Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Spin quantum number

The spin quantum number, denoted as s, is a fundamental quantum number in quantum mechanics that describes the intrinsic angular momentum, known as spin, possessed by elementary particles such as electrons, quarks, and photons, as well as composite particles like atomic nuclei.^[1] This intrinsic spin is a purely quantum mechanical property with no direct classical analog, unlike orbital angular momentum, and it determines both the magnitude of the spin angular momentum operator \mathbf{S}, given by |\mathbf{S}| = \sqrt{s(s+1)} \hbar where \hbar is the reduced Planck's constant, and the possible eigenvalues of its z-component S_z = m_s \hbar, with m_s ranging from -s to +s in integer steps.^[1] The value of s can be either an integer (0, 1, 2, ...) for bosons like photons (s = 1) or a half-integer (1/2, 3/2, ...) for fermions like electrons (s = 1/2), fundamentally classifying particles and governing their behavior under the Pauli exclusion principle, which prohibits identical fermions from occupying the same quantum state.^[2] The concept of electron spin was first proposed in 1925 by George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit to explain the fine structure observed in atomic spectra, particularly the anomalous Zeeman effect, where they hypothesized that electrons possess an intrinsic angular momentum of \hbar/2 in addition to their orbital motion.^[3] Their seminal paper, "Ersetzung der Hypothese vom unmechanischen Zwang durch eine Forderung bezüglich des inneren Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Elektrons" published in Die Naturwissenschaften, introduced spin as a fourth quantum number (m_s = \pm 1/2) alongside the principal (n), azimuthal (l), and magnetic (m_l) quantum numbers, resolving discrepancies in spectral lines that classical models could not account for.^[4] This proposal faced initial skepticism from prominent physicists like Wolfgang Pauli and Niels Bohr due to relativistic concerns about a spinning electron's size, but it was soon validated experimentally through Stern-Gerlach deflection experiments and integrated into the developing framework of quantum mechanics. In modern physics, the spin quantum number plays a pivotal role in diverse phenomena, from the magnetic properties of materials—where unpaired electron spins contribute to ferromagnetism—to particle physics, where spin statistics dictate whether particles obey Bose-Einstein or Fermi-Dirac statistics, influencing everything from superconductivity to the stability of atoms.^[5] For instance, the spin-1/2 nature of electrons ensures that each atomic orbital can hold at most two electrons with opposite spins, underpinning the building-block structure of the periodic table and enabling technologies like MRI scanners that exploit nuclear spin alignments. Beyond electrons, higher-spin particles like the spin-1 W and Z bosons mediate weak interactions in the Standard Model, highlighting spin's ubiquity in fundamental forces.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition

The spin quantum number s is a fundamental quantum mechanical property that characterizes the intrinsic angular momentum of elementary particles and composite systems, independent of any spatial motion. Unlike orbital angular momentum, which arises from a particle's position and momentum in space and is quantified by the azimuthal quantum number l, spin is an inherent attribute not associated with classical rotation or orbital dynamics.^[6]^[7] The magnitude of this intrinsic spin angular momentum is given by \sqrt{s(s+1)} \hbar, where \hbar is the reduced Planck's constant, and s is fixed for each particle type.^[8] The possible values of s are either integers (0, 1, 2, ...) or half-integers (1/2, 3/2, ...), leading to a spin multiplicity of $2s + 1, which represents the number of possible orientations of the spin angular momentum along a given axis.^[6] For instance, electrons have s = 1/2, resulting in a multiplicity of 2 and thus two possible spin states (often denoted as "up" and "down"), while photons possess s = 1, but only two polarization states corresponding to helicities ±1.^[9]^[10] Particles with half-integer spin, known as fermions, obey the Pauli exclusion principle, prohibiting identical fermions from occupying the same quantum state, a key factor in the structure of matter.^[11]

Nomenclature

In quantum mechanics, the intrinsic spin angular momentum of a particle is characterized by the spin quantum number s, a non-negative value that determines the magnitude of the spin through the eigenvalue equation \mathbf{S}^2 |s, m_s\rangle = s(s+1) \hbar^2 |s, m_s\rangle. The z-component projection of this spin is described by the quantum number m_s, which takes discrete values m_s = -s, -s+1, \dots, s-1, s.^[9] Standard conventions in quantum mechanics literature denote the spin angular momentum as the vector operator \mathbf{S}, with Cartesian components S_x, S_y, and S_z. The eigenvalue of the z-component operator S_z is given by S_z |s, m_s\rangle = m_s \hbar |s, m_s\rangle, where \hbar is the reduced Planck's constant.^[9]/10%3A_Pauli_Spin_Matrices/10.1%3A_Spin_Operators The degeneracy of the spin states, or spin multiplicity, is quantified by $2s + 1, representing the number of possible m_s values. This leads to common terminology for specific cases: a state with s = 0 has multiplicity 1 and is termed a singlet; s = 1/2 yields multiplicity 2, called a doublet; and s = 1 gives multiplicity 3, known as a triplet.^[9]/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Evaluating_Spin_Multiplicity In atomic spectroscopy, the Russell-Saunders (LS) coupling scheme employs term symbols to label energy levels accounting for spin-orbit interactions. These symbols take the form ^{2S+1}L_J, where uppercase S denotes the total spin quantum number of the electrons, L is the total orbital angular momentum quantum number (represented by letters such as S for L=0, P for L=1, D for L=2, etc.), and J is the total angular momentum quantum number arising from the vector sum of L and S./Spectroscopy/Electronic_Spectroscopy/Spin-orbit_Coupling/The_Russell_Saunders_Coupling_Scheme)^[12]

