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Shell integration

Shell integration, also known as the shell method or cylindrical shell method, is a technique in integral calculus for calculating the volume of a solid of revolution generated by rotating a region bounded by curves around an axis, where the integration is performed using thin cylindrical shells parallel to the axis of rotation.^[1] Unlike the disk or washer methods, which slice the solid perpendicular to the axis of rotation, shell integration approximates the volume by summing the lateral surface areas of concentric cylindrical shells, each with a radius equal to the distance from the axis, a height corresponding to the region's vertical extent, and an infinitesimal thickness.^[2] The general formula for the volume V using shell integration, when rotating around the y-axis and integrating with respect to x, is V = \int_a^b 2\pi x f(x) \, dx, where x serves as the radius of the shell, f(x) is the height function, and the limits a to b span the region's projection on the x-axis.^[1] For rotation around the x-axis, the roles reverse, yielding V = \int_c^d 2\pi y g(y) \, dy, with y as the radius and g(y) as the height.^[2] This approach derives from the surface area of a cylinder, $2\pi r h, multiplied by the thickness dx or dy, and integrated over the interval.^[1] Shell integration is particularly advantageous when the solid has a shape that complicates the disk method, such as regions between curves where the washer approach requires splitting integrals, or when the axis of rotation aligns naturally with the variable of integration for simpler antiderivatives.^[2] It is commonly applied in calculus courses to problems involving volumes of toroidal shapes, vases, or other axisymmetric solids, providing an alternative perspective that enhances understanding of definite integrals in three-dimensional geometry.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition

Shell integration, also known as the cylindrical shell method, is a calculus technique for determining the volume of a solid of revolution formed by rotating a region bounded by curves around an axis, serving as an alternative to the disk and washer methods.^[3] This approach is particularly advantageous when the integration is performed parallel to the axis of rotation, allowing for straightforward setup in scenarios where the other methods become cumbersome.^[3] The core elements of shell integration include the radius of each cylindrical shell, defined as the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the shell; the height of the shell, which corresponds to the vertical or horizontal extent of the rotated region at that radius, often determined by a bounding function; the infinitesimal thickness of the shell, denoted as dx or dy depending on the orientation; and the shell's circumference, given by $2\pi times the radius, which contributes to the lateral surface area.^[4] These components collectively approximate the volume as a sum of thin, hollow cylinders that envelop the solid. The method presupposes familiarity with single-variable calculus, particularly the Riemann sum process, where volumes are approximated by partitioning the region into strips and integrating the limit of these approximations to obtain the exact volume.^[5] Historically, shell integration emerged within the development of integral calculus in the 17th century, with early applications traceable to Johannes Kepler's 1615 treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum, where he employed a comparable cylindrical unfolding technique for volumes like wine barrels, predating formal calculus; the method was later developed as part of integral calculus applications in the 18th and 19th centuries, within single-variable calculus education.^[6]

Geometric Interpretation

The cylindrical shell method provides a geometric visualization for computing volumes of solids of revolution by conceptualizing the solid as composed of thin, concentric cylindrical shells. Each shell is formed by rotating a narrow strip of the region—either vertical or horizontal—around the axis of rotation, resulting in a thin, hollow cylinder that approximates a portion of the solid. These shells stack concentrically, filling the volume from the axis outward, with the inner and outer radii differing infinitesimally to create a layered approximation of the entire shape.^[7] The orientation of the strips depends on the axis of rotation: for rotation about the y-axis, vertical strips parallel to the axis are used, generating shells whose heights align with the y-direction and radii measured horizontally from the axis; in contrast, rotation about the x-axis employs horizontal strips parallel to the axis, producing shells with heights along the x-direction and radii measured vertically. This parallelism ensures that each shell's axis coincides with the rotation axis, distinguishing the method from cross-sectional approaches like disks or washers, which slice perpendicularly.^[8] Geometrically, each shell's contribution to the volume arises from its lateral surface area, given by the circumference times the height (2\pi r h), multiplied by its infinitesimal thickness (dr), forming a volume element of 2\pi r h , dr that represents the shell's thin annular layer. This surface area role emphasizes the shell as an "unrolled" cylinder, where the rotated strip's length becomes the height and its distance from the axis the radius, intuitively capturing how rotation sweeps out the cylindrical wall without gaps or overlaps in the approximation.^[9]

