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Svir

The Svir (Russian: Свирь) is a river located in the northeastern part of Leningrad Oblast, Russia, flowing westward from Lake Onega into Lake Ladoga over a distance of 224 kilometers (139 miles).^[1]^[2] It serves as the largest tributary to Lake Ladoga, with a drainage basin spanning 84,400 square kilometers (32,600 square miles), regulated primarily by the waters of Lake Onega.^[1]^[3] The river's total gradient measures approximately 28 meters, supporting navigation and hydropower while connecting two of Europe's largest lakes as part of the broader Volga-Baltic inland waterway system.^[2]^[3] Historically, the Svir has facilitated trade and transport since the development of canals linking it to the Neva River under Peter the Great in the 18th century, evolving into the modern Mariinsky and Volga-Baltic systems that enable vessel passage from the Baltic Sea to central Russia.^[2] Two major hydroelectric power stations exploit its flow: the Upper Svir station near Podporozhye, with an installed capacity of 160 megawatts, and the Lower Svir station at Svirstroy, generating 99 megawatts, both contributing to Russia's energy grid since their construction in the mid-20th century.^[4]^[5] Ecologically, the Svir supports diverse habitats including wetlands critical for wader breeding and migration, though hydroelectric dams have modified its natural regime, influencing downstream nutrient delivery to Lake Ladoga and broader aquatic biodiversity.^[6]^[7]

Geography

Course and basin

The Svir River originates from the southwestern shore of Lake Onega near the town of Podporozhye in Podporozhsky District of Leningrad Oblast, Russia. It flows westward for 224 kilometers through Lodeynopolsky and Volkhovsky districts before discharging into Lake Ladoga near Svirstroy.^[8] The river's drainage basin spans approximately 84,400 square kilometers, encompassing upstream areas from Lake Onega that extend into the Republic of Karelia and Vepsian-inhabited territories in northwestern Russia. This basin is dominated by taiga forests, including coniferous stands typical of the boreal zone, with interspersed wetlands and hilly terrain rising to elevations of 100-300 meters in peripheral regions. Naturally, the Svir exhibits a total elevation drop of about 28 meters, reflecting the difference between Lake Onega's surface level of roughly 33 meters above sea level and Lake Ladoga's at 5 meters, concentrated in rapids along the upper course amid meandering channels. River width ranges from 50 to 300 meters, with average depths of 4 meters and maximums up to 5-10 meters in deeper pools, though the shallow profile and fog-prone conditions historically challenged navigation.^[2]^[9]

Physical features

The Svir River flows through a post-glacial valley sculpted during the retreat of the Fennoscandian ice sheet around 11,000 years ago, connecting Lake Onega to Lake Ladoga in northwestern Russia.^[10] This formation reflects the broader deglaciation dynamics of the Baltic region, where meltwater carved drainage channels amid stabilizing landforms. The river's path lies within the Baltic Shield, a Precambrian craton dominated by granitic and gneissic bedrock of Archean and Proterozoic origins, which exposes resistant crystalline rocks that resist erosion and foster a rugged channel morphology.^[11] These geological foundations manifest in pronounced rapids, including the Ivinsky Rapids upstream and the more extensive Podporozhsky Rapids downstream, where the bedrock thresholds create steep drops and turbulent flows amid low overall relief. The average channel slope measures approximately 0.01%, derived from an elevation drop of roughly 25-30 meters over the river's 224-kilometer length, promoting meandering in softer sediments interspersed with rocky outcrops. Subarctic continental climate conditions prevail, featuring cold winters and moderate summers, with annual precipitation averaging 600-700 mm, of which 30-40% occurs as snowfall that accumulates to drive seasonal hydrological variability.^[12] Ice cover typically forms from late November to early April, thickening to 0.5-1 meter and halting surface flow, while spring snowmelt triggers annual floods that elevate water levels by 3-5 meters and enhance erosion along exposed banks. Low sediment loads characterize the river due to the shield's minimal weathering rates, resulting in clear waters with limited alluvial deposition except in broader valley segments. These attributes underscore the Svir's stability as a low-gradient, glacially inherited waterway shaped by enduring tectonic and climatic forces.

