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Marine sediment

Marine sediment consists of particulate matter that settles on the ocean floor through deposition from suspension, transported by water, ice, wind, or gravity, and encompasses a wide range of materials from fine clays to coarse gravels.^[1] These sediments originate from four primary sources: lithogenous (terrigenous), derived from the weathering and erosion of continental rocks and delivered via rivers, winds, glaciers, and coastal processes; biogenous, formed from the remains of marine organisms such as planktonic shells and tests; hydrogenous (authigenic), precipitated directly from seawater through chemical reactions; and cosmogenous, rare contributions from extraterrestrial sources like meteorites and cosmic dust. Classification also occurs by grain size using the Wentworth scale, ranging from clay (<0.004 mm) to boulders (>256 mm), which influences sediment properties like porosity, permeability, and stability.^[1] The distribution of marine sediments is governed by factors such as proximity to source regions, ocean depth, water energy levels, and chemical conditions, resulting in distinct patterns across the seafloor. Lithogenous sediments dominate near continental margins, comprising about 70% of total sediment volume, while biogenous sediments, particularly oozes (defined as >30% biogenic material), cover approximately 55% of the global seafloor, including half of continental shelves and over half of the deep ocean.^[2] Hydrogenous and cosmogenous types are volumetrically minor but widespread, with the former often forming in specific environments like evaporative basins or hydrothermal vents. Sedimentation rates vary, typically slowest in the deep sea at 0.5–2.5 cm per 1,000 years for oozes, reflecting low-energy depositional settings far from land.^[1] Marine sediments play a crucial role in Earth's geochemical cycles, serving as archives of paleoceanographic and paleoclimatic history through preserved fossils, isotopic records, and mineral compositions that reveal past ocean productivity, circulation patterns, and environmental changes. They also influence marine ecosystems by providing habitats for benthic organisms, affecting nutrient recycling, and acting as sinks for pollutants, while their study informs resource exploration, such as hydrocarbons and minerals, and hazard assessment in coastal zones.^[2]

Introduction

Overview

Marine sediments are unconsolidated deposits of insoluble particles, including fragments of rock, soil, and biogenic remains, that accumulate on the seafloor through transportation by wind, water, ice, or gravity.^[3] These materials originate from diverse sources and settle out of suspension under the influence of gravity, forming layers that blanket the ocean bottom from coastal zones to the deepest abyssal plains.^[3] Marine sediments play a pivotal role in oceanography by serving as archives of Earth's climatic, biological, and geological history, preserving records of past environmental conditions through layered deposits that span millions of years.^[4] They contribute to global carbon sequestration by storing vast amounts of organic carbon derived from marine organisms and terrestrial inputs, acting as one of the planet's largest carbon reservoirs and helping regulate atmospheric CO₂ levels.^[5] Additionally, these sediments provide essential habitats for benthic organisms, supporting diverse communities of microorganisms, invertebrates, and other bottom-dwelling species that thrive within and upon the seafloor.^[6] Broadly, marine sediments are classified into four major categories based on their origins: lithogenous (terrigenous) sediments from land-derived materials; biogenous sediments from the remains of marine organisms; hydrogenous (authigenic) sediments formed by chemical precipitation in seawater; and cosmogenous sediments from extraterrestrial sources.^[3] Globally, the total volume of these sediments is estimated at approximately $3.37 \times 10^8 km³, with average accumulation rates ranging from 1 to 10 cm per 1000 years, varying by region and sediment type.^[7]^[8]

Physical Characteristics

Marine sediments are characterized by a diverse array of physical properties that govern their texture, mechanical stability, and geophysical behavior. Texture, a primary attribute, is classified using the Wentworth scale, which delineates grain sizes to reflect sediment type and transport dynamics. Gravel comprises particles greater than 2 mm in diameter, sand ranges from 0.0625 to 2 mm, silt spans 0.0039 to 0.0625 mm, and clay includes particles smaller than 0.0039 mm. Mud is defined as a composite mixture of silt and clay, typically comprising more than 50% of particles finer than 0.0625 mm by weight, which influences suspension and deposition patterns in low-energy marine settings.^[9] Porosity in marine sediments generally varies from 40% to 90%, representing the void space available for fluid retention and migration, with higher values common in unconsolidated fine-grained deposits. Bulk density ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm³, decreasing with increasing porosity due to water content and compaction effects, while grain density remains relatively constant around 2.65–2.75 g/cm³ for quartz-dominated sediments. Permeability exhibits wide variations, from highly permeable coarse sands (up to 10^{-10} m²) to nearly impermeable clays (less than 10^{-18} m²), controlled by grain size, sorting, and cementation, which dictate fluid flow and contaminant transport.^[10] Color, cohesion, sorting, and shear strength provide critical insights into sediment transport histories and depositional environments. Sediment color often signals redox conditions, with dark gray to black tones indicating anoxic, organic-rich reducing environments that favor sulfide formation, and reddish-brown hues reflecting oxidized, iron-rich settings from subaerial exposure or aeolian input. Cohesion in fine-grained sediments arises from electrostatic attractions between clay particles and extracellular polymeric substances, enhancing flocculation and resistance to erosion during low-energy deposition. Sorting reflects hydrodynamic processes, where well-sorted grains (e.g., uniform quartz sands) signify extended transport in high-energy currents, and poorly sorted mixtures indicate proximal or turbulent deposition. Shear strength, quantified through vane shear tests, typically increases from near-zero in freshly deposited muds to 10–50 kPa in consolidated clays, serving as a measure of sediment resistance to failure under loading.^[11]^[12] Acoustic properties of unconsolidated marine sediments are dominated by compressional wave velocities ranging from 1470 to 1785 m/s, primarily modulated by porosity (higher porosity lowers velocity) and grain rigidity (coarser grains elevate it), with absorption rates of 0.5–20 dB/m at frequencies around 30 kHz. These attributes enable seismic profiling for subsurface mapping, where velocities below seawater speed (approximately 1500 m/s) are common in high-porosity muds.^[13]

