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Storegga Slide

The Storegga Slide was a massive submarine landslide that occurred approximately 8,200 years ago in the Norwegian Sea, off the western coast of Norway, involving the catastrophic failure of a 290-kilometer-long section of the continental shelf and displacing an estimated 2,500–3,500 cubic kilometers of sediment.^[1] This event, recognized as the largest known exposed submarine landslide on Earth, triggered a paleotsunami with waves reaching run-up heights of at least 20 meters along affected coastlines.^[2]^[3] Recent reconstructions indicate that the slide comprised at least two major phases, reshaping the seafloor over an area exceeding 100,000 square kilometers and contributing to the depositional history of the region.^[2] The tsunami generated by the slide inundated low-lying coastal areas across northwestern Europe, with extensive deposits documented in Scotland, the Faroe Islands, and Shetland, where sediment layers up to 1.6 meters thick have been identified in coastal lakes and bogs.^[4]^[5]^[6] These impacts likely influenced Mesolithic human settlements in the region, though direct archaeological evidence of casualties remains elusive.^[4] The causes of the Storegga Slide are attributed to a combination of factors, including deglaciation following the last Ice Age, which led to isostatic rebound and oversteepening of the continental slope, potentially exacerbated by methane hydrate destabilization or seismic activity.^[1] Studies of the slide's morphology and sedimentology continue to inform understandings of submarine geohazards, highlighting the potential for similar events in modern glaciated margins.^[2]

Geological Context

Location and Morphology

The Storegga Slide is situated on the continental shelf offshore mid-Norway in the Norwegian Sea, approximately 100–120 km northwest of the Møre coast, centered around 64°N, 1°E.^[7]^[8] The slide complex spans roughly 800 km in a north-south direction and up to 300 km east-west, forming a prominent feature along the Norwegian continental margin that connects to the broader geology of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea region.^[2]^[9] The morphology of the Storegga Slide consists of three principal slide scars, designated Storegga I, II, and III, each characterized by distinct headwall scarps reaching heights of up to 300 m.^[10]^[11] These scars include expansive evacuation zones where sediment has been removed, transitioning into debris fields that extend across the continental rise, with the overall structure exhibiting an amphitheater-shaped depression in the slide scar area covering about 30% of the total slide extent.^[12]^[9] Bathymetrically, the upper slide area features gentle slope angles of 1–2°, which progressively flatten toward the abyssal plains of the deeper Norwegian Sea basin.^[13] Recent 2025 seismic surveys have further revealed a buried mega-slide within the North Sea Fan, imaged through 2D reflection data showing its headwall beneath Quaternary sediments, adding complexity to the regional slide morphology.^[14] The delineation of these features has relied on advanced mapping techniques, including multibeam sonar for high-resolution bathymetry and 2D/3D seismic reflection profiling to resolve subsurface structures and scar boundaries.^[15]^[16]

Sediment and Slope Characteristics

The sediments in the Storegga Slide area primarily consist of fine-grained glacial marine clays and silts deposited during the Pleistocene deglaciation, with interbedded layers of sands and glacial diamictons forming a stratified sequence up to 500 m thick in the slide scars.^[17]^[18] These materials originated from ice-proximal glaciomarine environments, where rapid sedimentation during glacial retreat led to thick accumulations of low-permeability clays overlain by more permeable silts and sands, creating heterogeneous layering prone to differential loading.^[19] Geotechnical analyses reveal that these clays exhibit moderate to high sensitivity, with ratios of peak to remolded undrained shear strength often exceeding 10, facilitating rapid strength loss and fluidization during failure.^[20] Undrained shear strength values typically range from 10 to 50 kPa in the upper slide units, influenced by overconsolidation and pore pressure conditions that reduce effective stress and promote retrogressive failure propagation along weak clay horizons.^[21] Overpressure ratios in deeper layers further compromise slope stability by elevating pore fluids, with sensitivity enhanced by high water content (often >50%) and plasticity indices that allow for significant remolding under shear.^[22] Recent studies from 2024-2025 have identified evidence of sediment reworking in extensions of the slide influence toward the northwestern Barents Sea, where tsunami backwash disturbed fine-grained deposits, mixing glacial marine silts with redeposited material up to 75°N latitude. These findings highlight ongoing instability in similar sediment types, with multi-proxy analyses showing homogenized layers indicative of high-energy reworking in low-gradient settings.^[23]