Hydrology

Flow regime and discharge

The Svir River exhibits a snowmelt-dominated flow regime, characteristic of rivers in northwestern Russia's taiga zone, where precipitation and upstream lake outflows drive seasonal variability. In its natural state, prior to mid-20th-century dam construction, the river experienced pronounced spring flooding from April to June, fueled by snowmelt from the Onega Lake basin, which contributes approximately 75% of the annual runoff. Average annual discharge at the mouth into Lake Ladoga measures 790 cubic meters per second (m³/s), with peak flows historically reaching several times this volume during freshets, while winter minima under ice cover dropped to 200-300 m³/s due to reduced precipitation and frozen inflows.^[13]^[14] Hydrological gauges along the Svir, particularly near Podporozhye, have recorded significant interannual variability influenced by Lake Onega's storage and release dynamics, amplifying flood risks during ice breakup in late April to early May. This ice regime typically involves freeze-up from November to December, leading to stagnant low flows beneath 0.5-1 meter of ice, followed by abrupt break-up that historically inundated adjacent settlements and lowlands. Empirical data indicate that unregulated spring peaks could exceed 2,000-3,000 m³/s in high-precipitation years, contrasting with base flows sustained by groundwater and minor tributaries during summer and autumn.^[15] Construction of the Ivinskaya and Podporozhskaya hydroelectric stations in the 1940s-1950s introduced flow regulation via reservoirs, which store snowmelt excess and release water more evenly for power generation and navigation. This has stabilized discharges to 500-1,000 m³/s year-round, markedly reducing flood frequency and severity by attenuating peak waves from upstream lakes. However, regulation has promoted sediment accumulation in impoundments, altering downstream channel morphology and long-term erosion patterns, as evidenced by post-construction monitoring of reservoir siltation rates.^[16]

Tributaries and water balance

The Svir receives inflows from multiple tributaries during its course from Lake Onega to Lake Ladoga. The Oyat, its principal left-bank tributary, measures 266 km in length with a drainage basin of 5,220 km².^[17] The Pasha, another significant left-bank tributary entering near the mouth, extends 242 km and drains peat-influenced terrain.^[18] The Vazhinka provides right-bank input upstream.^[7] These and smaller streams collectively augment the river's flow by approximately 25%, as the initial discharge derives mainly from Lake Onega outflow.^[7] The Svir's average annual discharge totals 790 m³/s, corresponding to a volume of 24.9 km³/year.^[1] ^[7] At its source, this equates to 18.6–18.8 km³/year from Lake Onega, reflecting 84% of the lake's net runoff after evaporation.^[19] ^[7] Water balance components emphasize lake inflow dominance, with tributary contributions, direct basin precipitation, and negligible groundwater (<1% in analogous lake systems) forming secondary inputs.^[19] Evaporation induces isotopic enrichment, particularly in summer, but precise losses for the Svir proper remain unquantified beyond seasonal patterns observed in the broader basin; the river nonetheless achieves net export to Lake Ladoga, sustaining downstream Baltic Sea drainage.^[19] ^[7] Tributary waters from swampy Vepsian catchments carry elevated organic loads, yielding high color indices (60–360° Pt) and spring suspended solids of ~2 mg/L, which diminish clarity without substantially elevating turbidity beyond regional norms.^[7]

