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Sound clash

A sound clash is a competitive musical battle originating from Jamaican sound system culture, in which rival sound systems—consisting of massive speaker setups, selectors (DJs), MCs (toasters), and engineers—duel by playing exclusive dubplate recordings, rare tracks, and live performances to captivate and win over the crowd, often culminating in one side being declared the victor through audience acclaim or structured judging.^[1]^[2]^[3] Emerging in the late 1940s and early 1950s in Kingston, Jamaica, sound clashes evolved from informal street parties where early sound system operators like Tom Wong, Duke Reid, and Sir Coxsone Dodd vied for popularity by importing and spinning American R&B records, as access to live bands was limited in working-class neighborhoods.^[1]^[2]^[3] By the 1960s, the format intensified with the rise of ska and rocksteady, incorporating instrumental dub versions and competitive "specials" (custom mixes), while the 1970s introduction of reggae and dub techniques by innovators like King Tubby further amplified the technical and sonic rivalry.^[1]^[2] The 1980s marked a pivotal era with the advent of dancehall, transforming clashes into high-stakes spectacles featuring live MC "riddim riding" (rub-a-dub style) and personalized dubplates shouting out the sound system's name, as seen in landmark events like the 1985 four-way clash between Youthman Promotion, Black Scorpio, Arrows, and Jammys featuring Tenor Saw.^[1]^[3] Rules became more formalized, often structured in rounds such as warm-ups, clashes, and finals, with winners determined by crowd energy or point systems, emphasizing elements like bass power, track exclusivity, and lyrical disses.^[1]^[3] Sound clash culture spread globally in the 1990s, influencing hip-hop through pioneers like Kool Herc in New York and fostering international events such as the inaugural World Clash in London in 1993, won by Jamaican crew Bodyguard (with Japanese crew Mighty Crown triumphing in 1999), and ongoing series like Red Bull Culture Clash.^[1]^[2]^[3] Today, it remains a cornerstone of Jamaican heritage, symbolizing community pride, innovation, and resistance, while adapting to digital formats and diverse genres at festivals worldwide, though purists lament the dilution of its raw, analog roots.^[1]^[2]

Origins and history

Early development in Jamaica

In the aftermath of World War II, Kingston, Jamaica, faced significant socioeconomic challenges, including widespread poverty and limited access to entertainment for working-class communities in areas like Trench Town. High costs of imported records from the United States and the scarcity of live bands made traditional music events unaffordable, prompting entrepreneurs to develop mobile sound systems—portable setups of amplifiers, turntables, and large speakers—to bring American rhythm and blues, jazz, and calypso to street parties and dances. These systems emerged in the late 1940s as an innovative solution, allowing operators to host gatherings in public spaces without the need for expensive venues or instruments, thus providing affordable social outlets amid economic hardship.^[4] One of the earliest pioneers was Chinese-Jamaican businessman Tom Wong, who launched the "Tom the Great Sebastian" sound system in the late 1940s, marking the first commercially successful operation of its kind. Wong's setup, equipped with powerful speakers and imported records, drew massive crowds to outdoor events and set the template for future systems by emphasizing volume and exclusivity. Soon after, in the early 1950s, Clement "Coxsone" Dodd established the Downbeat sound system, focusing on scouting local talent and importing rare U.S. R&B tracks to captivate audiences in Kingston's inner-city neighborhoods. Similarly, Duke Reid, a former police officer, introduced the Trojan sound system around the same period, known for its booming bass and selective playlists that created an aura of prestige.^[5]^[4] The competitive spirit of sound systems evolved into the first sound clashes during the 1950s, with the earliest documented confrontation in 1952 between Tom the Great Sebastian and Count Nick. By 1956–1958, rivalries had intensified, as seen in clashes between Dodd's Downbeat and Reid's Trojan, with operators challenging each other at dances to outplay rivals through superior selections and louder setups, judged by audience reactions like cheers or walkouts. These early clashes, often held in working-class venues, not only intensified the cultural role of sound systems but also fostered innovation in music selection and equipment, solidifying their place as central to Jamaican social life.^[6]^[7]