The Storegga Slides

Chronology and Sequence

The Storegga Slide complex comprises a series of submarine landslides along the mid-Norwegian continental margin, spanning from the late Pleistocene to the Holocene, with major events dated between approximately 20,000 and 8,000 years before present (BP).^[2] Recent seismic interpretations and sediment core analyses have revised the chronology to include two primary failures within the main scar, separated by about 12,000 years, fundamentally adjusting the understanding of the event's temporal framework.^[2] These occurred during the deglacial phase following the Last Glacial Maximum, when post-glacial rebound and sediment destabilization were prominent.^[1] The principal Holocene event, often referred to as the main Storegga Slide, is dated to approximately 8,150 ± 70 calibrated years BP through accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating of foraminifera and organic material in sediment cores retrieved from the slide scar and distal deposits.^[24] Complementary dating methods, including tephrochronology from volcanic ash layers in proximal marine sequences, corroborate this timing, placing the onset around 7,250 ± 250 uncalibrated radiocarbon years BP.^[25] Earlier classifications identified three distinct phases—Storegga I at ~50,000–30,000 BP, Storegga II at ~8,000–5,000 BP, and Storegga III at ~5,000 BP—based on core stratigraphy and morphological mapping, though subsequent work has consolidated these into a more unified retrogressive progression for the main event while noting smaller subsequent slides extending to ~2,200 BP.^[26] The sequence of the main failure initiated as a retrogressive slide in the northern sector of the lower slope, where initial sediment destabilization led to block sliding and debris flows that propagated southward across the margin over distances exceeding 800 km.^[27] This progression involved multiple sub-phases of headwall retrogression, with the failure front advancing upslope and laterally, mobilizing material in a chain-like manner; the entire process for the primary event is estimated to have unfolded over hours to a few days based on morphological evidence and dynamic modeling constraints.^[24] The 2023 reconstruction further refines this by attributing the deepest parts of the scar to an older failure around 20,000 BP (the Nyegga Slide), with the younger event overlapping and enlarging the pre-existing morphology, thus extending the effective chronology of significant activity in the region.^[2]

Scale and Volume of the Main Event

The main Storegga Slide, occurring approximately 8,200 years ago, involved the displacement of an estimated 1,300–2,300 km³ of sediment as part of the Storegga Slide complex, which includes the older Nyegga Slide (~900–1,100 km³ at ~20,000 BP); the Holocene event alone makes it one of the largest known submarine landslides in Earth's history.^[2] This volume for the main event is equivalent to roughly 450–900 times the material mobilized in the 1980 Mount St. Helens debris avalanche, which released about 2.5–2.9 km³ of debris.^[28]^[2] The slide created an expansive scar zone covering approximately 95,000 km² on the continental slope off mid-Norway, with the headwall extending up to 300 km in length.^[12] Debris from the event formed extensive flows that spread across the seafloor, with the primary depositional lobe reaching lengths of up to 800 km.^[20] Within this, the main runout distance for the mobilized material was around 700 km, reflecting the slide's capacity for long-distance transport despite the gentle average slope of 0.6–0.7°.^[29]^[20] Modeling of the slide dynamics indicates that debris accelerated to velocities ranging from 20 to 100 m/s during propagation, enabling the rapid mobilization and far-field deposition observed in seismic profiles.^[30]^[31] The total kinetic energy released by the event is estimated at 10¹⁷–10¹⁸ J, derived from assessments of the slide's volume, velocity, and frictional dissipation along the runout path.^[32] This immense energy underscores the slide's exceptional scale compared to other documented submarine failures, such as the smaller but still significant Currituck landslide off North America.^[33]

Mechanisms and Triggers

Glacial and Deglacial Influences

During the retreat of the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet following the Last Glacial Maximum, rapid sedimentation occurred on the mid-Norwegian continental margin between approximately 15,000 and 10,000 years before present, depositing 100–200 m of glaciomarine sediments that loaded and destabilized the Storegga slope. An earlier landslide, the Nyegga Slide around 20,000 years BP, removed 35–70 m of sediment, further preconditioning the slope by loss of basal support.^[2] This buildup was driven by ice-lobe advances and decay, with high accumulation rates exceeding 30 m per millennium in the region, creating thick, fine-grained layers prone to excess pore fluid pressures and reduced shear strength. These sediments, primarily consisting of clay-rich glaciomarine deposits, formed unstable units that preconditioned the margin for large-scale failure.^[34]^[35] Isostatic rebound in the deglaciated Fennoscandian region further contributed to slope instability through differential uplift rates of up to 10 mm per year, which oversteepened the continental margin and induced excess pore pressures by altering effective stresses in the underlying sediments. The rapid adjustment to the removal of the ice load propagated stresses laterally into the offshore slope, exacerbating overpressuring in low-permeability clays and promoting shear failure along weak horizons.^[11] Glacial unloading during ice sheet retreat also weakened sediments by facilitating hydrofracturing, as the abrupt decrease in overburden pressure allowed pressurized meltwater to infiltrate and propagate fractures through the stratified deposits. This process reduced the mechanical integrity of the slope, creating pathways for fluid migration that sustained high pore pressures over time. Sediment cores from the Storegga area provide direct evidence of these deglacial dynamics, revealing intercalated till layers from glacial advances and incised meltwater channels that document repeated loading-unloading cycles during the late Pleistocene to Holocene transition.^[35] These features indicate episodic sediment delivery and erosion, which collectively conditioned the margin for the major Storegga Slide event around 8,200 years BP.