Infrastructure

Hydroelectric stations

The Lower Svir Hydroelectric Station, situated in Svirstroy, Leningrad Oblast, was built from 1927 to 1935 as an early Soviet engineering feat on soft-ground foundations, marking a pioneering application of such techniques globally.^[20] It operates with an installed capacity of 99 MW across three turbines and generates an average of 490 million kWh annually.^[21] The station's concrete spillway dam, measuring 220 meters in length, supports run-of-river operations with modest storage for flow regulation.^[22] The Upper Svir Hydroelectric Station, located near Podporozhye, was commissioned in 1952 with four Kaplan turbines totaling 160 MW of installed capacity.^[4] It impounds the Ivinsky Razliv Reservoir, enabling peaking operations, and produces approximately 589 million kWh per year.^[23] Both stations, managed by PJSC TGC-1, function within a cascade system emphasizing high turbine efficiency above 90% and integration into the regional grid for load balancing, leveraging the Svir's steady flow regime.^[4] The Svir River forms a critical segment of the Volga–Baltic Waterway, linking Lake Onega to Lake Ladoga and enabling maritime connectivity between the Baltic Sea, the Volga River basin, and, via Lake Onega and associated canals such as the Onega Canal, the White Sea–Baltic Canal system.^[24]^[25] This integration supports year-round navigation for vessels, interrupted only by ice cover typically from December to April, accommodating river-sea ships with drafts up to 4.2 meters through maintained channel depths of 3.5–4 meters.^[26]^[2] Navigation on the Svir is facilitated by locks integrated with the river's hydroelectric infrastructure, primarily at the Upper and Lower Svir stations, with a third lock contributing to the cascade; these structures overcome the river's total elevation drop of approximately 24 meters.^[27] The locks, constructed primarily between the 1920s and 1950s as concrete facilities, feature chambers designed for vessels up to 210 meters in length and 17 meters in beam, aligned with Volga–Baltic standards for Class O inland ships carrying 2,000–3,000 tons.^[28] The Lower Svir lock, operational since 1936, exemplifies early engineering with gates opening upstream and chambers around 20 meters wide, while ongoing maintenance ensures seepage control and wall integrity for reliable passage.^[29]^[30] Cargo traffic on the Svir historically emphasized bulk commodities such as timber, petroleum products, and metals, with annual volumes reaching several million tons in the Soviet era but declining post-1991 due to competition from rail and road transport, stabilizing at around 2 million tons in recent assessments of the broader waterway.^[31] This shift reflects systemic challenges in Russian inland navigation, including aging infrastructure and reduced state subsidies, though the route remains vital for regional freight linking northwestern industrial centers. Passenger navigation has conversely expanded, with seasonal cruise operations increasing since the 1990s to serve tourism between Moscow and St. Petersburg, utilizing the locks for over 50 vessels annually during ice-free periods.^[25]

History

Pre-20th century development

The Svir River basin was traditionally inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples, including the Veps and Karelians, who settled the region by the early first millennium AD and relied on the waterway for fishing, local transport, and subsistence activities.^[32]^[33] Northern Veps communities lived adjacent to the river, utilizing its resources amid forested terrain that supported seasonal exploitation.^[34] In 1487, monk Alexander Svirsky, originating from Valaam Monastery, founded the Holy Trinity Alexander-Svirsky Monastery on the eastern bank of the Svir near Lake Roshchinsky, establishing a key Orthodox religious site that drew pilgrims and fostered early settlements along the river.^[35] The monastery complex, including a wooden Trinity Church built that year (later replaced by stone in 1526), served as a spiritual and economic hub, with the founder's relics preserved in the Transfiguration Cathedral constructed in 1641–1644.^[36] Early 18th-century Russian expansion intensified river use when Tsar Peter I established the Olonets Shipyard in 1702 at Mokrishvitsa on the Svir's left bank, renaming the site Lodeynoye Pole and launching the Baltic Fleet's first warship there in August 1703 using locally sourced timber floated down the waterway.^[37] This shipbuilding effort capitalized on the Svir's flow from Lake Onega, providing access to abundant pine forests for masts and hulls essential to naval construction.^[38] Imperial navigation enhancements followed, with Peter I directing the Ladoga Canal's construction from 1719 to 1731 to link the Svir directly to the Neva River, bypassing Lake Ladoga's hazards and facilitating timber, grain, and supply transport to the new capital of St. Petersburg.^[2] These improvements integrated the Svir into broader inland waterway networks, supporting economic ties between northern forests and urban centers through the 19th century prior to electrification and major damming.^[39]