Derivation and Formula

Integral Setup

The shell method, also known as cylindrical shell integration, computes the volume of a solid of revolution by integrating the surface areas of infinitesimally thin cylindrical shells formed by rotating a region around an axis. The general formula for the volume V is given by

V = \int 2\pi \, (\text{shell radius}) \, (\text{shell height}) \, (\text{shell thickness}),

where the integral is taken over the appropriate variable of integration, either x or y, depending on the orientation of the strips used to approximate the shells.^[4]^[7] The shell radius is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the shell's position. When rotating around the y-axis, the radius is typically the x-coordinate of the strip, so radius = x; conversely, for rotation around the x-axis, the radius is the y-coordinate, so radius = y. This choice ensures the radius measures the cylindrical shell's distance from the central axis, directly contributing to the circumference $2\pi r in the volume element.^[4]^[10] To set up the integral, select the orientation of the approximating strips parallel to the axis of rotation: use vertical strips (parallel to the y-axis) when rotating around the y-axis, integrating with respect to x (dx as thickness), as this aligns the shell height with the vertical extent of the region; for rotation around the x-axis, employ horizontal strips (parallel to the x-axis), integrating with respect to y (dy as thickness), with the shell height spanning horizontally. The shell height is then the length of the strip, often the difference between bounding curves in the region. This orientation simplifies the expression for both radius and height by matching the variable of integration to the strip's perpendicular direction.^[4]^[7]^[11] The limits of integration are determined by the projection of the bounded region onto the axis perpendicular to the rotation axis. For integration with respect to x (y-axis rotation), the limits range from the minimum to maximum x-values of the region, such as from a to b; similarly, for dy integration (x-axis rotation), limits span the y-projection from c to d. These bounds ensure the integral covers the entire solid without overlap or omission, capturing the full extent of the revolved area.^[4]^[12]

Derivation Process

The derivation of the shell integration formula begins with approximating the volume of a solid of revolution using a finite number of thin cylindrical shells, which serves as a Riemann sum for the integral. Consider a region bounded by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis, and the lines x = a and x = b, rotated about the y-axis. Partition the interval [a, b] into n subintervals, each of width \Delta x_i = \frac{b - a}{n}, and select a point x_i in the i-th subinterval. For each x_i, form a thin rectangular strip of height f(x_i) and width \Delta x_i, which, upon rotation, generates a cylindrical shell with radius x_i (the distance from the y-axis), height f(x_i), and thickness \Delta x_i. The approximate volume of this shell is the lateral surface area times the thickness: \Delta V_i \approx 2\pi x_i f(x_i) \Delta x_i.^[3] The total approximate volume of the solid is the sum of these shell volumes: V \approx \sum_{i=1}^n 2\pi x_i f(x_i) \Delta x_i. As the number of subintervals increases and \Delta x_i \to 0 (i.e., n \to \infty), this Riemann sum converges to the definite integral representing the exact volume:

V = \lim_{n \to \infty} \sum_{i=1}^n 2\pi x_i f(x_i) \Delta x_i = \int_a^b 2\pi x f(x) \, dx.

This limit establishes the shell method formula for rotation about the y-axis, where the integrand $2\pi x f(x) captures the circumference $2\pi x, height f(x), and differential thickness dx.^[3]^[4] To verify the formula, apply it to a known volume, such as a cylinder of radius r, height h, obtained by rotating the rectangle $0 \leq x \leq r, $0 \leq y \leq h about the y-axis (where f(x) = h). The integral yields V = \int_0^r 2\pi x h \, dx = 2\pi h \left[ \frac{x^2}{2} \right]_0^r = \pi r^2 h, matching the standard cylinder volume formula and confirming the derivation's consistency with basic geometric volumes.^[4]

Applications

Basic Volume Examples

One common application of the shell method involves rotating a region bounded by y = f(x), the x-axis, and vertical lines x = a to x = b about the y-axis. This setup uses vertical cylindrical shells, where the integration variable x aligns naturally with the given function, simplifying the height expression. The shell method often simplifies the integration process, especially when the axis of revolution is parallel to the direction of the shells, which corresponds to the integration variable being perpendicular to the axis.