Gas Hydrate Dissociation and Other Factors

One proposed immediate trigger for the Storegga Slide involves the dissociation of methane gas hydrates within the continental slope sediments, which reduced sediment cohesion by generating excess pore pressures and releasing free gas. This process was likely driven by post-glacial bottom water warming and associated sea-level changes during the early Holocene, destabilizing the hydrate stability zone primarily in water depths greater than 400 meters. Studies indicate that the base of the hydrate stability zone in the region thinned significantly due to these environmental shifts, with evidence of fluid escape structures and pockmarks near the slide headwall supporting widespread dissociation in the aftermath of the event.^[36]^[37] Seismic activity, potentially from earthquakes of magnitude approximately 7 generated by glacio-isostatic rebound stresses following ice sheet retreat, has been identified as another key immediate trigger. These events could have provided the dynamic loading necessary to initiate failure along pre-existing weaknesses in the slope. Geophysical surveys reveal fault scarps and reactivated Jurassic-Cretaceous fault systems in the vicinity, consistent with tectonic stresses amplified by isostatic adjustment, which preconditioned the margin through long-term glaciation but culminated in acute seismic shaking.^[38]^[1] Additional contributing factors include episodic storm-wave loading on the upper slope and pulses of rapid sedimentation that increased overburden pressures without sufficient consolidation time. Quantitative modeling of hydrate dissociation thresholds highlights that instability occurs when bottom water temperatures exceed approximately 8°C or hydrostatic pressures fall below 30 MPa, conditions approached during deglacial warming despite stabilizing effects from rising sea levels. Recent 2020s simulations, including revised slide reconstructions, debate the primacy of hydrate dissociation versus seismic or loading triggers, suggesting hydrates played a significant preconditioning role but were likely insufficient alone to initiate the full-scale failure without a seismic impetus.^[2]^[39]

Tsunami Generation

Landslide Dynamics

The Storegga Slide initiated as a retrogressive failure, beginning at the continental slope and progressively eroding upslope into the shelf, with initial blocky failures involving large sediment masses that transitioned into a debris avalanche and subsequent flow phase.^[21] This retrogressive progression is evidenced by the slide scar morphology, which shows headwall retreat over distances exceeding 100 km, starting from a toe near the Faroe-Shetland Escarpment and cutting back to the mid-Norwegian shelf edge. Initial failure blocks reached volumes up to approximately 1 km³, characterized by intact glacial and marine sediment layers that detached along low-angle glide planes inclined at less than 2°. During acceleration, the slide material exhibited granular flow mechanics, where intergranular friction and basal shear dominated, leading to velocity profiles that increased rapidly downslope. Simulations indicate peak front velocities of 30–140 km/h (8–39 m/s), with the avalanche phase sustaining high speeds over the gently sloping seabed before decelerating into a viscous debris flow.^[40] These dynamics were driven by the remolding of sensitive clays and glaciomarine sediments, reducing effective viscosity and enabling prolonged runout across the basin floor.^[30] Numerical modeling of the slide has employed depth-averaged codes such as BINGClaw, which incorporate visco-plastic rheology to simulate the evolution from rigid block sliding to fluid-like flow, including recent extensions to analogous Barents Sea scenarios in 2025 studies.^[40] These models validate the retrogressive sequence by matching observed scar depths and deposit spreads, using finite-volume methods to resolve mass conservation and momentum in two-phase granular mixtures.^[21] The internal structure of the slide reveals evacuated blocks within the main scar, alongside rafted masses of coherent sediment that were transported basinward before partial disintegration. These features overlie widespread turbidite deposits formed from the finer-grained tail of the debris flow, which spread across the deep seafloor as density currents. Multibeam bathymetry and seismic profiles confirm this layering, with rafted blocks up to several kilometers in dimension preserving original stratigraphy amid chaotic avalanche debris.

Wave Propagation and Modeling

The Storegga Slide generated tsunami waves through the sudden displacement of approximately 2,400 km³ of sediment across a ~300 km wide failure area, producing initial wave heights of 10–25 m near the source due to the impulsive vertical and horizontal motion of the debris.^[41] The multi-phase character of the slide, involving retrogressive failures, resulted in double-peaked wave trains, characterized by an initial positive surge followed by a prolonged trough that amplified coastal impacts.^[42] These waves propagated radially across the North Atlantic, with paths directed southward into the North Sea and northward into the Norwegian and Barents Seas; waves reached the Shetland Islands and Faeroe Islands in approximately 1.5 hours, the UK east coast in 2–3 hours, and Doggerland region in about 1 hour, reflecting deep-water propagation speeds of ~200 m/s modulated by regional bathymetry.^[8] Run-up heights varied significantly by location and paleotopography, attaining 20–40 m on the exposed Shetland coasts, 5–12 m along western Norway, and lower values of 3–6 m on northeast Scotland, where waves were focused by shelf geometry.^[43]^[31] In the Barents Sea, waves extended over 1,000 km, causing disturbance and reworking of seafloor sediments up to 50 km inland along southern shores.^[44]^[45] Numerical modeling of the tsunami has advanced with hydrodynamic simulations based on nonlinear shallow-water equations, incorporating high-resolution paleobathymetry to capture wave evolution; seminal work by Harbitz (1992) used finite-difference methods to predict offshore wave propagation, while recent 2025 studies employ multiscale approaches with variable grid resolutions from 500 m to 50 km for efficient computation across the Norwegian-Greenland Sea basin.^[46]^[47] Models such as COMCOT and Tsunami-HySEA have been applied to simulate landslide-induced waves, demonstrating inundation extents in the Barents Sea consistent with sedimentary evidence, including up to 50 km inland flooding in coastal lowlands.^[48] Wave attenuation during propagation was influenced by shelf shoaling, which increased amplitudes in shallower regions through depth reduction, and refraction, which bent wave crests toward coastal convergence zones, thereby enhancing local run-up despite overall energy dissipation over distance.^[43] The high velocity of landslide material, exceeding 20–40 m/s in initial phases, contributed briefly to the efficiency of wave generation before hydrodynamic forces dominated propagation.^[40]