World War II significance

During the Continuation War, Finnish forces allied with Germany advanced into Soviet Karelia in the summer of 1941, reaching the Svir River by early September and establishing defensive positions along its 224-kilometer course between Lakes Onega and Ladoga. The river's swift currents and marshy surroundings formed a formidable natural obstacle, enabling Finnish VI Corps to secure a bridgehead up to 100 kilometers wide and halt further advances, transitioning to a static defense against Soviet counteroffensives. This positioning prevented Soviet forces from threatening Leningrad from the northeast while conserving Finnish resources for other fronts.^[40]^[41] Soviet attempts to breach the Svir line included a major assault in April 1942 near the Svir Hydroelectric Station close to Podporozhye, involving infantry divisions and ski brigades, but Finnish defenses repelled the attack, resulting in heavy Soviet casualties amid forested terrain and river crossings. The front stabilized thereafter, with the Svir serving as a supply corridor for Finnish operations via Lake Ladoga routes, though Soviet partisans and air raids disrupted logistics. Casualties in localized Svir sector engagements contributed to the broader Continuation War toll, estimated at over 63,000 Finnish dead or missing and significantly higher Soviet losses.^[42]^[43] In June 1944, amid the Soviet Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, Finnish withdrawals from northern positions allowed Red Army units, including the 99th Rifle Corps, to advance unopposed along the Svir, liberating Podporozhye on June 28 and crossing the river en masse by month's end to secure the isthmus. Post-liberation, the Svir's waterway linked Lakes Onega and Ladoga, facilitating infrastructure repairs and internal Soviet supply lines, including indirect support for Lend-Lease deliveries routed through northern ports to Onega for redistribution toward Leningrad relief efforts.^[44]^[45]

Soviet and post-Soviet engineering

The engineering of the Svir River during the Soviet period formed a key component of the GOELRO electrification initiative, launched in 1920 to develop Russia's power infrastructure through hydroelectric projects. Construction of the Lower Svir Hydroelectric Station commenced in 1927, directed by Genrikh Graftio, a pioneer in Soviet hydropower who contributed to the GOELRO framework, with operations initiating by 1933 to harness the river's flow between Lakes Onega and Ladoga for electricity and navigation enhancements.^[46]^[47] These dams integrated the Svir into broader canal systems, facilitating industrial transport in the northwest, though the scale demanded massive labor mobilization exceeding 10,000 workers at peak, including prisoners from the Svirlag forced-labor camp established in 1931 along the river.^[48] This reliance on Gulag inmates, amid harsh subarctic conditions, achieved rapid completion but at the cost of high mortality and inefficiencies inherent to coerced, unskilled workforces, contrasting with the era's propagandized narrative of voluntary socialist construction.^[49] Post-Soviet management shifted toward commercialization and rehabilitation after 1991, with Svir hydroelectric facilities transferred to state-controlled entities culminating in their consolidation under RusHydro, formed in 2004 to centralize hydropower assets amid partial privatization of Russia's energy sector. By the 2010s, RusHydro implemented turbine upgrades and equipment overhauls across its portfolio, yielding efficiency improvements of 5-10% through modernized Kaplan units and automation, extending asset lifespans while bolstering flood mitigation—capabilities that averted repeats of severe 1998 inundations in the region via regulated reservoir releases.^[50] These efforts addressed accumulated wear from decades of deferred maintenance, enabling continued support for regional industrialization legacies, though silting from upstream erosion has progressively diminished reservoir volumes, prompting periodic dredging to preserve hydraulic capacity into the 2020s.^[51]

