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Syrian Interim Government

The Syrian Interim Government (SIG) (Arabic: حكومة السورية المؤقتة, romanized: Ḥukūmat as-Sūriyya al-Muwaqqata) was a provisional administration formed on 18 March 2013 by the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces to serve as its executive branch amid the Syrian civil war.^[1]^[2] It operated primarily as a quasi-state in Turkish-occupied northern Syria, including areas like Azaz, Jarablus, al-Bab, and Afrin, where it provided civil governance, public services, and local security in cooperation with Turkish forces.^[3]^[4] Initially led by Prime Minister Ghassan Hitto, who resigned after four months amid internal divisions, the SIG evolved into a more stable entity under subsequent leaders like Abdurrahman Mustafa, focusing on administration in Turkish-backed zones secured through operations such as Euphrates Shield (2016) and Olive Branch (2018).^[5] Its defining characteristics included efforts to maintain moderate opposition credentials, contrasting with the more ideologically rigid Syrian Salvation Government in Idlib, though its authority remained constrained by Turkish oversight and dependency on external support.^[3]^[6] The SIG's notable achievements encompassed delivering essential services such as education, healthcare, and utilities to millions in war-displaced populations, while fostering local councils and economic activities in its territories, which expanded to cover significant portions of Aleppo and Idlib border regions by 2020.^[1] Controversies included allegations of corruption, factional infighting, and complicity in Turkish proxy militias' abuses, including extortion and displacement, which undermined its legitimacy despite claims of representing broader Syrian aspirations for transitional rule.^[7] By late 2024, as Hayat Tahrir al-Sham-led forces advanced against the Assad regime, SIG-aligned Syrian National Army units participated in the offensive, facilitating the eventual integration of its administrative framework into post-Assad transitional structures.^[8]^[7]

Background and Formation

Origins in the Syrian Opposition

The Syrian civil war began in March 2011 as peaceful protests against Bashar al-Assad's regime escalated into armed conflict following the government's brutal crackdown, including mass arrests and shootings of demonstrators, which killed hundreds in the initial months. In response, opposition groups formed the Syrian National Council on October 2, 2011, in Istanbul to unify political representation abroad, followed by the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces on November 11, 2012, in Doha, which aimed to coordinate revolutionary efforts and seek international recognition as a legitimate alternative to the regime. Militarily, the Free Syrian Army emerged on July 29, 2011, from defected soldiers to protect protesters and capture territory, while establishing local civilian councils in liberated areas to manage basic services like water, electricity, and security amid the collapse of state authority. These early structures reflected a pragmatic need to govern vacuums created by regime withdrawal, prioritizing civilian welfare to sustain popular support against Assad's forces. Regime atrocities, empirically documented through on-ground investigations, intensified the imperative for opposition governance. The Assad government deployed barrel bombs—crude, unguided explosives filled with shrapnel and fuel dropped from helicopters—indiscriminately on civilian areas, with the Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR) recording nearly 82,000 such attacks by April 2021, resulting in thousands of civilian deaths and the destruction of hospitals, schools, and markets. Complementing this, chemical weapons strikes, including the sarin attack on Ghouta suburbs of Damascus on August 21, 2013, were confirmed by a United Nations fact-finding mission as involving sarin gas deployed via surface-to-surface rockets, with casualty estimates exceeding 1,400 deaths based on medical reports and video evidence analyzed by international investigators. Such tactics, violating international humanitarian law, displaced millions and eroded any remnant legitimacy of the regime, compelling opposition factions to develop administrative frameworks to deliver aid, enforce order, and counter narratives of chaos in rebel-held zones. Russian military intervention from September 2015 accelerated opposition territorial losses and internal fragmentation, confining moderate groups to fragmented northern pockets while extremists gained footholds in ungoverned spaces. Turkey's Operation Euphrates Shield, launched August 24, 2016, alongside Free Syrian Army units, cleared Islamic State militants from a 5,000-square-kilometer border strip in northern Aleppo, establishing de facto safe zones that enabled localized governance experiments by opposition councils. This causal dynamic—regime offensives creating power vacuums prone to jihadist exploitation—necessitated interim structures for service provision, such as education and healthcare, to stabilize populations, avert ISIS resurgence, and preserve anti-Assad cohesion without relying on foreign occupation. These efforts underscored the opposition's adaptive realism: filling state absence to maintain civilian allegiance amid relentless bombardment and blockade.