Historical Development

Early Concepts

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, observations of atomic spectra revealed puzzling discrepancies that could not be accounted for by classical orbital angular momentum alone. The Zeeman effect, discovered in 1896, described the splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field, but for many atoms, the splitting patterns—known as the anomalous Zeeman effect—deviated from expectations based solely on orbital motion, suggesting an additional source of magnetic interaction.^[13] Similarly, measurements of atomic magnetic moments often yielded values that exceeded predictions from orbital contributions, indicating the presence of unexplained intrinsic magnetism in atoms.^[3] The Bohr-Sommerfeld model of 1913–1916 extended the Bohr atomic model by incorporating elliptical orbits and relativistic corrections to explain fine structure in hydrogen spectra, yet it failed to fully account for the observed fine splitting in multi-electron atoms or the anomalous Zeeman patterns without invoking ad hoc adjustments.^[14] These limitations highlighted the need for an additional angular momentum degree of freedom beyond orbital motion. In 1915, Albert Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas provided early experimental evidence for a coupling between spin-like angular momentum and magnetic moments through their demonstration of rotational effects in demagnetized ferromagnets, where changes in magnetization induced mechanical rotation, consistent with conservation of angular momentum in atomic-scale currents.^[15] By 1919, Otto Stern proposed a theoretical framework for measuring atomic magnetic moments using molecular beams in inhomogeneous fields, serving as a precursor to direct tests of intrinsic angular momentum quantization.^[16] In 1922, Arthur Compton's scattering experiments further implied that electrons behaved as particles with momentum, raising questions about their internal properties, including potential intrinsic spin, as classical wave models struggled to explain the results.^[17] These pre-1925 anomalies set the stage for the development of quantum mechanics, where the concept of electron spin would resolve many of these inconsistencies.

Key Theoretical Advances

In 1925, George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit proposed that the electron possesses an intrinsic angular momentum, or spin, with quantum number s = 1/2, to account for the anomalous Zeeman effect observed in atomic spectra. This idea arose from their analysis of spectral multiplets, where the splitting patterns suggested an additional degree of freedom beyond the orbital angular momentum, initially modeled as a classical spinning top with a magnetic moment of one Bohr magneton. Although Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit initially hesitated due to concerns about unphysically high rotation speeds and radiation losses implied by a classical interpretation, they quantized the spin motion, assigning it the value \hbar/2 based on the old quantum theory. Their proposal was influenced by Wolfgang Pauli's earlier 1925 exclusion principle, which required a fourth quantum number for electrons to explain atomic structure, prompting the interpretation of this degree as spin. A key resolution to classical inconsistencies in the Uhlenbeck-Goudsmit model came in 1926 from Llewellyn Thomas, who introduced the concept of Thomas precession—a relativistic kinematic effect arising from the electron's motion in an electric field. This precession halves the expected spin-orbit coupling energy, yielding a gyromagnetic ratio, or g-factor, of 2 for the electron spin, consistent with the observed fine structure in hydrogen spectra without invoking ad hoc adjustments. Thomas's calculation demonstrated that the relativistic transformation between the lab frame and the electron's rest frame accounts for the factor of 1/2 in the spin-orbit interaction, aligning the theoretical magnetic moment with experimental values.^[18] In 1927, Pauli provided a formal quantum mechanical framework for spin-1/2 particles by extending Schrödinger's wave mechanics to include the magnetic electron. He introduced a two-component wave function and the three Pauli matrices \sigma_x, \sigma_y, \sigma_z, which serve as operators for the spin angular momentum components, satisfying the commutation relations [\sigma_i, \sigma_j] = 2i \epsilon_{ijk} \sigma_k. These matrices enabled the description of spin-orbit interactions and the Zeeman effect within non-relativistic quantum mechanics, with the Pauli equation incorporating the electron's magnetic moment. The anticommutation relations \{ \sigma_i, \sigma_j \} = 2 \delta_{ij} I emerged naturally from this representation, laying the groundwork for fermionic statistics. The culmination of these advances occurred in 1928 when Paul Dirac developed a relativistic wave equation for the electron, inherently incorporating spin as a consequence of Lorentz invariance and linearity in the Dirac matrices.^[19] Dirac's formulation resolved remaining inconsistencies in the non-relativistic treatments, such as the fine structure and the g-factor of 2, by predicting both positive and negative energy solutions for spin-1/2 particles.^[19] This theory unified quantum mechanics with special relativity, establishing spin as a fundamental intrinsic property rather than an add-on.^[19]

Spin in Elementary Particles

Electron Spin

The electron possesses an intrinsic angular momentum characterized by the spin quantum number s = \frac{1}{2}, a fundamental property proposed by George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit in 1925 to explain the fine structure of atomic spectra.^[20] This half-integer value distinguishes electrons as fermions and gives rise to two possible projections of the spin angular momentum along a quantization axis, denoted by the magnetic spin quantum number m_s = \pm \frac{1}{2}, conventionally referred to as spin-up (m_s = +\frac{1}{2}) and spin-down (m_s = -\frac{1}{2}) states.^[6] These states represent the only allowed orientations for an electron's spin in a given magnetic field, reflecting the quantized nature of spin as an internal degree of freedom rather than classical rotation.^[21] The spin of the electron generates a magnetic dipole moment, given by