Ecology

Biodiversity and habitats

The Svir River basin features boreal taiga forests dominated by Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Norway spruce (Picea abies), with significant coverage of wetlands, bogs, and riparian zones influenced by the river's moderate flow regime and seasonal flooding. Reservoirs formed by hydroelectric developments have expanded shallow marsh edges, fostering emergent vegetation and supporting wetland-dependent communities, while the surrounding landscape includes mires that contribute to hydrological buffering through water retention.^[52]^[53] Aquatic and semi-aquatic fauna reflect the river's connectivity to Lake Onega and Lake Ladoga, with approximately 47 fish species documented in the broader Onega system, including Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), brown trout (Salmo trutta), perch (Perca fluviatilis), pike (Esox lucius), roach (Rutilus rutilus), and bream (Abramis brama). The freshwater-resident Atlantic salmon population in the Svir was historically the largest in the Ladoga basin until the early 1930s, but has since declined sharply due to barriers from dams that fragment migration routes and inundate spawning grounds.^[54]^[55]^[56] Avian diversity is high, particularly among waterbirds and shorebirds, with over 200 species recorded in the Lake Onega basin and elevated nesting densities near the Svir estuary, including gray crane (Grus grus), black stork (Ciconia nigra), osprey (Pandion haliaetus), and migratory flocks of up to 600,000 ducks and 150,000 geese utilizing delta wetlands as stopover sites. Mammals number around 40 species in adjacent protected areas, encompassing brown bear (Ursus arctos), Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), elk (Alces alces), and lynx (Lynx lynx), adapted to forested and wetland interfaces. Vascular plant diversity in Karelian riverine ecosystems, including the Svir catchment, encompasses hundreds of species, with bog specialists and riparian herbs tied to fluctuating water levels.^[57]^[58]^[59]^[53]

Environmental impacts and conservation

The construction of the Upper Svir and Lower Svir hydroelectric power stations in the 1940s and 1950s significantly altered the river's natural flow regime and hydrology, impeding upstream migration of anadromous species such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and whitefish, which historically utilized spawning grounds in tributaries like the Ojat River.^[60]^[55] These dams fragmented habitats over the river's approximately 224 km length, contributing to population declines in migratory forms and a shift toward landlocked variants in connected lakes Onega and Ladoga.^[61] Mitigation efforts include state-operated hatcheries under Sevzaprybvod, which rear and release Atlantic salmon and sea trout fry into the Svir for restocking, supporting recovery of wild populations despite ongoing challenges from regulation.^[62] Industrial activities, particularly in towns like Lodeynoye Pole along the river, have historically contributed to pollution through runoff containing heavy metals and nutrients, with concentrations of copper near the Svir's mouth into Lake Ladoga exceeding Russian permissible limits by up to 18 times in sampled areas.^[63]^[64] Pre-1990s discharges elevated metal levels in sediments and water, exacerbating bioaccumulation in aquatic biota, though post-Soviet reductions in industrial output and improved wastewater treatment have lowered inputs, with no documented major spills since the era's end.^[65] Eutrophication risks from nutrient loading persist but are managed through ongoing monitoring of phosphorus and nitrogen via regional programs tied to Lake Ladoga's trophic status assessments.^[66] Conservation measures encompass federal protected areas, including the Nizhne-Svirsky Nature Reserve on the lower Svir, which safeguards wetlands and riparian habitats, and the adjacent Ladoga Skerries National Park (established 2018, spanning 120,000 hectares along Lake Ladoga's northwestern shore), collectively preserving key basin ecosystems against further degradation.^[67]^[68] These efforts prioritize habitat restoration and species recovery over stringent restrictions that could overlook hydroelectric benefits, as the stations' renewable output—part of Russia's northwestern grid—displaces fossil fuel generation, yielding net greenhouse gas reductions equivalent to broader hydro operations in the region that avoid millions of tons of CO2 annually.^[69] Empirical data indicate that regulated flows have stabilized water levels in connected lakes, minimizing flood risks while enabling controlled environmental adaptations, with long-term ecological harms appearing contained relative to energy security gains.^[70]