Composition

Siliceous Sediments

Siliceous sediments in marine environments primarily occur as siliceous ooze, a biogenic deposit composed of the microscopic silica tests, or frustules, of planktonic organisms such as diatoms and radiolarians. These organisms extract dissolved silica from seawater to build their protective skeletons, and upon death, the tests sink to the seafloor, accumulating in areas of high biological productivity. For a sediment to be classified as siliceous ooze, it must contain at least 30% biogenic silica by weight, distinguishing it from other pelagic deposits dominated by clay or carbonate components.^[14] The distribution of siliceous oozes is concentrated in high-latitude regions, including the Southern Ocean, and in equatorial upwelling zones where nutrient upwelling from deeper waters fuels prolific diatom and radiolarian blooms. These environments provide the silicic acid necessary for silica shell formation, leading to substantial flux of biogenic silica to the seafloor. Dissolution dynamics play a key role in their preservation; while siliceous tests are more resistant to dissolution than carbonates, allowing accumulation below the CCD, dissolution of opal occurs throughout the water column and sediments, with rates decreasing in colder deep waters and influenced by silica undersaturation.^[15]^[16] Physically, siliceous oozes exhibit high porosity, often exceeding 70-80%, and low bulk densities around 1.2 g/cm³, owing to the intricate, porous architecture of the frustules that traps interstitial water. These properties contribute to their soft, gel-like consistency in fresh deposits. Over geological time, burial and diagenetic processes transform siliceous ooze into harder lithified forms, such as chert, through progressive dissolution of opal-A (the initial amorphous silica phase) and reprecipitation as microcrystalline quartz, often facilitated by increasing compaction and silica supersaturation in pore waters. In productive regions like the Southern Ocean, accumulation rates typically range from 1 to 5 cm per 1000 years, reflecting the balance between high biogenic input and moderate dissolution losses.^[17]^[18]^[19]

Calcareous Sediments

Calcareous sediments consist primarily of calcareous ooze, which forms from the accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) skeletal remains of planktonic organisms such as foraminifera and coccolithophores, with CaCO₃ comprising more than 30% of the total sediment by weight./06:_Marine_Sediments/6.20:_Oozes) These biogenous contributions dominate the sediment's makeup, resulting in a fine-grained, white to light-colored deposit that reflects high biogenic productivity in surface waters.^[20] These sediments are predominantly distributed in low-latitude regions above the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), typically around 4 to 4.5 km, where the rate of CaCO₃ production exceeds dissolution, covering approximately 48% of the global ocean floor below 500 m water depth.^[21] The CCD marks the boundary below which CaCO₃ dissolution outpaces accumulation due to increasing pressure, lower temperatures, and higher CO₂ concentrations in deeper waters; above this depth, particularly along mid-ocean ridges and seamounts in tropical and temperate zones, calcareous oozes accumulate extensively.^[22] Dissolution begins at shallower levels for more soluble forms like aragonite, with the aragonite lysocline occurring at about 1.5 km in low latitudes.^[23] The key reaction for calcite dissolution, the primary mineral in these sediments, is given by:

\ce{CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O -> Ca^{2+} + 2HCO3^-}

^[24] Over geological time, compaction and cementation of calcareous oozes lead to lithification into chalk or limestone, preserving these deposits in the stratigraphic record.^[21] These sediments play a critical role in marine carbon cycling by sequestering atmospheric CO₂ through biogenic fixation and burial, though detailed mechanisms are addressed elsewhere.^[25]

Lithified Sediments

Lithified sediments represent the hardened rock formations resulting from the post-depositional transformation of unconsolidated marine deposits through diagenetic processes. These processes primarily occur under the influence of burial pressure, temperature, and fluid interactions in marine environments, converting loose particles into durable rocks over geological timescales. Key mechanisms include compaction, where overlying sediment weight expels pore water and reduces porosity—often from around 70% to 20% within the first 2 kilometers of burial in fine-grained marine deposits—and cementation, involving the precipitation of minerals such as calcite or quartz from pore fluids to bind grains together.^[26]^[12] Additional lithification processes encompass pressure dissolution, which deforms grains at contact points under stress, forming features like stylolites in carbonates or sutured quartz in sandstones, thereby further reducing porosity, and silica replacement, where biogenic opal transforms into chalcedony or quartz overgrowths through dehydration and precipitation. These changes typically initiate in shallow burial depths of less than 1 kilometer, with early diagenesis driven by connate marine waters and microbial activity. For instance, precursor oozes from biogenous sources undergo these alterations to form solid rocks. Over time, such transformations contribute to the preservation of ancient marine sequences.^[26]^[26] The resulting rock types from lithified marine sediments vary based on precursor materials. Marine sandstones, derived from lithogenous sands, include quartz arenites dominated by quartz grains and lithic sandstones with rock fragments, often cemented by silica or calcite. Calcareous sediments lithify into limestones, preserving fossil shells through calcite cementation. Siliceous oozes transform into cherts via silica replacement, forming dense, microcrystalline beds. Fine-grained deposits yield mudstones or shales, compacted from clays and silts in deep-marine settings. Notable examples appear in ancient oceanic crust, such as interbedded cherts with pillow lavas in the Neoproterozoic–Cambrian Blovice Accretionary Complex, where chert layers are enclosed within mid-ocean ridge basalt flows, indicating pelagic deposition atop volcanic substrates.^[12]^[12]^[12]^[27] Early diagenetic lithification in marine sediments operates on timescales of thousands to millions of years, with significant calcite recrystallization and porosity reduction occurring within less than 1 million years at shallow depths of 10–200 meters below the seafloor. Reaction rates slow with deeper burial, stabilizing after 25–30 million years, allowing these rocks to record long-term marine history.^[28]^[26]