\boldsymbol{\mu} = -g \mu_B \frac{\mathbf{S}}{\hbar},

where \mu_B is the Bohr magneton, \mathbf{S} is the spin angular momentum operator, and g \approx 2 is the electron's spin g-factor, which arises naturally from the Dirac relativistic quantum theory of the electron formulated in 1928.^[19] This near-exact value of 2 (with small quantum electrodynamic corrections) implies that the magnetic moment is twice as large as expected from a simple orbital analogy, leading to significant interactions in external fields.^[22] Additionally, the spin couples with the electron's orbital motion through the spin-orbit interaction, producing an effective magnetic field in the electron's rest frame that shifts energy levels; the interaction Hamiltonian is proportional to \mathbf{L} \cdot \mathbf{S}, where \mathbf{L} is the orbital angular momentum, and this relativistic effect fine-tunes atomic spectra and influences selection rules in transitions.^[23] The Pauli exclusion principle, formulated by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925, states that no two electrons in an atom can occupy the same quantum state, meaning they cannot share identical values for the principal quantum number n, orbital quantum number l, magnetic quantum number m_l, and spin quantum number m_s.^[24] This principle, directly tied to the s = \frac{1}{2} nature of electron spin, enforces that each spatial orbital can hold at most two electrons with opposite spins, which underpins the building of electron shells and subshells, thereby explaining the structure of the periodic table and the chemical properties of elements./University_Physics_III_-Optics_and_Modern_Physics(OpenStax)/08%3A_Atomic_Structure/8.05%3A_The_Exclusion_Principle_and_the_Periodic_Table) In chemical contexts, electron spin plays a key role in molecular magnetism and reactivity; atoms or molecules with unpaired electrons exhibit paramagnetism due to the net magnetic moment from aligned spins, as seen in transition metal complexes and oxygen./Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Atomic_and_Molecular_Properties/Magnetic_Properties) Free radicals, such as the hydroxyl radical (OH•), possess one or more unpaired electrons, making them highly reactive species that drive processes like atmospheric chemistry and polymerization, with their spin states influencing bond formation and stability.^[25] Experimentally, the electron's spin response to a magnetic field is quantified by its electron spin resonance (ESR) frequency, approximately 28 GHz in a 1 T field, corresponding to the gyromagnetic ratio \gamma_e / 2\pi \approx 28.025 GHz/T for a free electron.^[26]

Nuclear and Other Particle Spins

The nuclear spin quantum number I characterizes the intrinsic angular momentum of atomic nuclei, arising from the spins of constituent protons and neutrons, each with spin i = 1/2. For composite nuclei, I depends on nucleon pairing: even-even nuclei (even protons and even neutrons) typically have I = 0, as in ^{12}\mathrm{C}, while odd nucleon numbers yield half-integer or integer values, such as I = 1/2 for ^{13}\mathrm{C} due to its seven neutrons./Spectroscopy/Magnetic_Resonance_Spectroscopies/Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance/NMR_-_Theory)^[27]/19%3A_Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance_Spectroscopy/19.01%3A_Theory_of_Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance) Nuclear spin I > 0 produces a magnetic dipole moment that interacts with the magnetic field from atomic electrons, causing hyperfine splitting in spectral lines and fine details in atomic energy levels. This effect is observable in atomic spectra and enables techniques like nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for nuclei with I > 0, which aligns spins in a magnetic field to reveal molecular environments through resonance frequencies. For example, deuterium (^2\mathrm{H}) with I = 1 exhibits an electric quadrupole moment from its prolate charge distribution, influencing NMR line shapes via quadrupolar interactions.^[28]/19%3A_Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance_Spectroscopy/19.01%3A_Theory_of_Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance)/Spectroscopy/Magnetic_Resonance_Spectroscopies/Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance/NMR_-_Theory/NMR_Interactions/Quadrupolar_Coupling) In particle physics, spins extend to fundamental constituents beyond nucleons. Protons and neutrons, as baryons, have total spin s = 1/2, composed of three quarks each with s = 1/2. Gluons, the force carriers of the strong interaction, possess spin s = 1, while the Higgs boson is a scalar particle with spin s = 0. These assignments align with the Standard Model classification.^[27]^[29]^[30] The spin value determines particle statistics via the spin-statistics theorem: half-integer spins (s = 1/2, 3/2, \ldots) classify particles as fermions, obeying Fermi-Dirac statistics and the Pauli exclusion principle, as seen in quarks and nucleons. Integer spins (s = 0, 1, 2, \ldots) denote bosons, following Bose-Einstein statistics and permitting Bose-Einstein condensation, exemplified by gluons and the Higgs boson. This connection underpins quantum field theory and matter's quantum behavior./19%3A_Atoms/19.01%3A_Fermions_and_Bosons)^[31]