Environmental and Human Impacts

Coastal and Inland Effects

The Storegga Slide tsunami caused extensive inundation along the coasts of Scotland, with waves penetrating up to 25 kilometers inland in low-lying areas, leading to widespread flooding and morphological alterations to the landscape.^[49] In northeast Scotland, the event eroded coastal dunes and deposited large boulders weighing over 10 tons, transported from offshore sources and indicative of high-energy wave action that reshaped beaches and barriers.^[50] Modeling studies suggest wave heights reached up to 20 meters along affected shorelines, amplifying the erosive power and sediment redistribution.^[41] Further inland, saltwater intrusion from the tsunami inundated freshwater ecosystems, resulting in the death of coastal forests and the salinization of soils that persisted for centuries.^[51] This intrusion altered vegetation patterns, with evidence preserved in peat bogs showing abrupt shifts from terrestrial to brackish assemblages, including rip-up clasts of organic material eroded during the event.^[8] Lake sediments in coastal regions similarly record the tsunami's passage through graded sand layers and marine microfossils, highlighting disruptions to lacustrine environments and accelerated sedimentation rates.^[52] The tsunami also contributed to the final submergence of Doggerland, the low-lying land bridge across the southern North Sea, around 8,200 years before present, where catastrophic flooding overwhelmed existing topography and hastened permanent inundation.^[53] Recent studies from 2024 and 2025 have revealed extended impacts beyond the North Sea, with tsunami-related sediments identified in the German Bight, indicating wave propagation across the wide continental shelf and disturbance to coastal sediments there.^[41] In the Arctic, evidence from marine cores shows the tsunami reached the northern Barents Sea, causing seabed remobilization and erosion on Arctic shelves as far as 75°N in the Kveitehola Trough.^[54]

Archaeological Evidence

Archaeological investigations have identified several Mesolithic sites affected by the Storegga Slide tsunami, particularly submerged settlements in the now-flooded Doggerland region of the North Sea and coastal areas of Scotland. In Doggerland, sediment cores from the southern North Sea reveal tsunami deposits overlying human occupation layers dated to approximately 8,200 years before present (BP), suggesting inundation of low-lying hunter-gatherer communities.^[55] In Scotland, sites such as the Montrose Basin and the Kyles of Bute in coastal lochs show similar patterns, where tsunami sands directly overlie hearths and occupation horizons radiocarbon-dated to around 8,200 BP, indicating abrupt disruption of settled activities.^[56] The human impacts of the event appear to include widespread population displacement or localized wipeouts in vulnerable lowlands, as evidenced by the scattering of lithic tools and debris within overlying silt layers at multiple sites, pointing to chaotic inundation and post-event abandonment. No skeletal remains directly attributable to tsunami casualties have been recovered, but the stratigraphic interruptions suggest significant societal stress on Mesolithic groups reliant on coastal resources. These disruptions likely forced migrations to higher ground, altering settlement patterns in the North Sea basin. However, the extent of human casualties and long-term cultural disruptions remains debated, with no direct evidence of fatalities identified despite stratigraphic indications of site desertion.^[4] Recent studies, including a 2024 analysis of sediment profiles in the German Bight, have identified tsunami-related sand sheet deposits and microfossil anomalies, indicating wave propagation across the North Sea.^[41] Bioarchaeological data further corroborates abandonment, with pollen records from affected sites showing abrupt shifts from woodland and wetland indicators to open-ground taxa post-8,200 BP, consistent with landscape clearance and site desertion. Additionally, shell middens at Scottish coastal locations, such as those near Montrose, are buried beneath anomalous sand sheets, preserving evidence of pre-tsunami marine foraging that ceased thereafter.^[4]