Environments and Distribution

Coastal Sediments

Coastal sediments are primarily found on continental shelves, which extend from the shoreline to depths of less than 200 meters and cover approximately 8% of the global ocean floor. These areas represent high-energy environments where sediments accumulate in thicker layers compared to deeper oceanic regions, contributing significantly to the overall marine sediment budget through terrigenous inputs from land. Although exact volume percentages vary, continental margin sediments, including those on shelves, are estimated to comprise a substantial portion—over 40%—of the total volume of deposited marine sediments due to rapid accumulation rates driven by riverine discharge and coastal processes.^[29]^[2]^[7] The dominant types of coastal sediments are sands and gravels derived from lithogenous sources, such as eroded continental rocks transported by rivers and redistributed by nearshore currents. These coarse-grained materials are shaped by tidal action, storm surges, and fluctuations in sea level, particularly during the Holocene transgression when rising waters flooded continental margins and reworked pre-existing deposits into barrier systems and beach ridges. For instance, mixed sand-gravel barriers formed along transgressive coasts, overlaying lagoonal and fluvial strata, as seen in various Holocene sequences worldwide. Lithogenous inputs prevail in these settings, with sands and gravels comprising the bulk of nearshore deposits influenced by wave energy and sediment supply.^[11]^[30] Key dynamic processes in coastal sediments include bioturbation and bioirrigation mediated by burrowing organisms. Bioturbation involves the mixing of sediments by infaunal species, typically affecting the upper 10-20 cm layer and altering sediment structure through particle displacement and burrow formation. Bioirrigation complements this by facilitating water exchange through burrow networks, which enhances oxygen penetration and promotes oxidation of reduced compounds in otherwise anoxic zones, thereby influencing nutrient and carbon cycling at the sediment-water interface. These biological activities are most pronounced in the biologically productive shelf environments.^[31]^[32] Recent dynamics in coastal sediments are increasingly affected by climate change, leading to accelerated erosion along many shorelines due to rising sea levels, intensified storms, and reduced sediment delivery from dammed rivers. This erosion exacerbates sediment loss in vulnerable areas, altering coastal morphologies and threatening habitats. Conversely, in sediment-rich systems like the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, progradation continues through high fluvial inputs, extending the subaqueous delta front despite subsidence and sea-level rise challenges. These opposing trends highlight the variable responses of coastal sediment systems to anthropogenic and climatic pressures.^[33]^[34]

Pelagic Sediments

Pelagic sediments dominate the deep ocean floor, accumulating in regions distant from continental influences, primarily on abyssal plains at depths exceeding 4000 meters. These vast, flat expanses cover approximately 50% of the global seafloor, providing expansive areas for slow, continuous deposition. Accumulation rates in these settings are notably low, ranging from 0.1 to 1 cm per 1000 years, reflecting the limited supply of particles in the open ocean environment.^[35]^[36] The primary types of pelagic sediments include red clays and oozes, with hemipelagic deposits occurring in transitional zones near continental margins. Red clays consist of fine-grained lithogenous material derived from wind-blown dust and volcanic ash, combined with cosmogenous components such as micrometeorites, forming a reddish-brown layer due to iron oxide content. Oozes, primarily biogenic, result from the accumulation of microscopic skeletal remains like those from plankton, though their specific compositions vary by region. Hemipelagic sediments represent a mixture of pelagic biogenic and pelagic fine particles with inputs from continental margins, such as riverine silt, comprising 15-20% of the seafloor and often exhibiting higher accumulation in these hybrid settings.^[37]^[36] Distinct depositional features characterize pelagic environments, including turbidites, contourites, and manganese pavements. Turbidites form through gravity-driven flows that transport sediment downslope, resulting in graded bedding sequences where coarser particles settle first, followed by finer ones, creating characteristic fining-upward layers. Contourites arise from the action of deep-water bottom currents, producing well-sorted, parallel-laminated deposits that reflect along-slope transport and can form elongated drifts or sheets. Manganese pavements, also known as ferromanganese crusts, develop as thin, pavement-like encrustations on hard substrates or sediment surfaces, precipitated from seawater through slow accretion of metals over millions of years.^[38]^[39]^[40] The distribution and characteristics of pelagic sediments are governed by several key controls: distance from land, with terrigenous inputs decreasing exponentially with increasing distance from continents; surface productivity gradients, where high biological productivity in upwelling zones enhances biogenic flux to the seafloor; and variations in the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), typically around 4000-4500 meters, below which calcium carbonate dissolves, favoring red clay dominance over calcareous oozes. These factors interact to create latitudinal and bathymetric patterns, with red clays prevalent in low-productivity, deep Pacific regions and oozes more common in shallower, nutrient-rich areas.^[36]^[41]^[42]