Cultural and economic role

Economic importance

The Svir River's hydroelectric infrastructure plays a key role in regional energy production, with the Upper Svir Hydroelectric Station generating 160 MW and the Lower Svir Hydroelectric Station adding 99 MW, for a combined capacity of 259 MW operated primarily by TGC-1. These facilities contribute to the power grid of Leningrad Oblast, where total electricity capacity exceeds 8,000 MW dominated by nuclear and thermal sources, supporting industrial demands including energy-intensive sectors like aluminum smelting in nearby Volkhov. Annual output from the Lower Svir alone reached 499 GWh in recent assessments, underscoring reliable baseload hydro supply amid seasonal variability.^[5] As a critical segment of the Volga-Baltic Waterway and Unified Deep Water System of European Russia, the Svir facilitates substantial inland cargo transport, enabling bulk goods movement between Lake Onega and Lake Ladoga with locks accommodating vessels up to 210 meters long. The broader system handled 70 million tons of freight in 2010, with the Svir's navigation reducing reliance on rail for commodities like timber, minerals, and construction materials by leveraging water's lower friction for cost efficiency in long-haul logistics. Post-Soviet declines in overall river cargo volumes have been partially offset by stable hydro exports and integrated waterway maintenance. The river basin supports extractive activities, including peat harvesting and gravel quarrying for construction, alongside limited commercial fishing tied to regional quotas in the Karelian and Leningrad areas, though volumes remain modest compared to energy and transport sectors. Forestry processing, exemplified by modern sawmills like Metsä Svir producing over 200,000 cubic meters annually, draws on upstream timber resources historically floated down the Svir, sustaining local value-added industries despite shifts from log drives to road and rail.^[71]

Tourism and cultural references

The Svir River serves as a key segment in Russian river cruises, particularly those operated by Vodohod, which traverse its 224-kilometer length between Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega as part of extended itineraries from Saint Petersburg to Moscow via the Volga-Baltic Waterway.^[2]^[72] These cruises highlight the river's forested banks and historical ports, with stops at villages like Mandrogi, developed as cultural tourism sites featuring traditional Karelian architecture and crafts.^[73] Key tourist attractions include the Holy Trinity Alexander-Svirsky Monastery, situated 6 kilometers from the river near Lodeynoye Pole, founded in 1487 by Saint Alexander of Svir and noted for its preserved medieval structures, including rare three-tented belfries.^[74] The site draws pilgrims and visitors for its Orthodox heritage and serene woodland setting, accessible by road or organized tours from nearby waterways.^[36] Eco-tourism activities have gained traction since the 2010s, with opportunities for kayaking and canoeing along calmer stretches near Svirstroy, allowing exploration of the river's rapids and surrounding taiga forests.^[75] Fishing remains popular, targeting species such as perch and pike in the river's waters, though regulated to support local ecosystems. In cultural contexts, the Svir features in the folklore traditions of the Podporozhsky District, preserved through ethnographic collections of songs, tales, and rituals tied to the river's historical role in Karelian communities.^[76] Known as Syväri in Finnish nomenclature, it appears in broader Finno-Ugric oral narratives influencing regional identity. Modern references include the Russian Navy's Ob-class hospital ship Svir, commissioned on June 5, 1989, and assigned to the Northern Fleet for medical support operations.^[77]