Experimental Observation

Stern-Gerlach Experiment

The Stern-Gerlach experiment, conducted in 1922 by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach at the University of Frankfurt, provided the first direct experimental evidence for the quantization of atomic magnetic moments, a key prediction of early quantum theory.^[32] The setup involved evaporating silver atoms from an oven heated to approximately 1000°C, forming a collimated beam through narrow slits (about 0.03 mm wide) to ensure a well-defined path.^[33] This beam then passed through an inhomogeneous magnetic field generated by an electromagnet with pole pieces producing a field strength of around 0.1 tesla and a gradient of about 10 tesla per centimeter over a 3.5 cm length.^[33] Silver was selected because its ground-state configuration features a single unpaired valence electron, resulting in a net magnetic moment dominated by this electron's properties, simplifying the interpretation.^[33] Classically, the experiment was expected to produce a continuous spread of deflections on a detector screen, as the random orientations of atomic magnetic moments relative to the field gradient would cause a range of forces and thus a smeared line rather than discrete spots.^[34] However, the observed results defied this prediction: the silver beam split into two distinct spots separated by approximately 0.2 mm on the detector plate, corresponding to upward and downward deflections.^[34]^[33] This bifurcation indicated that the atoms' magnetic moments could only orient in two discrete directions along the field gradient, with deflections proportional to the projection quantum number m_j = \pm 1/2.^[32] The interpretation of these results established the quantization of the spin projection, refuting classical models of continuously varying angular momentum vectors and confirming Niels Bohr's concept of space quantization.^[34] The measured magnetic moment was approximately one Bohr magneton, aligning with expectations for a spin-1/2 system where the projection m_s = \pm 1/2 determines the force F_z = -\mu_z \frac{\partial B_z}{\partial z}, with \mu_z being the z-component of the magnetic moment.^[33] This experiment later became foundational for understanding electron spin, as the unpaired electron in silver atoms primarily governs the observed effect.^[34] The experiment's success relied on precise apparatus alignment, with slit tolerances under 0.01 mm, and was limited to paramagnetic atoms like silver that possess a net magnetic moment; diamagnetic atoms, with paired electrons and no such moment, would show no deflection.^[33]

Spectroscopic Methods

Spectroscopic methods measure spin quantum numbers indirectly by detecting energy transitions between spin states induced by external magnetic fields and electromagnetic radiation. These techniques exploit the Zeeman effect, where spin angular momentum interacts with the field to split energy levels, allowing resonance absorption when the radiation frequency matches the splitting energy. The general resonance condition is h\nu = g \mu B, where h is Planck's constant, \nu the radiation frequency, g the gyromagnetic ratio, \mu the magnetic moment, and B the magnetic field strength; this makes the methods highly sensitive to local magnetic environments, including those from nearby atoms or defects.^[35] Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR), also called Electron Spin Resonance (ESR), detects unpaired electrons in paramagnetic materials through absorption of microwave radiation in a static magnetic field. The energy splitting between spin states follows \Delta E = g \mu_B B, with g the electron g-factor (approximately 2 for free electrons), \mu_B the Bohr magneton, and B the field; resonance occurs when microwaves bridge this gap, yielding spectra that reveal spin concentrations, interactions, and dynamics. EPR was discovered in 1945 by Evgenii Zavoisky, who observed paramagnetic absorption in salts.^[36] Today, it is routinely applied in materials science to characterize defects, transition metal ions, and free radicals in solids, providing insights into electronic structure and reactivity.^[37] Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy probes nuclear spins, such as those of hydrogen or carbon-13, using radiofrequency pulses in a magnetic field to induce transitions between aligned and anti-aligned states. Spectra display chemical shifts, which quantify the influence of local electron density shielding the nuclear spin from the external field, and J-couplings, which arise from indirect through-bond interactions between neighboring nuclear spins mediated by electrons.^[38] NMR was independently developed by Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell in 1946, earning them the Nobel Prize for revealing nuclear magnetic moments.^[39] In materials science, it elucidates molecular structures, dynamics, and bonding in complex systems like polymers and catalysts. Other techniques include Mössbauer spectroscopy, which observes nuclear spin transitions through recoilless emission and absorption of gamma rays from excited nuclei, offering high-resolution probes of hyperfine interactions and spin states in solids, especially for iron-57.^[40] Optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) enhances sensitivity by optically exciting spin systems and detecting resonance via changes in fluorescence, commonly used for shallow spins in semiconductors and diamond defects.^[41] These methods collectively enable precise, non-destructive characterization of spin properties across atomic, molecular, and solid-state scales.