Benthic Ecology

Microbial Communities

Microbial communities in marine sediments primarily consist of bacteria, archaea, and protists, which dominate the benthic biosphere due to their high abundance and metabolic versatility.^[43] Bacteria, particularly from phyla such as Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Chloroflexi, form the bulk of these communities in surficial layers, while archaea like those from the Marine Benthic Group (MBG) and Miscellaneous Crenarchaeota Group (MCG) become more prevalent with depth.^[43] Protists, including alveolates (e.g., ciliates and dinoflagellates) and euglenozoans, contribute to eukaryotic diversity, though they are less abundant than prokaryotes.^[43] In surface sediments (upper 10 cm), prokaryotic cell densities typically range from 10^8 to 10^9 cells cm⁻³, decreasing exponentially to 10^3 cells cm⁻³ at depths exceeding 1 km below the seafloor due to diminishing organic carbon availability.^[44]^[45] The diversity of these microbial assemblages is strongly shaped by oxygen gradients, transitioning from oxic surface zones favoring aerobic heterotrophs to anoxic deeper layers dominated by anaerobes.^[43] In oxic sediments, bacterial alpha-diversity is higher, with groups like Alphaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria thriving on oxygen-dependent respiration, whereas anoxic conditions select for sulfate-reducing Deltaproteobacteria and methanogenic archaea.^[43] Recent environmental DNA (eDNA) analyses have extended this understanding to ancient assemblages, revealing persistent microbial lineages over geological timescales; for instance, eDNA from the 2-million-year-old Kap København Formation in North Greenland documents diverse bacterial and archaeal communities adapted to polar marine conditions, including putative sulfate reducers and methanogens. Key metabolic processes driven by these microbes include sulfate reduction and methanogenesis in anoxic zones, alongside biofilm formation on sediment grains.^[46]^[47] Sulfate reduction, mediated by deltaproteobacterial sulfate-reducing microorganisms, serves as the primary terminal electron-accepting process in sulfate-replete anoxic sediments, oxidizing organic matter to sulfide at rates up to 32 nmol cm⁻³ d⁻¹ in surface layers of coastal sites like Aarhus Bay.^[46] Methanogenesis, primarily by hydrogenotrophic archaea such as Methanomicrobia, predominates below the sulfate-methane transition zone, converting ~10% of remineralized organic carbon to methane in deeper sediments.^[43]^[47] Biofilms, formed by pioneer colonizers like the Roseobacter clade and secondary settlers such as Bacteroidetes, adhere to grains via exopolysaccharides and adhesins, stabilizing sediments and facilitating microscale geochemical gradients.^[48] These communities play pivotal roles in nutrient release and organic matter decomposition, fundamentally influencing seafloor biogeochemistry.^[49] Through hydrolysis and fermentation, bacteria and archaea break down particulate organic matter, releasing bioavailable nutrients like ammonium and phosphate into porewaters, with viral lysis recycling up to 80% of prokaryotic biomass to fuel further decomposition.^[43]^[49] Overall, microbial processes remineralize over 90% of organic carbon reaching the seafloor, preventing burial and sustaining the marine carbon cycle, though only ~0.3% escapes as refractory material.^[50]^[51]

Infaunal and Epifaunal Organisms

Infaunal organisms inhabit the interstitial spaces and burrows within marine sediments, including polychaete worms that construct tubes and bivalves such as clams that burrow for feeding and refuge.^[52] These animals rework sediments through deposit feeding and irrigation, enhancing oxygen penetration and nutrient exchange while potentially destabilizing the substrate in high-density assemblages.^[53] Epifaunal organisms, by contrast, reside on or attach to the sediment surface, exemplified by mobile crustaceans like crabs and sessile filter feeders such as sponges, which graze microalgae or suspension-feed without deep penetration.^[54] Interactions between infauna and epifauna often involve competition for space, with tube-building polychaetes like Diopatra cuprea stabilizing sediments and providing habitat complexity that supports epifaunal colonization, while grazing by epifauna can reduce surface microalgae available to infaunal deposit feeders.^[52] Biomass of these communities peaks at mid-continental shelf depths around 60-100 meters in some regions, where elevated organic input from surface productivity supports dense assemblages of infaunal polychaetes and epifaunal echinoderms.^[55] Global benthic invertebrate diversity, encompassing both infauna and epifauna, is estimated at approximately 153,000 described species as of 2019, with the majority residing in sedimentary habitats and contributing to ecosystem engineering through bioturbation and habitat modification.^[56] Biodiversity hotspots occur at cold seeps and hydrothermal vents, where chemosynthetic energy sustains unique, high-biomass communities of tube-dwelling polychaetes and mussel aggregations, despite relatively low overall species richness compared to shelf environments.^[57] Recent research highlights vulnerabilities and methodological advances in studying these organisms; ocean acidification impairs shell formation in epifaunal bivalves like mussels, leading to reduced calcification rates and increased dissolution under chronic exposure to undersaturated conditions.^[58] Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding has emerged as a non-invasive tool for mapping infaunal and epifaunal communities in sediments, enabling detection of cryptic diversity in deep-sea habitats like southern African benthos by analyzing genetic traces in water and substrate samples.^[59]