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[37]
Defense Manufactures of St. Petersburg 1703-1730 - jstor
gion, the Olonets wharf at Lodeynoye Pole on the Svir River launched the first warship of the Baltic fleet in August, 1703. Ships built there, however, had to.
[38]
Russia Holy Trinity Alexander Svirsky Monastery June 5-9, 2009
Jan 13, 2021 · ... monastery founded by St. Alexander Svirsky at the end of the XV century ... Details. Date: Wed 13, 2021; Category: Russia. Author: admin; Tags ...
[39]
Water Transport from the Interior 1703-1811 - jstor
By doing so they cut St. Petersburg off from the Volga and Dnieper river systems that provided most of the rest of European Russia with an extensive network of ...Missing: 19th | Show results with:19th
[40]
A Brief History of Finland in WWII - Flames Of War
Jan 11, 2022 · The spearhead swung south and within three days Group Lagus reached a secure defensive position along the Syväri (Svir) River between Lake ...
[41]
River SVIR
In the end of June 1944 the Svir defense positions were left without a battle, as a general withdrawal from the Soviet Carelia was underway.
[42]
Continuation War - 1942 - Fire and Ice: History
There was another Red Army attack in April on the Svir, River which turned into a Finnish rout. This victory was so complete that the German 163rd Division ...Missing: significance | Show results with:significance
[43]
Assault on the Svir River - Missions - Flames Of War
Oct 14, 2022 · It was the weakest point of the Finnish lines – the gap between the end of the V Corps and VI Corps positions.Missing: significance | Show results with:significance
[44]
How the Red Army liberated Petrozavodsk - Military Review
Jun 28, 2024 · The 99th Rifle Corps liberated Podporozhye and also crossed the river. By the end of the day, the Svir was crossed along its entire length.
[45]
Continuation War | Operations & Codenames of WWII
Casualties had totalled 63,200 Finns and 23,200 Germans dead or missing, and 158,000 Finns and 60,400 Germans wounded. Estimates of dead or missing Soviets ...
[46]
On Goelro plan and construction of the first hydroelectric stations
Construction of the Nizhne-Svir station represented the third school of Soviet hydropower engineers, who were able to disprove the authoritative claims of the ...Missing: era | Show results with:era
[47]
https://biblionnerarebooks.com/products/construction-on-the-svir-hydroelectric-station-rare-photo-album-for-the-delegates
[48]
The GOELRO plan and multipurpose utilization of water resources
industrial region; the dams on the Volkhov and Svir hydroelectric stations substantially improved the navigating conditions on the Volkhov and Svir rivers.
[49]
The Economy of the OGPU, NKVD and MVD of the USSR, 1930-1953
The Gulag economy was typified by large-scale projects whose construction and operation required massive use of unskilled workers, as a rule, in regions that ...Missing: Svirlag | Show results with:Svirlag
[50]
COMPREHENSIVE MODERNIZATION INCREASED THE ...
Jan 20, 2025 · In 2024, RusHydro modernized eight hydroelectric units with a total capacity of 511 MW at six hydro power plants (HPP) as part of the Program of Complex ...Missing: Svir River post- Soviet engineering
[51]
The Russian Power Revolution - POWER Magazine
Jan 1, 2013 · The federation continues to hold a 60% stake in RusHydro, owner of 35.3 GW of generation capacity and the country's largest hydropower firm, ...Missing: Svir | Show results with:Svir
[52]
Toxigenic Cyanobacteria and Microcystins in a Large Northern ...
Oct 25, 2024 · The Svir River flows out of the lake. The catchment area is 70% covered by coniferous forests, and 17% by open bogs [49]. In spring and autumn, ...
[53]
State natural Nizhne-Svirsky reserve
Oct 14, 2014 · It is home to rare species of birds, such as snipe, redshank, gray crane, bittern, osprey, ptarmigan, grouse, hazel grouse, black stork, wood ...
[54]
Lake Onega | Research Starters - EBSCO
There are about 47 fish species from 13 families; they include: sturgeon, brown trout, European smelt, grayling, whitefish, char, pike, common dace, silver ...
[55]
Freshwater population of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar Linnaeus ...
Until the early 1930s the Svir River freshwater population of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758) was the largest in the Ladoga Lake basin. A ...
[56]
[PDF] The origin of sympatric forms of European whitefish (Coregonus ...
* Protected species in Russia; exists owing to artificial breeding only. ** Probably extinct because the main spawning grounds in the Svir River were made ...
[57]
Lake Onega and the Kizhi Island - Lakepedia
In total, approximately 200 bird species from 15 families have been seen in the lake basin. Among the mammals living in the area, the most important ones ...
[58]
Birds - Ladoga