Example 1: Rotation about the y-axis

Consider the region in the first quadrant bounded by y = \sqrt{x}, y = 0, x = 0, and x = 1, rotated about the y-axis to generate a solid of revolution.^[12] To compute the volume using the shell method, identify the components for vertical shells parallel to the y-axis:

Radius: The distance from the y-axis to the shell at position x is x.
Height: The height of the shell is the function value f(x) = \sqrt{x}.
Limits: Integration from x = 0 to x = 1.

The volume is given by the integral of the shell volumes:

V = \int_{0}^{1} 2\pi \, (\text{radius}) \, (\text{height}) \, dx = \int_{0}^{1} 2\pi x \sqrt{x} \, dx = 2\pi \int_{0}^{1} x^{3/2} \, dx.

The antiderivative of x^{3/2} is \frac{2}{5} x^{5/2}, so

$2\pi \left[ \frac{2}{5} x^{5/2} \right]_{0}^{1} = 2\pi \cdot \frac{2}{5} (1 - 0) = \frac{4\pi}{5}.

This yields the exact volume of \frac{4\pi}{5}.^[12]

Example 2: Rotation about the x-axis

Now consider rotation about the x-axis, which requires horizontal shells parallel to the x-axis and integration with respect to y. Take the region bounded by y = x^2 and y = 1 for -[1](/page/1) \leq x \leq [1](/page/1), rotated about the x-axis.^[13] For horizontal shells:

Radius: The distance from the x-axis to the shell at height y is y.
Height: At fixed y (from 0 to 1), the shell spans from x = -\sqrt{y} to x = \sqrt{y}, so the length is $2\sqrt{y}.
Limits: Integration from y = [0](/page/0) to y = [1](/page/1).

The volume integral is

V = \int_{0}^{1} 2\pi \, (\text{radius}) \, (\text{height}) \, dy = \int_{0}^{1} 2\pi y \cdot 2\sqrt{y} \, dy = 4\pi \int_{0}^{1} y^{3/2} \, dy.

The antiderivative is \frac{2}{5} y^{5/2}, evaluated as

$4\pi \left[ \frac{2}{5} y^{5/2} \right]_{0}^{1} = 4\pi \cdot \frac{2}{5} (1 - 0) = \frac{8\pi}{5}.

Thus, the volume is exactly \frac{8\pi}{5} \approx 5.027.^[13]

Advanced Configurations

In advanced configurations of the shell method, the volume of solids formed by rotating the region between two curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) (with f(x) \geq g(x)) about the y-axis is computed by integrating cylindrical shells with radius x and height f(x) - g(x). The volume is given by V = \int_a^b 2\pi x [f(x) - g(x)] \, dx, where a and b are the limits of integration along the x-axis bounding the region.^[4] This approach is particularly useful when the functions are easily expressed in terms of x, avoiding the need to solve for inverse functions as required in washer methods. For instance, rotating the region between y = x and y = x^2 from x = 0 to x = 1 about the y-axis yields a volume of \pi/6.^[14] When rotating about a vertical line other than the y-axis, such as x = c, the shell radius is adjusted to the perpendicular distance from the axis, typically |x - c|. The volume formula becomes V = \int_a^b 2\pi |x - c| [f(x) - g(x)] \, dx, ensuring the radius reflects the offset geometry. This adaptation maintains the cylindrical shell structure while accounting for the shifted axis of rotation. An example involves rotating the region under y = x - x^2 from x = 0 to x = 1 about x = 2, resulting in a volume of \pi/2.^[14]^[3] For parametric or polar coordinate adaptations, the shell method can be reformulated by treating the radial distance as the integration variable, with shells forming concentric cylinders. In polar coordinates, for a region described by r and \theta, the volume of revolution about the polar axis uses the form V = \int 2\pi r h(r) \, dr, where h(r) is the height function derived from the arc length or boundary in the angular direction. This is effective for axisymmetric solids where Cartesian descriptions are cumbersome. The shell method can also be applied to compute volumes of toroidal shapes. Consider a torus formed by rotating a circle of radius r = 2 centered at (3, 0) about the y-axis; the region is bounded by x = 1 to x = 5 with height $2\sqrt{4 - (x-3)^2}. The volume is V = \int_1^5 2\pi x \cdot 2\sqrt{4 - (x-3)^2} \, dx = 24\pi^2 \approx 236.88 cubic units.^[15]

Comparisons and Alternatives

Disk and Washer Methods

The disk method calculates the volume of a solid of revolution generated by rotating a region bounded by a curve y = f(x), the x-axis, and vertical lines x = a and x = b about the x-axis, where f(x) \geq 0.^[16] The cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis are circular disks with radius R(x) = f(x), so the volume is given by

V = \int_a^b \pi [R(x)]^2 \, dx = \int_a^b \pi [f(x)]^2 \, dx.