Biogeochemical Roles

Carbon and Nutrient Cycling

Marine sediments play a critical role in the global carbon cycle by acting as both sinks for organic carbon burial and sites for remineralization through degradation processes. Globally, the burial of organic carbon in marine sediments is estimated at 0.1–0.2 GtC per year, representing a long-term sequestration mechanism that removes carbon from the active biosphere and atmosphere.^[60] This burial primarily occurs in continental margin and shelf environments, where particulate organic matter sinks and accumulates faster than it decomposes. However, much of the deposited organic matter undergoes remineralization, particularly via aerobic oxidation in oxic layers, following the simplified reaction:

\ce{CH2O + O2 -> CO2 + H2O}

This process releases dissolved inorganic carbon back to the overlying water column, limiting net burial efficiency to less than 1% of primary production.^[61] Sedimentation rates and oxygen availability exert primary controls on these carbon dynamics. Higher sedimentation rates promote burial by rapidly covering organic matter, reducing exposure to oxidants, while oxygen penetration depths typically range from 1 to 10 cm in most marine sediments, delineating the zone of aerobic remineralization. Bioturbation by infaunal organisms enhances oxygen penetration and solute exchange, increasing remineralization rates but also potentially facilitating deeper burial in mixed sediments.^[62] In anoxic deeper layers, alternative remineralization pathways dominate, preserving more refractory carbon. Marine sediments also mediate nutrient cycling, particularly for phosphorus and nitrogen, influencing primary productivity in overlying waters. Phosphorites, authigenic mineral deposits in shelf and slope sediments, serve as a major sink for phosphorus, burying reactive forms through adsorption and precipitation under low-oxygen conditions.^[63] For nitrogen, microbial communities drive fixation of atmospheric N₂ into bioavailable forms within sediments, counterbalancing losses, while denitrification in anoxic layers converts nitrate to N₂ gas, removing fixed nitrogen at rates that can exceed 100–300 μmol N m⁻² h⁻¹ in productive margins.^[64] These processes link sediment geochemistry to ocean nutrient inventories, with burial fluxes scaling to global scales of ~0.01 GtP yr⁻¹ for phosphorus and variable nitrogen losses tied to organic matter input.^[65] Coastal sediments, including those in mangrove ecosystems, contribute disproportionately to carbon sequestration as part of "blue carbon" storage. Mangroves alone account for 10–20% of global organic carbon burial despite occupying less than 1% of coastal areas, with burial rates up to 140 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ due to high productivity and sediment trapping.^[66] This enhanced sequestration underscores the vulnerability of marginal sediments to human disturbances, amplifying their biogeochemical importance.

Pollutant Accumulation

Marine sediments serve as significant sinks for anthropogenic pollutants, including heavy metals such as lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg), persistent organic pollutants like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and microplastics. These contaminants enter marine environments primarily through riverine inputs, atmospheric deposition, and direct coastal discharges, with fine-grained sediments—particularly clays—facilitating their accumulation due to high surface area and adsorption capacity. For instance, heavy metals and PCBs preferentially bind to particles less than 63 μm in size, concentrating in muddy coastal and estuarine deposits where organic matter further enhances sorption. Microplastics, defined as plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, contribute substantially, with primary microplastics alone estimated at 15,000 to 51,000 tonnes entering oceans annually from sources like cosmetics and industrial abrasives.^[67]^[68]^[69] Key processes driving pollutant retention in sediments include adsorption onto mineral surfaces and organic coatings, followed by bioaccumulation in benthic organisms. Adsorption occurs via ion exchange and complexation, particularly for metals like Pb and Hg, which form stable bonds with clay minerals such as montmorillonite and illite. PCBs, being hydrophobic, partition into sedimentary organic carbon, with partition coefficients (K_oc) often exceeding 10^5 L/kg. Bioaccumulation then transfers these pollutants up the food chain, as infaunal species ingest contaminated particles, leading to elevated tissue concentrations—e.g., Hg levels in polychaetes can reach 1-10 μg/g dry weight in polluted areas. Hotspots are prevalent in estuaries, where reduced flow promotes deposition; a notable example is the legacy pollution from World War II shipwrecks, such as the V-1302 John Mahn in the North Sea, where explosives and metals continue to leach into sediments 80 years after sinking, altering local geochemistry and microbial communities.^[70]^[71]^[72] Recent research highlights microplastics' role as vectors for toxins, adsorbing PCBs and metals on their surfaces—up to 10^6 times their water concentration—facilitating transport and enhanced bioavailability to organisms. Studies from 2023-2025 have expanded understanding of deep-sea distribution, revealing microplastic abundances from 10^{-4} to 10^4 particles per cubic meter in subsurface layers, with sinking fluxes at seamounts reaching seasonal peaks of hundreds of particles per square meter per day. In Arctic deep-sea sediments, microplastic concentrations can exceed 10,000 particles per kilogram, underscoring sediments as a vast reservoir estimated at 3-11 million tonnes globally. Remediation strategies include dredging to remove contaminated layers and in situ capping with clean sand or geotextiles to isolate pollutants, though these methods pose ecological risks to benthic communities, such as habitat disruption and temporary increases in suspended solids that stress infaunal populations. Dredging efficiency varies (50-90% contaminant removal), but resuspension can redistribute toxins, while capping reduces bioavailability by over 90% in successful cases.^[73]^[74]^[75]^[76]^[77]