Mathematical Framework

Relation to Spin Angular Momentum

The spin quantum number s labels the intrinsic angular momentum associated with elementary particles and composite systems, formalized through the spin angular momentum operator \mathbf{S}. This operator acts on the Hilbert space of the particle's spin degrees of freedom, with eigenvalues determined by s. The magnitude of the spin angular momentum vector is \sqrt{s(s+1)} \hbar, reflecting the quantum mechanical quantization of its squared magnitude \mathbf{S}^2 = s(s+1) \hbar^2. The component along any chosen quantization axis, conventionally the z-axis, is S_z = m_s \hbar, where m_s takes discrete values from -s to +s in integer steps.^[42]^[43] The spin operators S_x, S_y, and S_z obey the fundamental commutation relations of angular momentum algebra: [S_x, S_y] = i \hbar S_z, with cyclic permutations for the other pairs. These relations ensure that \mathbf{S} behaves as a vector operator under rotations, paralleling the structure of orbital angular momentum \mathbf{L} but arising intrinsically rather than from spatial degrees of freedom. For spin-1/2 particles like the electron, s = 1/2, yielding m_s = \pm 1/2 and a magnitude \sqrt{3/4} \hbar \approx 0.866 \hbar, distinct from the z-component projections of \pm \hbar/2.^[43] In the semiclassical interpretation, the expectation value \langle \mathbf{S} \rangle for a state with definite m_s precesses on a sphere of radius \sqrt{s(s+1)} \hbar, but for large s, such as in nuclear spins, the discreteness fades, and \langle |\mathbf{S}| \rangle \approx s \hbar, approaching a classical vector of fixed length s \hbar with continuous orientation. This quantum-to-classical transition highlights the underlying vector nature while preserving the non-commutativity that forbids simultaneous precise knowledge of all components. However, the inherent discreteness in m_s ensures that measurements yield quantized projections, underscoring the quantum origin even in high-spin limits.^[43] When subjected to an external magnetic field \mathbf{B} along the z-axis, the spin Hamiltonian H = - \boldsymbol{\mu} \cdot \mathbf{B}, with magnetic moment \boldsymbol{\mu} = - [g](/page/G) \mu_B \mathbf{S} / \hbar (where \mu_B is the Bohr magneton and g \approx 2 for free electrons), induces time evolution equivalent to precession of \langle \mathbf{S} \rangle around \mathbf{B} at the Larmor frequency \omega = [g](/page/G) \mu_B B / \hbar. For electrons, this yields \omega \approx 1.76 \times 10^{11} rad/s per tesla, enabling phenomena like electron spin resonance. This precession arises from the phase accumulation in the spinor components, maintaining the fixed magnitude while rotating the expectation value vector.^[43]

Algebraic Representation

The algebraic structure of the spin quantum number is captured by the Lie algebra of the special unitary group SU(2), whose generators are the spin operators S_x, S_y, and S_z. These operators satisfy the commutation relations [S_x, S_y] = i \hbar S_z and cyclic permutations thereof, which define the su(2) Lie algebra.^[44] The Casimir operator \mathbf{S}^2 = S_x^2 + S_y^2 + S_z^2 commutes with each generator, [\mathbf{S}^2, S_i] = 0, and in any irreducible representation labeled by the spin quantum number s, it acts as the scalar multiple \mathbf{S}^2 = s(s+1) \hbar^2 I, where I is the identity operator on the (2s+1)-dimensional Hilbert space.^[44] These finite-dimensional irreducible representations of su(2) are unique up to unitary equivalence for each half-integer or integer s \geq 0, with the dimension $2s+1 determining the number of possible magnetic quantum numbers m = -s, -s+1, \dots, s.^[45] For the fundamental case of spin s = 1/2, the representation is two-dimensional, and the spin operators take the explicit form S_i = \frac{\hbar}{2} \sigma_i (for i = x, y, z), where the \sigma_i are the Pauli matrices introduced by Pauli to describe the magnetic properties of the electron.^[43] The Pauli matrices are:

\sigma_x = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 \end{pmatrix}, \quad \sigma_y = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & -i \\ i & 0 \end{pmatrix}, \quad \sigma_z = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 \end{pmatrix}.

Each \sigma_i is Hermitian (\sigma_i^\dagger = \sigma_i), unitary (\sigma_i^{-1} = \sigma_i), and satisfies \sigma_i^2 = I, with the property that the product of any two distinct matrices is the third up to a factor of i (e.g., \sigma_x \sigma_y = i \sigma_z).^[43] These relations ensure the su(2) algebra is realized faithfully in this representation. To navigate the basis states |s, m\rangle (eigenstates of \mathbf{S}^2 and S_z), one introduces the raising and lowering operators S_\pm = S_x \pm i S_y. These satisfy [S_z, S_\pm] = \pm \hbar S_\pm and act as S_+ |s, m\rangle = \hbar \sqrt{s(s+1) - m(m+1)} \, |s, m+1\rangle and S_- |s, m\rangle = \hbar \sqrt{s(s+1) - m(m-1)} \, |s, m-1\rangle, with vanishing action at the boundaries m = \pm s.^[46] For s=1/2, this yields the explicit transitions between the states |+\rangle and |-\rangle, such as S_+ |-\rangle = \hbar |+\rangle.^[46]

Relativistic and Composite Systems

Spin in the Dirac Equation

The Dirac equation, formulated by Paul Dirac in 1928, provides a relativistic wave equation for the electron that naturally incorporates spin as an intrinsic property, resolving inconsistencies in earlier non-relativistic quantum mechanics with special relativity.^[19] This equation addressed the "duplexity" observed in atomic spectra, where the number of stationary states was twice that predicted without spin, by deriving a linear first-order differential equation in both space and time that is Lorentz invariant.^[19] The requirement for Lorentz invariance in a quantum mechanical description of spin-1/2 particles leads to the use of 4-component spinor wave functions, as the spinor representation of the Lorentz group accommodates the half-integer spin degrees of freedom.^[47] The Dirac equation in its standard form is given by

i \hbar \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial t} = c \boldsymbol{\alpha} \cdot \mathbf{p} \psi + \beta m c^2 \psi,