Research History and Methods

Discovery and Dating Techniques

The Storegga Slide was first identified in the 1970s through seismic surveys conducted by the Continental Shelf Institute (IKU) in Norway, which mapped large submarine slide scars on the continental margin off mid-Norway.^[57] Detailed analysis of these surveys revealed the slide's extensive headwall and debris field, with initial volume estimates exceeding 5,000 km³ based on preliminary bathymetric data.^[58] In the 1980s, links to a paleotsunami were proposed after sedimentary cores from coastal sites in eastern Scotland identified anomalous sand layers interpreted as tsunami deposits, correlating them with the slide's timing. Dating of the Storegga Slide has relied on multiple proxy methods applied to sediment cores extracted from the slide scar and surrounding deposits. Radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dating of organic material in cores has provided the primary chronology, yielding calibrated ages around 8,150–8,200 years before present (cal BP) for the main Holocene event.^[2] Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) analysis of quartz grains in paleotsunami sands has complemented ¹⁴C by dating the last exposure of sediments to sunlight, confirming tsunami deposition shortly after the slide.^[59] Paleomagnetic analysis of slide debris and host sediments has aided in correlating slide phases with geomagnetic excursions, particularly for pre-Holocene precursors.^[60] Tephrochronology, using ash layers such as those from the Laacher See eruption for stratigraphic correlation in regional sequences, has helped anchor the slide's position within broader paleoclimatic records, though direct tephra within the slide scar is limited.^[61] Early reconstructions in the 1990s integrated multibeam bathymetry with seismic reflection profiles to refine the slide's morphology, reducing volume estimates to 2,400–3,200 km³ by accounting for debris dispersal and retrogressive failure stages.^[24] These efforts also incorporated paleotsunami deposit mapping from coastal cores across the North Atlantic, linking onshore sands in Scotland and Norway to wave run-up models derived from the slide's dimensions. Key expeditions in the 2000s, including cruises under the Ormen Lange project, confirmed and expanded on the slide scars through high-resolution swath bathymetry and over 80 sediment cores, validating the multi-phase nature of the failure and providing samples for refined geotechnical analysis.^[2]

Recent Studies and Simulations

Recent geophysical surveys and seismic data analysis have led to significant revisions in the understanding of the Storegga Slide's failure mechanism. A 2023 study utilizing high-resolution seismic profiles from the GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel identified a two-phase failure model, distinguishing the main Storegga Slide event around 8,200 years ago from an earlier Nyegga Slide approximately 20,000 years prior, which had previously been conflated with it. This revision, based on detailed mapping of slide scars and sediment removal depths exceeding 35 meters in the northern segment, adjusted the estimated volume of mobilized material in the Storegga Slide upward to a range of 2,400 to 3,200 cubic kilometers, representing an increase of up to 33% over prior single-event estimates.^[2]^[62] Further expanding the event's geographic scope, a 2025 multi-proxy sediment core analysis published in Scientific Reports provided evidence of tsunami-induced disturbance in the northwestern Barents Sea, approximately 1,000 kilometers north of the slide's origin. Researchers examined microfossil disruptions and grain-size anomalies in cores from the Kveitehola Trough at 75°N, attributing reworking of seabed sediments to strong tsunami currents capable of mobilizing material in water depths up to 400 meters. These findings, corroborated by numerical wave propagation models, indicate that the tsunami's influence extended into Arctic waters, challenging earlier assumptions of a more confined impact zone.^[44] Advancements in computational modeling have enhanced simulations of the slide's dynamics and tsunami generation. The depth-averaged visco-plastic landslide model BingClaw has been employed in post-2020 studies to replicate the slide's runout and material behavior, incorporating remolding effects to better match observed deposit distributions. Complementing this, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approaches, as detailed in 2023 Norwegian Geotechnical Institute reports, have been used for high-fidelity inundation modeling, capturing nonlinear wave interactions and coastal amplification with greater accuracy than earlier shallow-water equations. These tools have validated trigger scenarios by integrating paleoclimate proxies, such as sea-level reconstructions and hydrate stability models, to assess deglaciation's role in slope destabilization.^[40]^[63] A notable 2025 discovery via 2D seismic reflection data revealed the Solsikke Slide, a mega-landslide in the North Sea Fan with a volume exceeding 15,000 cubic kilometers—five times that of the Storegga Slide—buried beneath Quaternary sediments. Dated to the Late Pleistocene, this event's headwall and debris flow deposits suggest it preconditioned the regional slope, potentially contributing to the Storegga Slide's initiation by altering sediment loading and stability. This finding underscores the recurrent nature of large-scale failures in the area, informing hazard assessments for similar margins.^[14]

Future Risks

Recurrence Potential

Geological evidence from scar dating and turbidite records in the Norwegian Sea indicates a recurrence interval of approximately 3,000 to 6,000 years for major submarine landslides in the region, with the Storegga Slide complex serving as a key example of such events.^[64] This estimate derives from the identification of multiple slide phases within the Storegga system, including pre-Holocene precursors spaced over tens of thousands of years, and Holocene turbidite layers that record sediment mobilization patterns. A 2023 reconstruction revised the volume of the main Storegga event to 1,300–2,300 km³, a reduction of approximately 30%, while confirming its significant tsunami generation potential; this update suggests large-scale failures may occur more frequently than previously thought, once per glacial cycle.^[2] For mega-slides exceeding 1,000 km³ in volume, like the primary Storegga event, recurrence intervals extend to around 100,000 years, reflecting the rarity of conditions required for such massive failures.^[1] Historical analogs highlight ongoing activity in the area, with smaller slides occurring after the main Storegga Slide III around 8,200 years ago. Detailed core analyses have identified minor slump events along the northern escarpment, dated to approximately 5,000 and 2,500 years before present, involving localized sediment volumes far smaller than the mega-slide.^[25] These post-Storegga mobilizations suggest a pattern of retrogressive failure and flank instability, where initial large events precondition slopes for subsequent, reduced-scale movements without triggering tsunamis of comparable magnitude.^[65] Precursors to future events are monitored through indicators such as slope creep rates and seismic activity. Seismic monitoring complements these efforts by tracking low-level activity, which, while below thresholds for immediate failure, provides data on stress buildup in the glaciated continental margin. Assessments indicate an approximately 5% probability of a major landslide-tsunami event in the region over the next 200 years, informed by long-term recurrence data.^[64] These evaluations emphasize the low baseline risk for mega-scale events under present geological conditions, though they underscore the need for continued surveillance given the region's history of repetitive sliding. Past events, while varying in scale, illustrate that even smaller analogs could pose localized hazards if mobilized rapidly.