Study Methods

Sampling Techniques

Marine sediment sampling techniques primarily involve coring devices deployed from various platforms to collect undisturbed samples from the seafloor, enabling the study of sediment composition, structure, and processes. These methods are essential for capturing vertical profiles in diverse environments, from coastal shelves to deep-sea basins, while minimizing disturbance to delicate layers. Core sampling dominates due to its ability to retrieve intact sequences, though challenges arise in preserving sample integrity during retrieval.^[78] Common core types include gravity and piston corers, which penetrate soft sediments using the device's weight or a suction mechanism created by a piston, respectively, achieving depths up to 50 m in favorable conditions. Gravity corers rely on free-fall impact for penetration, typically recovering near-surface layers, while piston corers reduce friction and compression for longer, less disturbed samples. For surface sediments, box corers employ a large open box lowered to the seafloor, capturing a broad area (e.g., 50 cm x 50 cm) up to 75 cm deep with a closing spade to seal the sample. Multicorers, deploying multiple tubes simultaneously, are designed for retrieving several parallel, undisturbed overlying water and sediment interface layers, ideal for replicate studies of benthic processes.^[79]^[80]^[81]^[82]^[83] Sampling platforms range from research ships for deploying heavy corers via winches to remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and human-occupied submersibles for precise, targeted collections in complex terrains. Ships facilitate large-scale operations but are limited in maneuverability, while ROVs and submersibles allow real-time navigation and sampling at depths exceeding 6,000 m using manipulator arms. Deep-sea challenges include extreme hydrostatic pressure, which can deform samples, and strong bottom currents that hinder positioning and cause sediment resuspension, necessitating advanced stabilization systems like dynamic positioning thrusters.^[84]^[85] Recent advancements include the use of autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) for efficient shallow-water sampling, where they navigate autonomously to collect sediment cores with integrated push corers, reducing operational costs and human risk in coastal zones. In deep-sea contexts, the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) expeditions in 2023, such as Expedition 399 at the Atlantis Massif, achieved long-core drilling recoveries exceeding 200 m with over 70% success rates, advancing capabilities for subseafloor sediment access through riserless drilling technologies. The 2024 FUTURE workshop further assessed current and future needs for US marine seafloor sampling capabilities.^[86]^[87]^[88] Sample preservation post-collection is critical to maintain physical and biological integrity; refrigeration at 4°C prevents microbial degradation in sediment cores, while chemical fixation with 10% formalin or ethanol preserves infaunal organisms for later analysis. These methods, applied immediately upon retrieval, ensure minimal alteration before laboratory processing.^[78]^[89]

Analytical Approaches

Analytical approaches to marine sediments encompass a range of laboratory and geophysical techniques that extract physical, chemical, and biological data to reconstruct sediment properties and environmental histories. Grain size analysis is a fundamental method for characterizing sediment texture, with traditional sieving applied to coarser fractions (>63 μm) to determine particle distribution, while laser diffraction enables rapid assessment of finer particles (down to <1 μm) by measuring light scattering patterns, offering higher resolution for marine samples compared to pipette methods.^[90]^[91] Mineralogical composition is determined through X-ray diffraction (XRD), which identifies and quantifies crystalline phases in the <2 mm fraction of sediments, revealing dominant minerals like quartz, feldspar, and carbonates in marine cores.^[92]^[93] Stable isotope analysis, particularly δ¹⁸O in foraminiferal calcite, serves as a paleotemperature proxy, where variations reflect changes in seawater oxygen isotope ratios and formation temperatures, calibrated against modern analogs.^[94]^[95] Radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dating of organic matter in sediments provides chronological control up to approximately 50 ka, with marine samples requiring calibration curves to account for reservoir effects and bioturbation.^[96]^[97] Proxy records from marine sediments enable reconstruction of past environments, with foraminiferal assemblages indicating paleoclimate shifts through species distributions sensitive to temperature, salinity, and productivity; for instance, shifts from tropical to polar species in deep-sea cores signal glacial-interglacial transitions.^[98]^[99] Environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis of ancient sediments has revealed biodiversity over multimillion-year timescales, as demonstrated by a 2022 study extracting 2 Ma plant and animal sequences from North Greenland sediments, highlighting an ecosystem with mastodons, hares, and birch forests during a warmer Pliocene-Pleistocene interval.^[100] Geophysical methods, such as seismic profiling, delineate sediment stratigraphy by analyzing acoustic reflections, with velocity models showing typical ranges of 1500–4000 m/s in unconsolidated to semi-consolidated marine layers, aiding in layer identification and thickness estimation.^[101] Recent seismoacoustic techniques, advanced in 2023–2025 studies, detect gas hydrates through velocity anomalies and attenuation patterns in sediments, where hydrate presence increases P-wave speeds by 200–500 m/s relative to water-saturated pores.^[102]^[103] These analytical methods support applications in resource exploration and climate modeling. In resource contexts, sediment analysis identifies polymetallic nodules rich in manganese, nickel, and cobalt on abyssal plains, with XRD and grain size data guiding extraction feasibility in areas like the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, while seismic profiling maps hydrocarbon reservoirs in overlying sediments.^[104]^[105] For climate modeling, proxy data from sediment cores, including δ¹⁸O and foraminiferal records, calibrate models of past CO₂ responses, such as Pliocene warming events, by integrating with forward modeling tools like Sedproxy to simulate proxy signals from simulated ocean states.^[106]^[107]