where \psi is a 4-component spinor, \mathbf{p} = -i \hbar \nabla is the momentum operator, m is the electron mass, c is the speed of light, \hbar is the reduced Planck's constant, and \boldsymbol{\alpha} and \beta are 4×4 matrices satisfying specific anticommutation relations to ensure the equation's relativistic invariance.^[19] These matrices, along with the Pauli matrices embedded in the spinor structure, encode the spin angular momentum, making spin an emergent feature rather than an ad hoc addition.^[48] Solutions to the free-particle Dirac equation yield positive-energy states with energies E = +\sqrt{(pc)^2 + (mc^2)^2} and negative-energy states with E = -\sqrt{(pc)^2 + (mc^2)^2}, each doubly degenerate due to the two possible spin projections (up and down) along a quantization axis.^[49] In the Dirac sea interpretation, the positive-energy solutions describe electrons with spin up and down, while the negative-energy solutions, upon filling the sea and considering holes, correspond to positrons with opposite spin.^[50] A key prediction of the Dirac equation is the electron's gyromagnetic ratio, or g-factor, of exactly 2, arising naturally from the relativistic coupling of spin to the orbital motion without additional assumptions.^[50] This value emerges in the interaction term with electromagnetic fields, where the spin magnetic moment is \mu = -g \frac{e}{2m} \mathbf{S} with g=2 and \mathbf{S} the spin operator, matching experimental observations for the electron's magnetic moment and explaining the fine structure splitting in hydrogen spectra.^[19] To connect the Dirac equation to non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the Foldy-Wouthuysen transformation is applied, which performs a unitary rotation on the Hamiltonian to decouple the positive- and negative-energy components and separate the large (upper) and small (lower) components of the spinor in the low-velocity limit.^[51] This transformation reveals the Pauli equation for the positive-energy sector, where the spin operators appear explicitly as the Pauli matrices acting on the 2-component spinor, confirming spin-1/2 as \mathbf{S} = \frac{\hbar}{2} \boldsymbol{\sigma}, and yields relativistic corrections including the g=2 magnetic moment term.^[52] The transformation preserves the Lorentz invariance of the original equation while facilitating the interpretation of spin in everyday non-relativistic contexts.^[51]

Total Spin in Atoms and Molecules

In multi-electron atoms, the total spin angular momentum \mathbf{S} arises from the vector sum of individual electron spins, \mathbf{S} = \sum_i \mathbf{s}_i, where each \mathbf{s}_i has magnitude \hbar \sqrt{s(s+1)} with s = 1/2. This total spin couples with the total orbital angular momentum \mathbf{L} = \sum_i \mathbf{l}_i to form the total angular momentum \mathbf{J} = \mathbf{L} + \mathbf{S}, a scheme known as Russell-Saunders or LS coupling, which is predominant in light atoms where spin-orbit interactions are weak compared to electrostatic correlations.^[53] In this approximation, the quantum numbers S (total spin) and L (total orbital) are good labels for atomic states, with J determined by vector addition rules. For example, in the helium atom's excited states, the ground configuration $1s^12s^1 yields a singlet state (S=0) with symmetric spatial wavefunction and a triplet state (S=1) with antisymmetric spatial wavefunction, the latter lower in energy due to reduced electron-electron repulsion from greater average separation.^[54] For heavier atoms, where spin-orbit coupling dominates, the jj coupling scheme applies, in which each electron's spin and orbital momenta first couple to form individual j_i = l_i + s_i, and these j_i then sum to total J = \sum_i j_i. This regime is relevant for elements beyond zirconium (Z > 40), as relativistic effects enhance spin-orbit splitting, invalidating pure LS coupling.^[55] In transition metals, d-electron configurations often exhibit high-spin states following Hund's rules, which maximize S by aligning unpaired spins parallel in degenerate orbitals to minimize exchange energy; for instance, in octahedral \mathrm{d}^5 complexes like \mathrm{Mn}^{2+}, the high-spin S=5/2 state has five unpaired electrons.^[56] In molecules, total spin determination follows analogous principles, with Hund's rules predicting ground-state multiplicities by maximizing S and L for equivalent electrons. The oxygen molecule \mathrm{O_2}, with configuration (\pi^*_{2p})^2, has a triplet ground state (S=1) due to two unpaired \pi^* electrons with parallel spins, as dictated by the first Hund's rule, leading to paramagnetism observable in susceptibility measurements.^[57] Hyperfine structure further refines energy levels through coupling of the total electronic angular momentum \mathbf{J} with nuclear spin \mathbf{I}, forming \mathbf{F} = \mathbf{I} + \mathbf{J}; this magnetic dipole interaction, first quantified by Fermi, splits spectral lines by amounts proportional to the product of electronic and nuclear g-factors.^[58]