Evolution and global spread

In the 1960s and 1970s, sound clashes evolved significantly with the emergence of reggae and dub music, transforming informal street competitions into more structured battles of sonic prowess. Systems like Stone Love, founded in 1972, played a pivotal role by incorporating heavy basslines and echo effects characteristic of dub, while MCs known as toasters—such as U-Roy—introduced verbal disses and crowd-hyping chants to intensify rivalries.^[5]^[8] This shift marked a departure from mere record playback, emphasizing live improvisation and psychological warfare to "kill" opposing systems by clearing the dancefloor.^[2] The 1980s digital revolution further escalated the intensity of sound clashes through the rise of dancehall, where custom dubplates—exclusive recordings tailored for specific systems—became essential weapons in competitions. Pioneered by producers like King Jammy, these personalized tracks allowed crews to boast and diss rivals directly, heightening the stakes. However, this era also saw clashes turn volatile, with rivalries sometimes spilling into physical confrontations and violence, reflecting broader social tensions in Jamaica.^[8]^[2] Jamaican migration in the late 20th century propelled sound clashes beyond the island, embedding them in diaspora communities worldwide. In the UK during the 1970s, figures like Jah Shaka established influential systems in London's blues parties, blending reggae with local punk and dub scenes to fuel events like Notting Hill Carnival. By the 1970s in the US, particularly New York, sound system techniques influenced hip-hop's birth through DJ Kool Herc's block parties, where breakbeat manipulation echoed clash tactics. The 1990s extended this to Europe, where international "world clash" gatherings adapted the format to diverse audiences, solidifying its cross-cultural appeal.^[2]^[8]^[5] From the 2000s onward, sound clashes institutionalized as global festivals, with Red Bull Culture Clash debuting in 2010 in London and expanding to showcase fusions of dancehall with electronic music and hip-hop. These events professionalized the tradition, attracting international crews and emphasizing creative adaptation over raw aggression, thus broadening its influence in contemporary music scenes.^[9]^[5]

Characteristics

Equipment and setup

Sound clash events rely on elaborate, high-powered audio systems designed to deliver intense bass and overall volume, often reaching 120–130 decibels in competitive "volume wars."^[10] These setups typically feature massive speaker stacks up to 12 feet high and wide, comprising multiple tiers for different frequency ranges: subbass bins for ultra-low frequencies, bass cabinets, midrange horns, and high-frequency tweeters.^[3]^[11] Custom-built amplifiers, often exceeding 30,000 watts for bass output, power these components, while subwoofers—such as 18-inch or larger drivers—emphasize the deep, vibrating lows central to reggae and dancehall.^[12]^[11] Generators are essential for outdoor venues, providing the necessary electricity to sustain prolonged, high-intensity playback without grid reliance.^[13] The technical evolution of sound clash equipment traces back to the 1950s, when pioneers like Hedley Jones constructed the first hand-built valve (tube) amplifiers from surplus parts, paired with wooden speaker boxes for street parties.^[14] By the 1960s, scoop bass bins replaced earlier quad designs, enhancing low-end projection, and systems shifted toward solid-state amplifiers in the 1970s and 1980s for greater reliability and power.^[15] Modern configurations incorporate digital mixers and effects processors, alongside Class D amplifiers for efficiency, allowing systems to handle complex signal processing while maintaining the raw power needed to overpower opponents.^[15] Logistically, these systems demand substantial transport via trucks to venues like yards or festivals, with setups forming a "wall of sound" configuration—speakers arrayed in towering arrays for immersive, directional bass that envelops the crowd.^[3]^[1] Vibration isolation techniques, such as elevated platforms or damping materials under bass bins, help mitigate feedback and structural resonance from the intense low-frequency output.^[16] Innovations in sound clashes have driven custom voicing practices, where engineers tune speakers and crossovers to optimize specific frequencies—often emphasizing sub-100 Hz bass—to create a distinctive "set" sound that dominates rivals.^[17] For instance, systems like Killamanjaro pioneered tailored rigs in the 1980s, integrating exclusive dubplates for enhanced performance edge.^[3]