Climate Change Implications

Global warming is projected to accelerate the dissociation of methane hydrates in ocean sediments, particularly along continental margins like the mid-Norwegian shelf where the Storegga Slide occurred.^[66] Ocean temperatures in the North Atlantic are expected to rise by 2–4°C by 2100 under high-emission scenarios, reducing the stability zone for gas hydrates and potentially generating excess pore pressures that weaken slope integrity.^[67] This process, observed in contemporary settings such as Svalbard where warming has already triggered hydrate dissociation and methane leakage, could precondition similar submarine landslides by altering sediment mechanical properties.^[68] In addition to hydrate instability, climate-driven permafrost thaw in Arctic regions is increasing sediment delivery to submarine slopes, heightening the risk of mass wasting.^[69] Thawing submarine permafrost leads to volume loss and liquified sediment flows, which accumulate on continental margins and reduce shear strength, as evidenced by rapid seafloor changes in the Beaufort Sea.^[69] These inputs exacerbate oversteepening and loading on slopes vulnerable to failure, mirroring conditions that may have contributed to past events but amplified under future warming.^[36] Sea-level rise, forecasted at 0.63–1.02 meters by 2100 under high-emission pathways, further destabilizes these slopes through increased hydrostatic loading and overpressurization of sediments.^[70] This loading effect, combined with reduced effective stress, promotes failure on glaciated margins like those in the North Atlantic, where modeling shows sea-level changes can trigger widespread mass movements.^[71] Such dynamics are particularly concerning for the Norwegian-Barents margin, where historical slides correlate with rapid sea-level fluctuations.^[36] Recent studies, including UK Research and Innovation-funded projects through the British Antarctic Survey's Arctic Office, project that Arctic climate change could elevate landslide-tsunami risks to UK coasts by factors of 2–5 times baseline levels by mid-century, driven by isostatic rebound and increased seismicity from ice melt.^[64] These assessments highlight the North Sea's vulnerability, where tsunamis from slides could impact densely populated areas and offshore infrastructure.^[72] Mitigation strategies emphasize real-time monitoring using seabed-deployed sensors for early warning of slope instability. Seismic and acoustic networks, as deployed in the North Sea for geohazard assessment, can detect precursors like microseismicity or deformation, enabling timely evacuations and infrastructure protections.^[73] The Ormen Lange gas field, situated near the Storegga Slide scar, exemplifies this approach, with ongoing sensor-based surveillance to safeguard North Sea energy assets against future risks.^[64]