References

[1]
Properties of Spin Angular Momentum - Richard Fitzpatrick
Spin angular momentum has similar properties to orbital, but its quantum number can be half-integer, unlike orbital, and is purely quantum mechanical.
[2]
30.8 Quantum Numbers and Rules – College Physics
Quantum numbers express quantized values of entities like energy and angular momentum. Key numbers include principal, angular momentum, spin, and spin ...
[3]
[PDF] A Short History of Spin - arXiv
Nov 20, 2013 · and Goudsmit first hypothesized [6] intrinsic spin as a property of the electron. This occurred over the strong objections of some prominent ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[4]
https://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/spin/goudsmit.html
[5]
Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
This is called the spin quantum number (s) because electrons behave as if they were spinning in either a clockwise or counterclockwise fashion. One of the ...
[6]
Electron spin - HyperPhysics Concepts
An electron spin s = 1/2 is an intrinsic property of electrons. Electrons have intrinsic angular momentum characterized by quantum number 1/2.
[7]
[PDF] Chapter 11. Angular Momentum: General Theory
In addition to the orbital angular momentum, the particles studied in quantum mechanics have an intrinsic angular momentum called spin. This is not caused ...
[8]
The Facts - UCR Math Department
The same result holds for the component of angular momentum measured along any axis. The total magnitude of angular momentum is given by $\sqrt{j_x^2+j_y^2+j_z^ ...
[9]
[PDF] chapter 11 spin
Real particles have “intrinsic” angular momentum. This degree of freedom is called spin. It is a fixed property of a particle that does not change.
[10]
Pauli Exclusion Principle - HyperPhysics
The Pauli exclusion principle is part of one of our most basic observations of nature: particles of half-integer spin must have antisymmetric wavefunctions, and ...
[11]
4.3 LS and jj Coupling Schemes - Atomic Physics - Fiveable
Term symbol for an electronic state in LS coupling is written as $^{2S+1}L_J$. $S$ is total spin angular momentum quantum number; $L$ is total orbital angular ...
[12]
One hundred years ago Alfred Landé unriddled the Anomalous ...
In order to commemorate Alfred Landé's unriddling of the anomalous Zeeman Effect a century ago, we reconstruct his seminal contribution to atomic physics.Missing: Erklärung | Show results with:Erklärung
[13]
[PDF] Rise and premature fall of the old quantum theory - arXiv
Feb 11, 2008 · fails to explain the fine structure. Therefore Sommerfeld refined ... history of the hydrogen molecule ion and Pauli's failure to solve it with ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[14]
[PDF] On the history of the Einstein-de Haas effect - Physics - UMD
However, the spin component of the magnetic moment plays the domi- nant role in ferromagnetic materials on which the experi- ments of Refs. 9 and 16 and ...
[15]
THE STERN-GERLACH EXPERIMENT - Europhysics News
The historic Stern-Gerlach experiment (SGE), which was performed in 1922 in Frankfurt, is reviewed from an experimental point of view.Missing: precursor | Show results with:precursor
[16]
Arthur Compton and the mysteries of light - Physics Today
Dec 1, 2022 · Compton's scattering results resolved long-standing controversies regarding the nature of free radiation and rescued Albert Einstein's long- ...
[17]
The Vector Model and the Pauli Principle | Phys. Rev.
Abstract. The vector model is examined in the light of the quantum theory of wave fields. First the distributions of electrons among the electronic states are ...Missing: original paper
[18]
The quantum theory of the electron - Journals
To meet the difficulty, Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck have introduced the idea of an electron with a spin angular momentum of half a quantum and a magnetic moment of ...
[19]
Spinning Electrons and the Structure of Spectra - Nature
The idea of a quantised spinning of the electron was put forward for the first time by AK Compton (Journ. Frankl. Inst., Aug. 1921, p. 145).
[20]
Quantum Numbers in Multielectron Atoms
... quantum number for electron spin, $ m_s $. There are two values which we call "spin up" or "spin down". These have values of +1/2 and -1/2. In general for ...
[21]
[PDF] Spins in Magnetic Fields
Approximating the g-factor by 2, the electron magnetic moment can be written,. µ = −geµB σ. 2. ≈ −µBσ. (19). The minus sign in this equation means that the ...
[22]
Spin-Orbit Interaction - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Spin-orbit interaction (SOI) refers to the coupling between an electron's spin and its orbital motion around a nucleus, resulting from the relativistic ...
[23]
[PDF] On the Connexion between the Completion of Electron Groups in an ...
Apr 16, 2010 · PAULI. Z. Physik 31, 765ff (1925). Especially in connexion with Millikan and LandÃ©'s observation that the alkali doublet can be represented ...
[24]
EPR Spectroscopy — Free Radicals Chemistry Group
When the spin of the odd electron of a free radical is placed in a magnetic field, it may have two orientations, one parallel and the other antiparellel to the ...
[25]
electron gyromagnetic ratio in MHz/T
electron gyromagnetic ratio in MHz/T $\gamma_{\rm e}$. Numerical value, 28 024.951 3861 MHz T-1. Standard uncertainty, 0.000 0087 MHz T-1.
[26]
NMR Spectroscopy - MSU chemistry
Examples are I = 1 ( 2H, 14N ). Even mass nuclei composed of even numbers of protons and neutrons have zero spin ( I = 0 ). Examples are 12C, and 16O.Missing: quantum | Show results with:quantum
[27]
Hyperfine Structure
The interaction between the spin of the nucleus and the angular momentum of the electron causes a further (hyperfine) splitting of atomic states.
[28]
The Standard Model - Summary - The Physics Hypertextbook
Summary · are the particles that mediate interactions · obey Bose-Einstein statistics · have integral spin quantum numbers (±0, ±1, ±2, …).
[29]