The bird fauna of the region numbers 103 "Red Data Book" species, 72 of which nest or are presumed to do so in the area. High diversity of the bird fauna in the ...
[59]
Svir Delta - Ramsar Sites Information Service
Jan 1, 1997 · Numbers of migrating geese reach 150,000 birds, and up to 600,000 ducks of various species pass through the area in spring. Numerous species of ...Missing: reservoir | Show results with:reservoir
[60]
[PDF] Land-locked Salmon in the Ladoga and Onego basins
The drainage basin is 5220 km². The Ojat River used to harbour the main part of SNG (over 250 hectares) of salmon in the basin of the Svir River. At present ...
[61]
Life-history variability and conservation status of landlocked Atlantic ...
Nonanadromous Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) exhibit a combination of variation in life history, habitat, and species co-existence matched by few vertebrates.
[62]
Sustainable Aquaculture in the Baltic Sea Region of Russia
Atlantic Salmon and Sea trout fry are grown in the ―Sevzaprybvod‖ state hatcheries (Neva and Svir rivers) for subsequent release into the rivers for restocking ...
[63]
[PDF] The present state of Lake Ladoga, Russia — a review
Eutrophication processes, indicated by increased nutrient levels, high algal densities and abundance of blue greens, are obvious in some isolated bays and in ...
[64]
Large Russian Lakes Ladoga, Onega, and Imandra under ... - MDPI
Nov 22, 2019 · At least 40 rivers and large streams flow into the Ladoga, the largest of which is Svir River, which brings water from Lake Onega, and one river ...
[65]
[PDF] Features of the bioecological state of water bodies in the Leningrad ...
Natural waters are polluted by sewage, industrial and transport waste leads to a decrease the oxygen content in the water and the disappearance of valuable fish ...
[66]
Assessing the Trend of the Trophic State of Lake Ladoga Based on ...
Dec 1, 2020 · The trophic state of Lake Ladoga was studied during the period 1997–2019, using the Copernicus Marine Environmental Monitoring Service ...
[67]
Assessment of the Conservation Value of Abandoned Land ... - MDPI
Oct 20, 2023 · Gogland Island, located in the Gulf of Finland in the Baltic Sea, was densely populated in the past but has been nearly abandoned since the Second World War.
[68]
Creation of Ladoga Skerries National Park (the Republic of Karelia)
Jan 4, 2018 · The special system of protection for the national park's premises will help preserve a rare endemic animal species, the Ladoga ringed seal ...Missing: Svir basin
[69]
Renewable energy in St. Petersburg and Leningrad Region
Aug 6, 2025 · ... (Svir river), Narvskaya (Narva river), Volkhovskaya (Volkhov. river) ... savings, emission reduction and lower energy cost. Design ...
[70]
Scientific basis of proposals for optimizing the operating mode of the ...
The impact of climate changes and HPP operation on lake level rise has been assessed. ... 1990 Operation Rules of Water Reservoirs. Upper-Svir and Lower-Svir HPP ...
[71]
Unified Deep Water System of European Russia - Wikipedia
In 2010, UDWS carried 70 million tons of cargo and 12 million passengers, making up two-thirds of overall inland waterway traffic volume in Russia.
[72]
Metsä Svir is known for the high-quality products
Jan 24, 2022 · The Metsä Svir sawmill in northwest Russia is a state-of-the-art production site, but timber innovation in this corner of Europe dates back centuries.Missing: fishing minerals
[73]
Vodohod Russian River Cruises
Vodohod Russian River Cruises is a Russian owned and operated company with a fleet of ships sailing the Volga and Svir Rivers and other lakes and waterways.
[74]
Russian River Cruises - Ships and Itineraries 2025, 2026, 2027
Rating 5.0 (22) Mandrogi (Mandroga) is a small village on the Svir River, created as a tourist destination. ... Vodohod Russian River Cruises signed on Wednesday, October ...
[75]
Holy places of Karelia: Alexander Svir Monastery, Valaam and Kizhi
It was founded by Saint Alexander Svirsky at the end of the XV century in a picturesque place on the shore of Lake Roshchinsky. Upon arrival, we will go on a ...<|separator|>
[76]
Best Hotels in Svir'stroy, Russia - Book online from R742 - Agoda.com
Water activities are also a highlight in Svir'stroy. The Svir River is perfect for kayaking, canoeing, and fishing. Renting a kayak or canoe allows you to ...
[77]
(PDF) The Folklore Tradition of the Svir River District in a New Edition
Review of: Folklore and Ethnographic Materials on the Podporozhsky District of the Leningrad Region: From the Funds of the A. M. Mekhnetsov Folklore and ...
[78]
Hospital ships - Project 320 - RussianShips.info
NATO: Ob` Class ; Name. Yard №. Laid Down. Launched. Commissioned ; Svir`. №320-II/1. -. -. 5.06.1989 ; Irtysh. №320-II/2. 25.11.1988. 6.07.1989. 31.07.1990.