,000 years (Chen, Citation2007). Hanfu typically consists of two main components: a ...
[57]
Hanfu, the traditional attire of China, has evolved over the centuries ...
May 16, 2025 · In the first quarter of 2025 alone, Hanfu sales exceeded 3.14 billion yuan, marking an increase of 15.8% from last year. #ChineseCulture # ...Missing: growth | Show results with:growth
[58]
Beyond Tradition: The Hanfu Revival and its Influence on Daily Life
Mar 2, 2024 · In 2003, at the age of 19, Wang Yuliang created his first Hanfu based on styles from the Han Wang forum and publicly shared it online on July ...
[59]
https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202403/1308445.shtml
[60]
Soft nationalism in China: The case of Hanfu style - Sage Journals
Apr 30, 2025 · Hanfu emerges as an affective practice based in a quietly spoken yet assertive nationalism that has been, to an extent, de-ethnicised and domesticated.Missing: shanku | Show results with:shanku
[61]
Full article: Chinese Women in Hanfu: A Gendered Subject Narrative ...
May 6, 2025 · Research Article. Chinese Women in Hanfu: A Gendered Subject Narrative in the Cultural Nationalist Movement. Hanyu JiangTechnical University ...Missing: shanku | Show results with:shanku
[62]
Love for 'hanfu' unites young people across the Straits - Global Times
Mar 7, 2024 · In November of 2020, an International Hanfu Day was hosted in Ximending district, a bustling area of Taipei. As it was renamed the Taiwan ...
[63]
#18 Transcultural Tradition of the Vietnamese Ao Dai | Beyond ...
Mar 14, 2010 · From 1407 to 1428, China's Ming Dynasty occupied Vietnam and forced women to wear Chinese-style pants. After regaining independence, Vietnam's ...
[64]
There Is A Difference: Views of the Traditional Fashions of East Asia
8 This cross-collared top, just like the kimono of Japan, was influenced by the jiaoling youren rule of civilized clothing from dynastic China, and was worn ...
[65]
Did You Know? The Popularisation of Trousers in China and other ...
The introduction of Mongolian horses, and with it the practice of horse riding, had a deep impact on Chinese culture, particularly within clothing styles, ...<|separator|>
[66]
(PDF) On the Traditional Clothing Culture of Korea and Japan under ...
Aug 8, 2025 · China had a profound influence on the traditional clothing of South Korea and Japan, through the trading of culture, style, and techniques.
[67]
The 'New Chinese style' trend isn't exactly new, but it's ... - CNN
Jun 16, 2024 · The trend merges all manner of contemporary design with traditional Chinese aesthetics, applied to everything from clothing to furniture.