^[16] This formula arises from approximating the solid as a stack of thin disks, each with volume \pi [f(x_i^*)]^2 \Delta x, and taking the limit as the number of disks increases, yielding the definite integral.^[16] The washer method extends the disk method to solids with a cavity, formed by rotating the region between two curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) (with f(x) \geq g(x) \geq 0) about the x-axis over [a, b].^[16] The cross-sections are annular washers with outer radius R_{\text{outer}}(x) = f(x) and inner radius R_{\text{inner}}(x) = g(x), so the volume is

V = \int_a^b \pi \left( [R_{\text{outer}}(x)]^2 - [R_{\text{inner}}(x)]^2 \right) \, dx = \int_a^b \pi \left( [f(x)]^2 - [g(x)]^2 \right) \, dx. $$ The derivation follows similarly by subtracting the volume of the inner solid from the outer solid, integrating the difference in cross-sectional areas $\pi (f(x)^2 - g(x)^2)$.[](https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Cosumnes_River_College/Math_401%3A_Calculus_II_-_Integral_Calculus/01%3A_Applications_of_Integration/1.03%3A_Volumes_of_Revolution_-_The_Disk_and_Washer_Methods) For a region that might otherwise be integrated using cylindrical shells, such as the area under $y = \sqrt{x}$ from $x = 1$ to $x = 4$ rotated about the x-axis, the disk method setup is $V = \int_1^4 \pi (\sqrt{x})^2 \, dx = \int_1^4 \pi x \, dx$.[](https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Cosumnes_River_College/Math_401%3A_Calculus_II_-_Integral_Calculus/01%3A_Applications_of_Integration/1.03%3A_Volumes_of_Revolution_-_The_Disk_and_Washer_Methods) Similarly, for the region between $y = x$ and $y = 1/x$ from $x = 1$ to $x = 4$ rotated about the x-axis, the washer method setup is $V = \int_1^4 \pi \left( x^2 - \left(\frac{1}{x}\right)^2 \right) \, dx = \int_1^4 \pi \left( x^2 - \frac{1}{x^2} \right) \, dx$.[](https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Cosumnes_River_College/Math_401%3A_Calculus_II_-_Integral_Calculus/01%3A_Applications_of_Integration/1.03%3A_Volumes_of_Revolution_-_The_Disk_and_Washer_Methods) ### Selection Criteria The shell method is typically selected for computing volumes of solids of revolution when the axis of rotation is parallel to the variable of [integration](/page/Integration) for the bounding functions, such as rotating a region defined by y = f(x) around the y-axis. This setup allows for the use of cylindrical shells where the radius corresponds naturally to the integration variable x, and the height to f(x), thereby avoiding the need to invert the function to express it as x = g(y), which can be algebraically intensive or impossible for certain polynomials.[](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calci/volumewithcylinder.aspx) In situations where the [axis](/page/Axis) of [rotation](/page/Rotation) is [perpendicular](/page/Perpendicular) to the [integration](/page/Integration) variable, or when the [region](/page/Region) is more readily described by inverting the functions—such as bounding curves given as x = g(y) for [rotation](/page/Rotation) around the x-[axis](/page/Axis)—the disk and washer methods are generally preferred, as they integrate slices [perpendicular](/page/Perpendicular) to the [axis](/page/Axis) more directly. For example, if the [region](/page/Region) is bounded by x = g(y) between y = c and y = d, shells around the x-[axis](/page/Axis) facilitate [integration](/page/Integration) with respect to y using horizontal strips, with the shell [radius](/page/Radius) as the distance from the [axis](/page/Axis) (often y itself).[](https://www.math.purdue.edu/~fernan87/assets/docs/24_SP/SP24_MA16020_L18_Notes.pdf) A key advantage of the shell method is its natural handling of vertical strips for y-axis rotations or horizontal strips for x-axis rotations, which aligns the approximating cylinders directly with the region's orientation and simplifies setup for asymmetric or multi-function boundaries without requiring multiple integrals. However, it can become more complex for regions exhibiting high [symmetry](/page/Symmetry) around the [perpendicular](/page/Perpendicular) [axis](/page/Axis), where the varying shell radii lead to integrals that are computationally heavier than the straightforward πr² cross-sections of disks or washers.