Musical elements and performance style

Sound clashes revolve around carefully curated track selections that leverage foundational elements of Jamaican music genres. Central to these performances are riddims, instrumental backings that serve as the rhythmic core, often derived from reggae or dancehall productions and replayed with varying vocal overlays to maintain freshness and surprise. Selectors frequently employ acapellas, isolated vocal tracks stripped of instrumentation, to layer over riddims for dynamic remixing during live sets. The pinnacle of exclusivity comes in the form of dubplates, custom one-off recordings pressed on acetate for specific sound systems, where artists like Buju Banton deliver personalized vocals that "big up" their supporting crew or craft anti-rival disses tailored to mock opponents in the clash. These elements allow systems to showcase unreleased material, heightening the competitive edge through rarity and relevance.^[18]^[1] Performance dynamics in sound clashes blend technical precision with theatrical flair, driven by the interplay between selectors (DJs) and MCs (also called deejays or microphone controllers). Selectors cue seamless mixes by juggling multiple decks, transitioning between tracks with techniques like rewinds and drops to sustain momentum and respond to the rival's plays. MCs amplify the energy through boastful patois lyrics—Jamaican Creole delivered with rhythmic cadence—often incorporating chanting, taunts, and call-and-response interactions with the crowd to foster communal hype and psychological dominance. This verbal artistry, rooted in toasting traditions, transforms the clash into a narrative battle, where MCs improvise disses or hype their system's superiority to sway audience allegiance.^[19]^[16] A hallmark of sound clash audio is the intense bass emphasis, particularly in the sub-bass range of 20-60 Hz, which acts as the primary "weapon" to physically overwhelm listeners and rivals alike through visceral vibrations. This low-end dominance, amplified via massive speaker stacks, underscores the genre's roots in reggae and dancehall, where the bassline provides rhythmic propulsion and emotional weight. Selectors enhance dramatic impact with effects such as reverb and echo, applied to vocals or instrumentals to create echoing delays and spatial depth, culminating in tension-building drops that test the limits of the sound system's power.^[16]^[20] Style variations in sound clashes have evolved from the raw, laid-back aesthetics of 1970s reggae—characterized by slower tempos around 60-80 BPM, offbeat skanks, and dub-influenced instrumentals—to the high-energy, aggressive edge of 1990s dancehall, with faster tempos of approximately 90-100 BPM, digital riddims, and rapid-fire MC deliveries. Early clashes emphasized organic, live-feel performances with extended instrumental versions for toasting, while later iterations incorporated synthesized elements, hardcore slang-filled lyrics, and structured rounds favoring explosive dubplate confrontations. This progression reflects broader shifts in Jamaican music production, adapting clash formats to more intense, crowd-testing spectacles.^[1]^[16]