The Standard Model of Particle Physics and Beyond
The Higgs boson (H), a scalar particle with spin-0, arises from the Higgs field, imparting mass to other particles through the Higgs mechanism. Fig. 1: ...
[30]
[PDF] Spin–Statistics Theorem - UT Physics
The spin–statistics theorem says that the fields of integral spins commute (and therefore must be quantized as bosons) while the fields of half-integral spin ...
[31]
https://web2.ph.utexas.edu/~vadim/Classes/2019f/spinstat.pdf
[32]
Stern and Gerlach: How a Bad Cigar Helped Reorient Atomic Physics
Dec 1, 2003 · The history of the Stern–Gerlach experiment reveals how persistence, accident, and luck can sometimes combine in just the right ways.
[33]
100 Years Ago, a Quantum Experiment Explained Why We Don't ...
Feb 8, 2022 · In Stern and Gerlach's experiment, the physicists detected the splitting of the beam, which they saw as confirmation of Bohr's odd prediction: ...
[34]
Zeeman – Electron Paramagnetic Resonance | ETH Zurich
The splitting between the two energy states is called electron Zeeman interaction (EZI) and is proportional to the magnitude of B0, as illustrated in Figure 1.
[35]
Zavoisky and the discovery of EPR | Resonance
Dec 17, 2015 · E K Zavoisky. Paramagnetic Relaxation of Liquid Solutions for Perpendicular Fields, J. Phys., Vol.9, pp.211–216, 1945. Received July 12, ...Missing: seminal paper
[36]
On the Role and Applications of Electron Magnetic Resonance ...
Mar 16, 2021 · Electron Paramagnetic Resonance, EPR, has been employed in experimental research on surface chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis since the beginning of the ...
[37]
An Introduction to Biological NMR Spectroscopy - PMC
Scalar coupling (or J-coupling) is a through-bond interaction between two nuclei (A and X) with a nonzero spin. It is an indirect interaction between the two ...
[38]
Discovery of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance: Rabi, Purcell, and Bloch
Apr 10, 2020 · After a brief review of background information on the quantum concept of spin and its relative, magnetic moment, we examine the detection of NMR ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[39]
Mössbauer Spectroscopy - SERC (Carleton)
Jun 15, 2018 · The technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy is widely used in mineralogy to examine the valence state of iron.
[40]
Optical detection of magnetic resonance - PMC - PubMed Central
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy basically measures the interaction of electronic or nuclear angular momenta with each other and with external magnetic fields.
[41]
[PDF] Ersetzung der Hypothese vom unmechanischen Zwang durch eine ...
G. E. UHLENBECK und S. GOUDSMIT. Leiden, den 17. Oktober 1925. Instituut voor Theoretische Natuurkunde. Es ist nfir ein Bedfirfnis, festzustellen, dab Prof ...Missing: Erklärung | Show results with:Erklärung
[42]
[PDF] On the quantum mechanics of magnetic electrons
Phys. 43 (1927), 601-623. On the quantum mechanics of magnetic electrons. By W. PAULI, Jr ...
[43]
[PDF] Introduction to Quantum Spin Systems - Lecture 4: SU(2)
Jan 24, 2011 · The Lie algebra su2 is defined as the tangent space to SU(2) at the identity. Page 4. 7. The previous calculation shows that the spin-1/2 ...
[44]
[PDF] A tutorial for SU(2) and spin waves
Jun 25, 2014 · The Lie group SU(2) is the symmetry group of the quantum spin. For example, the electron carries a spin with magnitude 1/2 in the physics ...
[45]
[PDF] Theory of Angular Momentum and Spin
The theory involves rotational symmetry transformations, the group SO(3), and spin-1 states (SU(2)). Spin states behave similarly to angular momentum states.
[46]
[PDF] The Dirac Equation and the Lorentz Group - Physics Courses
Feb 16, 2009 · This then shows that the Dirac equation represents a particle with conserved total angular momentum. J = L + S and with spin equal to 1/2. Now ...
[47]
[PDF] 4. The Dirac Equation - DAMTP
However, for spinor fields, the magic of the µ matrices means that the Dirac Lagrangian is Lorentz invariant. The Dirac equation mixes up different components ...
[48]
Dirac Plane Wave Solution
Dirac Plane Wave Solution. We now have simple solutions for spin up and spin down for both positive energy and ``negative energy'' particles at rest.
[49]
[PDF] Introduction to the Dirac Equation
... Dirac, who in 1928 published his work on his wave equation, which we ... as far as anyone knew the Dirac equation gave the exact g-factor of the electron.
[50]
None
Nothing is retrieved...<|separator|>
[51]
[PDF] The Foldy-Wouthuysen Transformation
This transformation block-diagonalizes the matrices that appear in the Dirac equation, thereby decoupling the upper and lower 2-component spinors of the 4- ...
[52]
Atomic Spectroscopy - Different Coupling Schemes | NIST
Oct 3, 2016 · LS Coupling (Russell-Saunders Coupling). Some of the examples given below indicate notations bearing on the order of coupling of the electrons.
[53]
Helium Atom - Richard Fitzpatrick
Incidentally, helium in the spin singlet state is known as para-helium, whereas helium in the triplet state is called ortho-helium. As we have seen, for the ...
[54]
Russell-Saunders or LS Coupling - HyperPhysics
In L-S coupling, orbital and spin angular momenta combine to form total angular momentum (J=L+S). This is common in light atoms, while j-j coupling is for ...
[55]
Spinning around in Transition-Metal Chemistry - ACS Publications
Nov 14, 2016 · In transition-metal complexes, the electronic spin can manifest itself as unpaired electrons at the metal; however, there also exist redox ...
[56]
[PDF] Energetic and chemical reactivity of atomic and molecular oxygen.
Jun 28, 2010 · 1 The multiplicity is given by 2S+1, where S is the spin. The spin of an electron is (+/-) 1/2. 3. P. 1. S. 1. D. Energetic and chemical ...
[57]
Theory of Hyperfine Structure Separations | Phys. Rev.
Expressions are derived for the hyperfine structure separations of the levels of complicated electron configurations in different types of coupling.