[](http://www.csun.edu/~hcmth008/150a/bccalclt03_0604.pdf)[](https://mgccc.edu/learning_lab/math/calc/revolutn.pdf) To decide between methods, consider the following stepwise guideline: first, identify the axis of [rotation](/page/Rotation) and the form of the bounding curves; if the curves are functions of the variable parallel to the axis (e.g., y = f(x) for y-axis rotation), opt for shells to [leverage](/page/Leverage) the original expression; otherwise, if inversion yields simple functions perpendicular to the axis, choose disks or washers for efficiency. This approach ensures the [integration](/page/Integration) aligns with the geometric features of the problem, minimizing algebraic manipulation.[](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calci/volumewithcylinder.aspx) ## Limitations and Extensions ### Common Pitfalls A frequent error in the shell method arises from selecting an incorrect [radius](/page/Radius) for the cylindrical shells, such as using the vertical coordinate $y$ instead of the horizontal distance $x$ when rotating about the y-axis. This mistake often occurs when functions are expressed in terms of $y$, leading to inconsistent measurements. To correct it, the [radius](/page/Radius) must always represent the [perpendicular distance](/page/Perpendicular_distance) from the axis of rotation to the shell's position, ensuring the [circumference](/page/Circumference) $2\pi$ times this distance accurately reflects the shell's geometry.[](https://www2.math.upenn.edu/~pemantle/104A-public/Worksheet02.pdf)/01:_Techniques_of_Integration/1.04:_Volumes_of_Revolution_-_Cylindrical_Shells) Errors in setting the [limits of integration](/page/Limits_of_integration) also commonly undermine calculations, particularly when the integration interval does not properly encompass the projected [region](/page/Region), resulting in under- or overestimation of the volume. For example, bounds might inadvertently exclude portions of the solid or extend beyond the bounded area. A reliable approach to avoidance is to project the [region](/page/Region) of [revolution](/page/Revolution) onto the [axis](/page/Axis) of [integration](/page/Integration), using the resulting interval as the limits to capture the full extent of the shells.[](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calci/volumewithcylinder.aspx)[](https://www2.math.upenn.edu/~pemantle/104A-public/Worksheet02.pdf) Omitting the $2\pi$ [factor](/page/Factor) in [the volume](/page/The_Volume) [integral](/page/Integral) or mishandling [signs](/page/Signs) in the [height function](/page/Height_function) represents another prevalent pitfall, as the [formula](/page/Formula) $V = \int 2\pi \cdot (\text{[radius](/page/Radius)}) \cdot (\text{[height](/page/Height)}) \, d(\text{[radius](/page/Radius)})$ relies on this constant for the shell's [lateral surface](/page/Lateral_surface) area. In multi-curve configurations, where [height](/page/Height) is defined as the difference between upper and lower functions, negative values can emerge if the functions cross or are misordered within the [interval](/page/Interval), producing spurious negative volume contributions. To address this, split the [integral](/page/Integral) at intersection points or use absolute values for the height to maintain positive contributions throughout./06:_Applications_of_Integration/6.03:_Volumes_of_Revolution_-_Cylindrical_Shells)/01:_Techniques_of_Integration/1.04:_Volumes_of_Revolution_-_Cylindrical_Shells) Integrals arising in the shell method can exhibit numerical [instability](/page/Instability) when singularities are present, such as when the [height function](/page/Height_function) diverges near the axis of rotation or within the [interval](/page/Interval). This is particularly evident in improper [integrals](/page/Integral) where the integrand approaches infinity, complicating both analytical evaluation and numerical approximation. Avoidance strategies include employing [substitution](/page/Substitution) to transform the singular [integral](/page/Integral) into a more tractable form, thereby stabilizing the computation while preserving the result./06:_Applications_of_Integration/6.03:_Volumes_of_Revolution_-_Cylindrical_Shells) ### Generalizations The shell method extends beyond basic volumes of revolution to compute surface areas of such solids through an analogous approach. For a curve defined by $ y = f(x) $ from $ x = a $ to $ x = b $, rotated about the x-axis, the surface area $ S $ is given by