Rules and strategies

Format of a clash

A sound clash event typically follows a structured progression divided into rounds, beginning with an initial non-elimination phase where each competing sound system plays a set to warm up the crowd and establish their presence.^[21] This warm-up, often lasting around 15 minutes per system in formalized settings, allows selectors to showcase their mixing skills and musical selections before advancing to competitive elimination rounds.^[21] Subsequent rounds involve head-to-head battles, where systems alternate turns to outperform one another, with eliminations based on crowd response or judge evaluations until only two remain for the finale.^[1] Preparation for a clash begins well in advance, with sound systems arriving early at the venue to conduct sound checks, ensuring optimal setup and claiming their space on stage or in the field.^[3] Promoters often establish themes, such as contrasting eras like "old school versus new school," to guide the musical focus and heighten rivalry.^[22] During these turns, which typically range from 10 to 20 minutes each, systems play a mix of popular tracks and exclusive dubplates—custom recordings featuring personalized shouts to the system—to build momentum and target opponents.^[10] The event escalates as rounds progress, with shorter time intervals and more intense alternating plays, culminating in a "tune-for-tune" or "dub fi dub" finale where the two finalists exchange tracks until one secures a decisive lead, often reaching 10 approved dubs based on audience cheers.^[21] Clashes are hosted in diverse venues, from outdoor street spaces in Jamaica to indoor halls or festival stages internationally, accommodating crowds that can number in the hundreds to thousands depending on the event scale.^[3] Modern events generally span 2 to 4 hours to maintain energy and safety, a shift from earlier all-night battles that could extend from evening until dawn.^[1] The winner is determined by crowd reaction—measured through cheers or decibel levels—or a panel of judges, emphasizing the event's communal decision-making.^[10] Variations exist between informal street-style clashes, which are impromptu and organic with flexible rules focused on drawing the largest spontaneous crowds, and formal ticketed events that incorporate referees, strict time limits, and safety protocols developed after the 1980s to prevent violence.^[22] In street versions, progression may lack eliminations and rely purely on sustained crowd engagement, while formal clashes, like those at international competitions, enforce technical parity and predefined rounds for fairness.^[10] These adaptations ensure clashes remain vibrant across global contexts, from Jamaican dancehalls to urban festivals.^[3]

Common tactics and judging

In sound clashes, selectors often employ baiting tactics by playing popular tracks to provoke rivals into responding, only to counter with a superior version or exclusive dubplate that elicits stronger crowd approval.^[1]^[23] Dropping acapellas—performing live vocals over an opponent's riddim—serves as a direct challenge, allowing the selector to showcase lyrical prowess and undermine the rival's instrumental foundation.^[1] Psychological elements are integral, with MCs delivering taunts to unsettle opponents and rally the audience, such as mocking a rival's selection or heritage to shift crowd sentiment.^[23]^[1] Advanced strategies include versioning, where selectors remix an opponent's tune live to expose weaknesses or amplify strengths, often using custom dubplates tailored for the clash.^[1]^[23] Feints involve faking a major drop to build anticipation before subverting expectations with an unexpected track, testing the rival's adaptability.^[1] Endurance tests push systems to outlast opponents through prolonged sets, as seen in clashes extending up to eight hours, demanding sustained energy and deep catalogs.^[1] These tactics emphasize originality in track selection and high-energy delivery to maintain momentum across rounds.^[10] Judging in sound clashes relies primarily on crowd reaction, with cheers, dancing, and "forwards" calls indicating dominance, while walkouts or silence signal defeat; there is no formal scoring system in traditional events.^[1]^[21] In cases of ties, a neutral MC or promoter may intervene to declare a winner based on overall impact.^[1] Informal points are awarded for originality, such as unique remixes, and sustained energy that keeps the audience engaged.^[10]^[21] While effective, these tactics carry risks, including equipment sabotage or physical altercations stemming from heated rivalries, though modern rules enforced by promoters stress fair play, equal equipment access, and prohibitions on destructive behavior to prevent escalation.^[24]^[10]