Historical Perspectives

Evolutionary Records

Marine sediments serve as a primary archive for tracing the evolutionary history of marine life and environmental changes, preserving microfossils and geochemical signatures that span billions of years. Fossil oozes, composed of biogenic remains such as those from plankton, provide detailed records of biological evolution; for instance, the Late Cretaceous chalk formations in northwestern Europe originated from calcareous oozes dominated by coccoliths, the calcite scales of coccolithophore algae, which proliferated during this period and contributed to significant carbon sequestration in the oceans. These deposits illustrate the diversification of planktonic organisms, with coccolithophores becoming key players in marine ecosystems by the mid-Cretaceous, influencing global biogeochemical cycles through their biomineralization processes.^[108]^[109] Geochemical anomalies in marine sediments also mark pivotal evolutionary events, such as mass extinctions. The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary is characterized by iridium spikes in deep-sea sediments worldwide, resulting from the Chicxulub asteroid impact approximately 66 million years ago, which caused the extinction of about 75% of Earth's species, including non-avian dinosaurs and many marine plankton groups, fundamentally reshaping ocean ecosystems.^[110] Earlier, the Great Oxidation Event around 2.4 billion years ago is evidenced by banded iron formations in ancient marine sediments, where oxygen produced by early photosynthetic cyanobacteria oxidized dissolved iron in seawater, leading to its precipitation and a dramatic shift in Earth's atmosphere from anoxic to oxygenated conditions, enabling the evolution of aerobic life.^[111] During the Cenozoic era, siliceous oozes from diatoms and radiolarians record progressive ocean cooling, with biogenic opal isotopes indicating a decline in sea surface temperatures from Eocene warmth to Pleistocene glaciation, driven by tectonic changes and carbon cycle feedbacks that altered silica availability and marine productivity. Recent advances in sedimentary ancient DNA (sedaDNA) analysis of Pleistocene marine sediments have revealed lost ecosystems, such as diverse microbial and metazoan communities in now-submerged coastal habitats, providing insights into biodiversity responses to glacial-interglacial cycles. In 2025, Pacific Ocean sediment cores from equatorial sites have further illuminated ice age transitions, showing millennial-scale shifts in deep-thermocline cooling linked to Antarctic ice volume increases, which influenced global ocean circulation and marine evolutionary pressures.^[112]^[113]^[114] The significance of these records lies in marine sediments' ability to preserve a continuous, high-resolution chronicle of Earth's biological history, capturing evolutionary innovations and environmental upheavals that shaped life on the planet over geological timescales. Unlike terrestrial archives, which are often incomplete due to erosion, deep-sea sediments retain microfossils and proxies that provide high-resolution evidence for much of the Cenozoic and late Mesozoic fossil record, offering unparalleled evidence for understanding life's adaptability to past climate extremes.^[115]

Research Developments

The Challenger Expedition (1872–1876) pioneered the systematic collection of marine sediment samples through extensive dredging operations, successfully retrieving deep-sea deposits from 111 stations across global oceans and establishing foundational insights into seafloor composition.^[116] In the 1890s, Sir John Murray and Alphonse François Renard analyzed these samples to classify deep-sea sediments into major categories, including terrigenous (land-derived) and pelagic (ocean-derived) deposits, which formed the basis for understanding global sediment distribution.^[117] The mid-20th century saw transformative advances with the Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES) launching the Deep Sea Drilling Project in 1968 aboard the Glomar Challenger, which recovered continuous sediment cores revealing oceanic sediments to be less than 1 km thick underlain by basement rock, thereby confirming key aspects of seafloor spreading.^[118] These findings integrated with emerging plate tectonics theory, demonstrating how sediments are recycled through subduction at convergent margins, where trench infilling and metamorphic devolatilization facilitate material return to the mantle.^[119] From 2023 to 2025, the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) has advanced understanding of sea-level fluctuations and sediment deposition.^[120] Concurrently, artificial intelligence applications, such as deep learning models for semantic segmentation of core images, have automated lithological identification and facies classification, enhancing efficiency in processing vast sediment datasets from marine expeditions.^[121] Studies on climate-sediment feedbacks have highlighted asymmetric infilling of incised valleys during glacial cycles, with southeastern Korean examples preserving one-and-a-half sea-level cycles of uneven deposition influenced by eustatic changes since the Penultimate Glacial Maximum.^[122] Addressing emerging research gaps, investigations into microplastics have quantified marine sediments as a major global sink, holding an estimated 170 Tg of nonfibrous plastic—far exceeding surface accumulations—and emphasized their long-term burial via turbidity currents.^[123] Similarly, sustainability concerns in deep-sea mining have intensified, with 2023–2025 assessments revealing persistent sediment plume disruptions lasting over four decades and underscoring the need for policies to mitigate carbon storage loss in seafloor deposits.^[124]^[125]