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The last phase of the Storegga Slide: simulation of retrogressive slide dynamics and comparison with slide-scar morphology ... clays with a moderate sensitivity.
[21]
Parameter studies of sediments in the Storegga Slide region
Aug 5, 2025 · Sediments with higher water content, liquid limit, activity, interclay void ratio, plasticity index and liquidity index showed higher ...
[22]
(PDF) Expanding the footprint of the Storegga tsunami through new ...
Jul 15, 2025 · Here, we present evidence that sediments as far north as the Kveitehola Trough (75° N) in the NW Barents Sea were affected by the Storegga ...
[23]
The dating and morphometry of the Storegga Slide - ScienceDirect
The investigations conclude: (a) The main Storegga Slide event represents one retrogressive event dated to be 7250±250 14C yrs BP or approximately 8100±250 cal.
[24]
The dating and morphometry of the Storegga Slide - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · Recent studies led to revisit the multi-phase history of the Storegga Slide with the identification of an older so-called Nyegga Slide ...
[25]
[PDF] Late Pleistocene submarine mass movements - tonylutz.net
Oct 11, 2018 · three separate events: Storegga I (50–30ka), Storegga II. (8–5ka) and Storegga III (5ka) (see Jansen et al., 1987; ... The dating and morphometry ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
The Storegga Slide: architecture, geometry and slide development
The Storegga Slide can be divided into six distinctive morphological provinces. Associated, and superimposed, on these provinces a total of 63 slide lobe phases ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
Reassessment of Storegga event: second major landslide recognized
Mar 1, 2023 · Seismic reflection surveys independent of the study show the deposition of a variety of large landslide events in deeper sedimentary layers.Missing: reworking Barents
[28]
Possible Indication of the Impact of the Storegga Slide Tsunami on ...
Oct 3, 2024 · Geological traces of tsunami landfall were discovered along the coasts of Norway, Scotland, England, Denmark, the Faroes and Shetland Islands.
[29]
1980 Cataclysmic Eruption | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
The total avalanche volume is about 2.5 km3 (3.3 billion cubic yards), equivalent to 1 million Olympic swimming pools. ... Bulge on the north side of Mount St.
[30]
Timing and frequency of large submarine landslides
Jul 15, 2013 · For comparison, collapse of the Mt St Helens volcano in 1980 involved ∼3 km3 (Voight et al., 1985), whilst the annual global flux of ...
[31]
[PDF] Geometry of a major slump structure in the Storegga slide region ...
The run-out distance was. 450 km for the debris flows and 800 km for the associ- ated turbidity currents (Haflidason et al. 2005). The slide affected an area ...
[32]
(PDF) Dynamics, Velocity and Run-Out of the Giant Storegga Slide
We perform numerical simulations of the giant slide using a Bingham model for the clay material. Agreement with present deposit distribution and run-out is ...
[33]
The Storegga Slide tsunami—comparing field observations with ...
The best fit is obtained for a retrogressive slide having a maximum velocity below 35 m/s, probably around 25–30 m/s. The time lag between the individual ...
[34]
evaluation of triggering sources and slide mechanics - Academia.edu
The Storegga slide occurred about 8200 years ago. The enormous slide was released in an area where the average slope inclination is in the order of 0.6-0.78 ...
[35]
The Storegga Slide complex: repetitive large scale sliding with ...
Seven large pre-Holocene slides on the mid-Norwegian continental margin between 62 and 67°N have been investigated.
[36]
Late Cenozoic glacial history and evolution of the Storegga Slide ...
Age constrains obtained from the investigated cores show that the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet reached the shelf edge during Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 12, 10, 8, 6 ...
[37]
Effects of bottom water warming and sea level rise on Holocene ...
Jun 30, 2004 · The present distribution of GH stability is limited to water depths greater than about 400 m in the Storegga slide area, and the thickness of ...
[38]
Gas hydrate dissociation and sea-floor collapse in the wake of the ...
This indicates fluid escape from the formerly hydrated sediment and suggests that the landslide caused a pressure drop strong enough to dissociate, the gas ...
[39]
The Storegga Geomodel And Its Use In Slide Risk Evaluation
Nov 26, 2002 · The most likely trigger for the sliding is one or a series of strong earthquakes caused by glacio-isostatic rebound following glacial retreat.
[40]
Gas hydrate dissociation in sediments: Pressure‐temperature ...
Mar 22, 2008 · One unit volume of methane hydrate V0 dissociates at a constant pressure of 10 MPa to occupy a combined volume of 2.62 V0 (where water and gas ...
[41]
Landslide Material Control on Tsunami Genesis—The Storegga ...
May 1, 2019 · The fluid mixture was initially contained behind a sliding gate distributed over 10 cm in the dip direction (measured along the sloping plane).
[42]
A multiproxy approach to understanding the impact of the Storegga ...
Jan 15, 2024 · However, radiocarbon dates from this period show activity 15–20 m above contemporary sea-level, suggesting a flexible relationship with regards ...Missing: tephrochronology | Show results with:tephrochronology
[43]
Runup of landslide-generated tsunamis controlled by ... - Nature
Oct 19, 2022 · The well-studied Storegga Slide tsunami represents an important example of how bathymetry controls tsunami height and propagation. Tsunami waves ...
[44]
Expanding the footprint of the Storegga tsunami through ... - Nature
Jul 10, 2025 · Our multi-proxy analysis of a sediment core reveals that the Storegga tsunami disturbed the seabed and reworked the sediments in the northwestern Barents Sea.
[45]
Propagation of the Storegga tsunami into ice-free lakes along the ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Abstract. Deposits in coastal lakes in northernmost Norway reveal that the Storegga tsunami propagated well into the Barents Sea ca. 8100–8200 ...Missing: COMCOT HySEA
[46]
Model simulations of tsunamis generated by the Storegga Slides
A mathematical model based on the hydrodynamic shallow water equations is developed for numerical simulation of water waves generated by the submarine Storegga ...Missing: papers | Show results with:papers