Notable sound clashes

Historical clashes in Jamaica

In the 1970s, sound clashes in Jamaica transitioned from rocksteady to the emerging reggae genre, building on the legendary rivalry between Duke Reid's Trojan sound system and Clement "Coxsone" Dodd's Downbeat, which had defined competitions since the 1950s.^[1]^[25] This era saw the introduction of exclusive "specials"—custom acetate recordings tailored for specific sound systems—allowing selectors to play unique versions of tracks that resonated with crowds through nostalgia for earlier ska and rocksteady hits.^[1] Ongoing rivalries in the 1970s utilized ska and rocksteady classics to evoke strong audience responses.^[6] The 1980s marked a landmark period for sound clashes as dancehall took hold, with live MCs and "rub-a-dub" styles amplifying the competitive energy. A pivotal 1985 four-way clash featuring Youth Promotions, Jammys, Black Scorpio, and Arrows introduced innovative use of custom dubplates, including Tenor Saw's breakthrough performance of "Ring the Alarm," which helped define the era's vocal prowess.^[1] Another iconic event in 1988 pitted Killamanjaro against Silverhawk at Skateland, contrasting live DJ disses from Ninjaman with pre-recorded dubplates; Killamanjaro won through Ninjaman's commanding live performance, popularizing MC verbal battles as a core tactic and influencing future clashes.^[1] These events highlighted the growing role of exclusive recordings, transitioning toward more advanced production techniques that blurred lines between live and dubbed performances. By the 1990s, sound clashes had become massive spectacles in Jamaica, drawing thousands and solidifying the format's cultural dominance. A notable 1997 confrontation between Stone Love and Metro Media in Kingston attracted over 10,000 attendees, where Stone Love clinched victory through an exclusive Shabba Ranks track that energized the crowd and showcased superior selector strategy.^[26] These pre-2000 clashes collectively spurred the annual production of numerous dubplates—custom vocals often naming rival systems for added sting—escalating their use in the 1990s and sharpening dancehall's competitive edge by incentivizing artists and producers to create tailored content for sonic dominance.^[27]^[1]

Modern international events

The Red Bull Culture Clash series, launched in 2010, has become a prominent platform for modern sound clashes outside Jamaica, adapting the format to urban and electronic genres while maintaining competitive rounds judged by crowd energy. The inaugural event took place on February 27, 2010, at London's Roundhouse, featuring four crews: Metalheadz (drum and bass led by Goldie), Skream and Benga (dubstep), Soul Jazz (eclectic funk and soul), and Channel One (reggae and dancehall), with Channel One emerging victorious through high-energy dubplates and bass-heavy selections.^[28] This event marked the series' emphasis on genre clashes, drawing from Jamaican sound system traditions to create indoor battles with multiple stages. In the United States, the series expanded with the 2013 New York edition at Roseland Ballroom, pitting hip-hop producers Just Blaze and Young Guru against Federation Sound (reggae/dancehall), Que Bajo?! (tropical bass), and Trouble & Bass (electronic bass music including dubstep elements), where Trouble & Bass won by leveraging sub-bass drops and MC hype to energize the crowd.^[29] The 2017 Atlanta debut further localized the format, hosted by DJ Drama and featuring crews like 300 (trap and bassline), Crime Mob (Southern hip-hop), and Dynasty Muzik (electronic and Caribbean fusions), with Unruly emerging as the winner and highlighting the city's trap dominance with explosive performances that incorporated Atlanta's signature 808-heavy production.^[30] These U.S. events showcased adaptations like integrating trap rhythms and live MC battles, scaling up to arena venues for broader appeal. Europe saw continued growth, exemplified by the 2014 London event at Earls Court, where A$AP Mob (U.S. hip-hop) clashed with Boy Better Know (UK grime), Rebel Sound (dubstep and drum & bass led by Chase & Status and David Rodigan), and Stone Love (traditional reggae), with Rebel Sound securing the win via innovative dubstep-reggae blends and surprise guests.^[31] The 2016 Rotterdam edition at Ahoy arena extended this to continental Europe, featuring crews like Eskimo Dance (grime and bassline), Mixpak (hip-hop and global bass), UKG All Stars (UK garage), and Taylor Gang (hip-hop led by Wiz Khalifa), emphasizing cross-cultural fusions in a festival-like setting.^[32] In Asia, Japan's vibrant sound clash scene has flourished since the 2000s, led by Mighty Crown, a Yokohama-based system founded in 1991 that became Japan's undefeated clash champion by 1998 and gained international recognition with wins at events like the 2004 UK Cup Clash.^[33] Mighty Crown participated in major clashes such as the 2018 World Clash at Reggae Sumfest in Jamaica, where they triumphed, and domestic events like Japan Rumble, blending reggae with J-pop influences and featuring international rivals.^[34]^[35] The group retired in 2023 after 30 years, culminating in the Far East Reggae Cruise, but Japan's scene persists through festivals incorporating clash elements, such as reggae fusions at events tied to the Fuji Rock Festival's dancehall stages as of 2025.^[36] These international events have evolved the sound clash by incorporating EDM elements like dubstep drops and hip-hop trap beats alongside traditional reggae, often with enhanced productions including LED visuals, pyrotechnics, and diverse multicultural lineups to attract global audiences.^[37] For instance, Rebel Sound's 2014 victory highlighted seamless genre switches with visual effects, while U.S. clashes emphasized hip-hop MC rivalries over pure selector battles.^[31]