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Biological proxies include remains of living organisms, such as pollen, foraminifera ... marine sediments. The oldest diatoms are found in rocks dating to the ...Paleoclimate Proxies · Physical Proxies · Biological Proxies
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[PDF] traditional and emerging geochemical proxies in foraminifera
The increasing use of isotope and trace element geochemical proxies has greatly enhanced the utility of benthic foraminifera in these types of studies. PLANKTIC ...
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A 2-million-year-old ecosystem in Greenland uncovered by ... - Nature
Dec 7, 2022 · Here we report an ancient environmental DNA 6 (eDNA) record describing the rich plant and animal assemblages of the Kap København Formation in North Greenland.Missing: biodiversity | Show results with:biodiversity
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[PDF] Analysis of High-Resolution Single Channel Seismic Data for Use in ...
A sound velocity of 1,500 meters per second (m/s) was used to characterize the signal speed within the sediments so that the target depth could be determined,.
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(PDF) Influence of Gas Hydrate on the Acoustic Properties of Sediment
May 27, 2025 · This review of research on the influence of hydrate (content and distribution) on the acoustic properties (velocity and attenuation) of ...
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Theoretical and experimental studies on the physical properties and ...
Mar 1, 2025 · To examine the characteristics of marine gas-bearing sediments, several researchers have utilized acoustic propagation methods to analyze the ...Missing: seismoacoustic | Show results with:seismoacoustic
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Global Seabed Mineral Resources | U.S. Geological Survey
Over millions of years, spheroidal rocks called manganese nodules (or polymetallic nodules) form atop sediment covering the abyssal plains of the global ocean.
[125]
Deep-Ocean Mineral Deposits: Metal Resources and Windows into ...
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Sedproxy: a forward model for sediment-archived climate proxies - CP
Nov 30, 2018 · Climate reconstructions based on proxy records recovered from marine sediments, such as alkenone records or geochemical parameters measured ...
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Marine Sediments Reveal Past Climate Responses to CO 2 Changes
Sep 21, 2023 · Climate records stored in marine sediments reveal different ice sheet and ocean responses to falling atmospheric CO 2 concentrations from the warm Pliocene to ...
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Paleoecology of Late Cretaceous Coccolithophores: Insights From ...
Feb 19, 2021 · Their carbonate oozes play a major role in fixing CO2, thereby forming the most important long-term CO2 sink since the Late Cretaceous (100-66 ...2 Geological Setting · 2.2 Geology Of The Study... · 3 Materials And Methods
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Biomineralization Within Vesicles: The Calcite of Coccoliths
Mar 3, 2017 · ... sea sediments, forming vast accumulations of calcareous oozes and chalks, including the Late Cretaceous chalks of Northwestern Europe.Introduction · Life Cycles · Holococcoliths
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Globally distributed iridium layer preserved within the Chicxulub ...
Feb 24, 2021 · The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction is marked globally by elevated concentrations of iridium, emplaced by a hypervelocity impact ...
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Fluctuating evolution of seawater oxygen before the Great Oxidation ...
May 1, 2025 · Behind the paper. In Precambrian sedimentary records, banded iron formations serve as a key proxy for reconstructing the Great Oxidation Event.
[132]
Biogenic opal δ 18 O in marine deep-sea sediments through the ...
Oct 5, 2024 · We provide an alternative record of sea surface water characteristics of Cenozoic Era by measuring δ18O of siliceous microfossils. This scarce ...
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The Potential of Sedimentary Ancient DNA to Reconstruct Past ...
Jul 20, 2020 · Sedimentary ancient DNA (sedaDNA) offers a novel approach to investigating past marine ecosystems—from the smallest bacteria to phytoplankton ...Missing: lost | Show results with:lost
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Quaternary deep-thermocline cooling enhanced by southern Pacific ...
Oct 17, 2025 · Our proxy records point to a freshening of the tropical Pacific deep-thermocline and exhibit a strong coupling to the volume increase of the ...<|separator|>
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Marine Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks: A Dozen Dead Oceans
Nov 25, 2015 · This resource presents concepts related to the formation of marine sedimentary rocks, particularly limestone. The ideas can be tied to ...Missing: archives | Show results with:archives
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HMS Challenger Expedition | History of a Scientific Trailblazer
Along its route, the expedition performed 374 deep-sea soundings, took 255 observations of water temperature, successfully deployed the dredge at 111 stations ...
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Report on the scientific results of the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger ...
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Results of the JOIDES Deep Sea Drilling Project: 1968–1971
Jun 13, 1971 · These showed that Sediments under most of the oceans appeared to be less than 1 kilometer in thickness and are underlain by reflecting "basement ...
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Sediment recycling at convergent plate margins (Indo-Burman ...
Introduction. Recycling of clastic rocks may occur extensively in any plate-tectonic setting, including stable cratons, rifted margins, arc-trench systems and ...
[140]
Grain size analysis and depositional pattern of sediments from IODP ...
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Sediment core analysis using artificial intelligence | Scientific Reports
Nov 21, 2023 · We outline a novel deep-learning-based approach to perform automatic semantic segmentation directly on core images, leveraging the power of convolutional ...
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Asymmetric evolution of incised-valley deposits in response to sea ...
The Nakdong incised-valley fills shows that one and a half sea-level cycle was preserved in an incised-valley system during Last Glacial Maximum periods.
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Ocean sediments as the global sink for marine micro‐ and ... - ASLO
May 20, 2022 · Marine sediments are estimated to hold 170 Tg (25-900 Tg) of nonfibrous plastic, making them a major sink, much higher than floating plastic.
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Deep sea mining impacts still felt forty years on, study shows | Reuters
Mar 26, 2025 · Study shows long-term Pacific Ocean seabed damage from 1979 mining; Environmental groups urge halt to deep sea mining; Canada's TMC plans ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] DEEP-SEA MINING - International Seabed Authority
32 Marine sediments store more than twice as much carbon as land-based soils. Disruption of the deep seafloor has already been shown to reduce its carbon.