[47]
(PDF) How does multiscale modelling and inclusion of realistic ...
Oct 26, 2025 · PDF | Abstract The ∼ 8.15ka Storegga submarine slide was a large ( ∼ 3000 km3), tsunamigenic slide off the coast of Norway.
[48]
The Storegga Slide tsunami - Comparing field observations with ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The tsunami deposits reach onshore elevations of 10–12 m above sea level of their time in western Norway, 3–6 m in northeast Scotland and above ...
[49]
Modelling reveals Storegga tsunami that hit Scotland ... - Sky News
Jun 4, 2021 · They show that the ancient wave reached 98ft (30m) high and would have travelled 19 miles (30km) inland, wiping out areas such as the town of ...
[50]
The Storegga Slides: Evidence from eastern Scotland for a possible ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The Second Storegga Slide on the continental slope off western Norway has been dated at between 8000 and 5000 yrs B.P. A prominent sand ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
Evaluating the impact of the Storegga tsunami on Mesolithic ...
Dec 19, 2023 · There may also be longer-term effects including lower resilience to the harsher winter months and effects of saline intrusion. The Storegga ...Missing: bogs | Show results with:bogs
[52]
On the varied impact of the Storegga tsunami in northwest Scotland
May 30, 2023 · The Storegga tsunami is the most likely cause of erosion, deposition and changes in microfossil assemblages in the early Holocene.
[53]
The catastrophic final flooding of Doggerland by the Storegga Slide ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Around 8200 calBP, large parts of the now submerged North Sea continental shelf ('Dog-gerland') were catastrophically flooded by the Storegga Slide tsunami.
[54]
Expanding the footprint of the Storegga tsunami through new ...
Jul 10, 2025 · The studied sediment core revealed a redeposited and mixed sediment interval between core depths 41–59 cm (Fig. 2). Proxies from this interval ...
[55]
A great wave: the Storegga tsunami and the end of Doggerland?
Dec 1, 2020 · Around 8150 BP, the Storegga tsunami struck North-west Europe. The size of this wave has led many to assume that it had a devastating impact ...
[56]
[PDF] Detailing the impact of the Storegga Tsunami at Montrose, Scotland
Arguably the best evidence for the Storegga tsunami in Scotland comes from around the Montrose Basin, approximately 45 km northeast of Dundee. At present, this ...Missing: Kyles Bute
[57]
(PDF) Large Submarine Slides in the Norwegian Continental Margin
Aug 6, 2025 · The slide itself was identified when the continental shelf of Norway was mapped in the 1970s (Bugge 1983;Bugge et al. 1978). It was soon ...
[58]
Seafloor reconnaissance and classification of the Storegga Slide ...
Mar 2, 2017 · Bathymetry (in meters) of the Storegga Slide region, showing NR-1 track and outline of Storegga slides 1 and 2 (pink shading after Bugge, 1983).
[59]
Multi-Proxy Characterisation of the Storegga Tsunami and Its Impact ...
We present evidence of a tsunami deposit in the southern North Sea at the head of a palaeo-river system that has been identified using seismic survey.<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
(PDF) A new date for a large pre-Holocene Storegga Slide
Oct 3, 2016 · Through a multi-proxy approach to dating, including radiocarbon analysis, paleomagnetic stratigraphy and coccol- ith biostratigraphy, the date ...
[61]
The Laacher See-eruption (12,920 BP) and material culture change ...
Aug 10, 2025 · ... Storegga Slide is proposed. Before the final flooding by marine waters, freshwater conditions were re-eslablished within the Skalafjord ...
[62]
Reassessment of Storegga event: second major landslide recognized
Mar 1, 2023 · ... (2023), Revised Storegga Slide reconstruction reveals two major submarine landslides 12,000 years apart. Nature, communications earth ...
[63]
[PDF] Why Numerical Simulation? Long-term Tsunami Hazard ... - NGI
Jul 4, 2023 · Modelling inundation from the Storegga slide is performed in 3 different stages: ... Full CFD models can contain far more accurate physics.
[64]
https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=NE%2FK00008X%2F1
[65]
Recent slope mobilizations in the Storegga slide area - ResearchGate
With ~3500 km3 of mobilized material the Storegga Slide off mid-Norway is one of the largest known sub-marine slope failures. It occurred approximately 8150 ...
[66]
Ocean warming and gas hydrate stability on the mid-Norwegian ...
To discuss the sensitivity of gas hydrate stability in the Storegga Slide complex to changes in sea level and bottom water temperature since the last ...
[67]
European sea surface temperature | Indicators
Jun 16, 2025 · According to climate projections, sea surface temperature in European seas are expected to increase another 2-6°C by 2100 under the high emissions scenario.Missing: 4C | Show results with:4C
[68]
Gas hydrate dissociation linked to contemporary ocean warming in ...
Jul 29, 2020 · Ocean warming related to climate change has been proposed to cause the dissociation of gas hydrate deposits and methane leakage on the seafloor.
[69]
Rapid seafloor changes associated with the degradation of Arctic ...
These form where ice-rich permafrost experiences surface thaw causing thaw settlement and release of liquified sediment flows. Because of the loss of volume ...Missing: input | Show results with:input
[70]
Global and European sea level rise | Indicators
Jan 13, 2025 · GMSL will likely rise by 0.28-0.55m under a very low emissions scenario (SSP1-1.9) and 0.63-1.02m under a very high emissions scenario (SSP5-8.5) ...Missing: 0.5- | Show results with:0.5-
[71]
Sea level rise and submarine mass failures on open continental ...
Highlights · Examines the role of sea level rise in submarine mass failures. · Sea level rise increased overpressure in sediments and caused seismic activity.
[72]
Will climate change in the Arctic increase the landslide-tsunami risk ...
The Storegga Slide offshore Norway covers an area larger than Scotland and contains enough sediment to cover all of Scotland to a depth of 80 m.Missing: implications | Show results with:implications
[73]
Seismic and Acoustic Monitoring of Submarine Landslides
Dec 8, 2023 · We discuss new insights into submarine landslide preconditioning, timing, location, velocity, and down-slope evolution arising from these ...