Cultural significance

Influence on music and production

Sound clashes have significantly shaped music production practices within reggae and dancehall, particularly through the widespread adoption of dubplates—exclusive, custom-recorded versions of tracks tailored for specific sound systems. These one-off recordings, often featuring personalized lyrics or shout-outs to the commissioning crew, emerged in the 1960s and 1970s under pioneers like King Tubby, who created "specials" to give systems a competitive edge during clashes by boasting about their superiority or dissing opponents.^[38] This practice not only popularized remix culture but also encouraged artists to produce variant mixes emphasizing bass, echoes, and reverb, techniques that became foundational to dub production and influenced broader electronic music genres.^[2] Dubplates typically cost several hundred to thousands of dollars to commission, depending on the artist's prominence and production complexity, fostering a direct economic link between clashes and studio output.^[39] The competitive nature of sound clashes has directly influenced genre crossovers, most notably in the development of hip-hop battles and rap rivalries. Jamaican immigrants like DJ Kool Herc brought sound system techniques to 1970s Bronx block parties, where breakbeat manipulation and MC toasting—verbal sparring over instrumentals—evolved into hip-hop's core elements, with clashes serving as the blueprint for competitive performances.^[40] This legacy extended to rap beefs and mixtape culture, where artists release diss tracks or exclusive mixes to one-up rivals, mirroring the exclusive "specials" used in Jamaican clashes to surprise and dominate opponents.^[2] For instance, the format inspired modern events like Verzuz, where producers battle with curated sets, underscoring the enduring impact on hip-hop's rivalry-driven production strategies.^[41] Recent iterations, such as the Red Bull Culture Clash in London in March 2025 (won by the Spice Army), demonstrate the format's continued global relevance, though challenges like AI-generated dubplates raise concerns about preserving exclusivity in production.^[42]^[43] Technological advances in audio equipment and software have been propelled by the demands of sound clashes, where systems must deliver overwhelming volume and clarity to "kill" competitors. Jamaican crews innovated custom speaker stacks and amplifiers in the mid-20th century, contributing to the development of high-powered audio equipment optimized for deep bass reproduction, which became essential for the low-frequency emphasis in reggae and dancehall. In the digital era, clashes accelerated the adoption of DJ software such as Serato DJ Pro, which enables real-time remixing, stem separation, and effects application—tools that replicate the live editing once done via dubplates and turntables, allowing selectors to adapt tracks on the fly during battles.^[44] Economically, sound clashes generate substantial revenue through ticket sales, merchandise, and related activities, often funding further artist collaborations and production. In Jamaica, entertainment events including clashes contributed approximately JMD 71 billion (about US$500 million) to the economy between 2012 and 2016, supporting jobs in music creation and event logistics while incentivizing custom recordings that sustain studio economies.^[45] These battles, drawing crowds to pay-per-view or in-person sessions, have evolved into international spectacles that bolster collaborations, as winning systems leverage their prestige to secure exclusive dubplates from top artists.^[38] Sound clashes have long served as vital social hubs in Jamaican communities, particularly for youth in urban areas like Kingston's ghettos, where they provide spaces for collective expression, pride in local identity, and networking among participants and audiences. These events foster a sense of belonging by transforming public spaces into arenas of cultural affirmation, where sound systems represent neighborhood loyalties and draw crowds that reinforce communal bonds through shared musical experiences.^[16] In the diaspora, such as in the UK, sound clashes at Caribbean festivals like Notting Hill Carnival strengthen immigrant identities by bridging generational gaps and preserving Jamaican heritage amid cultural displacement, allowing participants to reclaim agency in multicultural settings.^[46] Historically male-dominated, sound clashes have seen increasing female participation, with pioneering MCs like Lady Saw in the 1990s challenging gender norms through bold performances that highlighted women's agency in dancehall spaces. Modern events promote diversity by incorporating multicultural elements and inclusive lineups, encouraging broader representation and countering traditional exclusions in a field once centered on male selectors and deejays.^[47]^[48] Despite their vibrancy, sound clashes have faced challenges from gang affiliations and violence, particularly in the 1980s when political tensions in Jamaica linked sound systems to rival factions, leading to equipment destruction and crowd disturbances during clashes. Promoters have since implemented safety measures, such as codes of conduct and neutral venues, to mitigate risks and prioritize community well-being over confrontation.^[49]^[16] Globally, sound clashes empower marginalized voices by amplifying lyrics that address inequality, influencing activism in diaspora communities where they inspire social commentary on issues like racism and economic disparity. This legacy positions clashes as tools for resistance, extending Jamaican dancehall's role in fostering transnational dialogues on justice and cultural empowerment.^[50]^[51]