S = \int_a^b 2\pi y , ds,

where $ ds = \sqrt{1 + \left( \frac{dy}{dx} \right)^2} \, dx $ represents the arc length element. This derivation parallels the volume shell method by considering thin cylindrical bands along the curve, with the lateral surface area of each band approximated as the circumference $ 2\pi y $ times the slant height $ ds $, rather than height times thickness. The integral sums these contributions, providing an exact measure for smooth surfaces of revolution.[](https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calcii/surfacearea.aspx) In [multivariable calculus](/page/Multivariable_calculus), the shell method generalizes to three-dimensional solids with variable cross-sections by incorporating cylindrical coordinates, facilitating volume computation for more complex geometries. The volume element in cylindrical coordinates is $ dV = r \, dr \, d\theta \, dz $, where the term $ 2\pi r \, dr $ (upon integrating over $ \theta $ from 0 to $ 2\pi $) mirrors the cross-sectional area of a cylindrical [shell](/page/Shell) of [radius](/page/Radius) $ r $ and thickness $ dr $, multiplied by the [height](/page/Height) $ dz $ along the [axis](/page/Axis). This approach is particularly effective for solids where cross-sections vary radially or angularly, such as those bounded by surfaces of revolution or parametric forms, allowing triple integrals to capture the full [3D](/page/3D) structure without restricting to planar regions. For instance, the volume $ V $ of a solid in the region $ 0 \leq \theta \leq 2\pi $, $ r_1(z) \leq r \leq r_2(z) $, $ z_1 \leq z \leq z_2 $ is

V = \int_{z_1}^{z_2} \int_0^{2\pi} \int_{r_1(z)}^{r_2(z)} r , dr , d\theta , dz = 2\pi \int_{z_1}^{z_2} \frac{1}{2} \left[ r_2(z)^2 - r_1(z)^2 \right] dz.

This extension leverages the shell principle to handle variable cross-sectional areas efficiently in 3D settings.[](https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=books) Pappus's centroid theorem offers a non-integral generalization of the shell method for volumes of revolution, stating that the volume $ V $ equals the area $ A $ of the rotating region times the distance $ 2\pi \bar{y} $ traveled by its centroid, or $ V = 2\pi \bar{y} A $, where $ \bar{y} $ is the y-coordinate of the centroid. Similarly, for surface area, the theorem yields $ S = 2\pi \bar{y} L $, with $ L $ the length of the generating curve. This result, attributable to the ancient mathematician Pappus of Alexandria but rigorously proven in modern terms, simplifies computations when centroid locations are known, as it aggregates the shell contributions via the average radius. The theorem connects directly to shell integration, as the volume formula emerges from weighting shell volumes by their radial positions, equivalent to the centroid's influence.[](https://www.math.uh.edu/~jiwenhe/math1431/lectures/lecture23.pdf)

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[PDF] Volumes Using Cylindrical Shells - Penn Math
Standards for Practice and Evaluation: Use the “shell method” to compute volumes of regions. ... common mistakes (using the wrong axis, radius, endpoints ...Missing: calculus | Show results with:calculus
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Calculus II - Surface Area - Pauls Online Math Notes
Nov 16, 2022 · In this section we'll determine the surface area of a solid of revolution ... S=∫2πyds S = ∫ 2 π y d s. since we are rotating about the ...Calculus III · Section 9.11 : Arc Length and... · Paul's Online Notes · Center of Mass
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[PDF] Active Calculus - Multivariable - ScholarWorks@GVSU
Jul 25, 2018 · This text is an extension of the single variable Active Calculus by Matt Boelkins. ... This provides a straightforward computational method for ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Section 6.4 The Centroid of a Region; Pappus' Theorem on Volumes
Dec 4, 2008 · The center of mass of a plate of constant mass density depends only on its shape Ω and falls on a point (¯x, ¯y) that is called the centroid.
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(PDF) Robust volume calculations for Constructive Solid Geometry ...
... computational geometry. During the early stages of this research. it was discovered that the computational geometry/computer graphics community has already.