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Rave, Rap and the Remix: The Jamaican Sound System's Influence ...
Jun 11, 2015 · “The sound system influence is undeniable in hip-hop, in ... battles (primarily musical, occasionally physical), referred to as clashes.
[39]
How Jamaican sound clashes inspired Verzuz and hip-hop culture
Feb 18, 2022 · TheGrio breaks down how hip-hop culture and the Verzuz series were heavily influenced by the sound clash, originating from 1950s Jamaica.
[40]
[PDF] Disruptive Technology in Sound Clash Culture: Narratives of ...
and McLauchlan (2018) noted that dancehall music during the 1980s became heavily influenced by hip-hop exhibiting elements of fashion, politics and music.
[41]
Senior Lecturer Says Entertainment Events Contribute Much to ...
Feb 20, 2019 · Entertainment events contributed some $71 billion to the Jamaican economy between 2012 and 2016, with 1.9 million people employed in various positions.
[42]
Reggae Sound Systems from Jamaica to the UK
An historical overview of Jamaican Sound System culture in Coventry, UK, from the 1950s to the 1990s. Includes interviews with local sound system pioneers ...
[43]
Sound Clash - Jamaican Dancehall Culture at Large
... sound clash between what could be heard as a celebratory roll call of these many guns and the DJ's indictment of the culture of gun violence in Jamaica.
[44]
Female Agency and Oppression in Caribbean Bacchanalian Culture
The incessant fetishization of women in dancehall and other perfor mance spaces necessitates a reexamination of such optimism. Are these female sexual ...
[45]
[PDF] Jamaican Politics, Nationalism, and Musical Culture in Transition ...
May 18, 2007 · The transformation in from reggae to dancehall, understood in tandem with political changes and the evolution of. Jamaican nationalism, provides ...Missing: global | Show results with:global<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
Carolyn Cooper, Sound Clash: Jamaican Dancehall Culture at Large
Carolyn Cooper's "Sound Clash: Jamaican Dancehall Culture at Large" offers a comprehensive analysis of Jamaican dancehall culture.Missing: building | Show results with:building
[47]
Babylon Falling: 60 Years of Resistance in Sound System Culture
Sound system culture and sound system music have been important weapons of resistance against the status quo and a powerful medium to call out social injustice.