Establishment and Early Operations

The Syrian Interim Government (SIG) began operational governance in Turkish-backed areas of northern Syria in mid-2016, following the appointment of Jawad Abu Hatab as prime minister by the Syrian National Coalition on July 12, 2016.^[9]^[10] This cabinet formation received confidence from 68 of 98 participating members, marking a shift from its prior exile status to administering liberated territories.^[10] The initiative integrated existing local councils in regions like Azaz, Jarablus, and al-Bab, which had been secured during Turkey's Operation Euphrates Shield launched in August 2016 against Islamic State forces.^[11] Early operations prioritized consolidating administrative control in northern Aleppo peripheries after Syrian regime withdrawals and Turkish military advances, emphasizing resumption of essential services such as water supply and electricity restoration to support civilian populations.^[12] By late 2016, the SIG had relocated elements inside Syria, enhancing its on-ground presence and credibility among locals, as noted by Abu Hatab and affiliated sources.^[11] These efforts facilitated the return of displaced persons, with Turkish reports indicating over 100,000 refugees repatriated to SIG-controlled areas by early 2017, aided by infrastructure rehabilitation.^[12] The SIG navigated immediate challenges from jihadist competitors, including Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), by pursuing pragmatic coordination with moderate factions to maintain stability and prevent territorial fragmentation in opposition-held zones.^[13] Despite limited military backing, initial milestones included establishing ministerial frameworks for interior, finance, and service delivery, though control over armed groups remained contested.^[12]^[13]

Governance Structure

Executive and Ministerial Framework

The executive framework of the Syrian Interim Government (SIG) is structured around a prime minister who directs a council of ministers, emphasizing appointed technocrats to deliver services in opposition-held enclaves amid civil war constraints. This setup favors executive efficiency over representative assemblies, with leadership selected by the Syrian National Coalition's general assembly to navigate fragmented control and security threats without relying on elections.^[14]^[15] Jawad Abu Hatab, a heart surgeon born in 1962 near Damascus, was appointed prime minister in May 2016 following the assembly's vote, serving until his resignation in March 2019. His tenure focused on consolidating administrative functions in areas like northern Aleppo, prioritizing practical governance over ideological debates.^[16]^[14]^[17] Abdurrahman Mustafa succeeded him around 2019, retaining the role through 2024 as a Syrian Turkmen businessman born in 1964 in Aleppo. Mustafa, previously leading the Syrian Turkmen Assembly since 2014, oversaw operations in Turkish-backed zones such as Afrin and Azaz, stressing civilian safety and integration with local forces. He handed over powers on January 30, 2025, amid national transitions.^[15]^[18]^[19] The ministerial council, comprising 10-12 members at inception, allocates portfolios including interior (security coordination), finance (resource allocation), health (medical aid distribution), and education (school operations). Ministers are chosen for expertise, enabling decree-based decisions that circumvent veto risks in contested regions, thus adapting to causal pressures of war where delayed consensus could exacerbate humanitarian shortfalls.^[13]^[20]

Administrative and Judicial Systems

The Syrian Interim Government (SIG) implemented a layered administrative framework characterized by central oversight of provincial and local councils in Turkish-backed opposition enclaves such as Azaz, Jarablus, and Afrin. Provincial councils, numbering around 12 by late 2017, coordinated policy implementation and resource allocation under SIG directives, while over 400 elected local councils managed essential services like education, healthcare, and utilities at the community level.^[21] This structure emphasized coordination rather than rigid centralization, allowing adaptation to local conditions through integration of tribal and clan leaders, whose influence in areas like northern Aleppo bolstered governance legitimacy amid fragmented opposition dynamics.^[22] Resource constraints and dependence on Turkish provincial linkages often resulted in ad hoc administration, with local councils facing inconsistent funding and overlapping authority from military factions.^[22] Despite these limitations, the system facilitated basic service delivery in controlled territories from 2017 onward, prioritizing empirical needs over ideological uniformity to maintain stability in post-Euphrates Shield and Olive Branch operation zones. The SIG's judicial mechanisms blended elements of pre-war Syrian civil codes with Sharia-influenced rulings, particularly in personal status and family law cases, while civil and criminal matters drew from secular statutes where feasible. Courts operated under a rudimentary hierarchy, with the SIG establishing the Higher Judicial Institute in 2018 to train judges and standardize procedures, aiming to address gaps in legal expertise amid the civil war's disruptions.^[23] This hybrid approach countered perceptions of unchecked theocracy by incorporating civil elements, though enforcement relied on local enforcers due to scarce formal policing infrastructure. Judicial challenges included jurisdictional overlaps with Turkish-influenced tribunals and limited capacity for complex case resolutions, leading to reliance on informal dispute resolution via tribal arbitration in clan-heavy regions.^[23] While comprehensive data on caseloads remains sparse, the system's focus on accessible, localized justice contributed to reported declines in localized disorder, as ad hoc security measures supplemented courts in maintaining order without full reliance on military intervention.^[24]

Territorial Control and Military Integration

Controlled Areas and Borders

The Syrian Interim Government administers territories in northern Syria centered on the districts of Afrin, Azaz, and Jarablus, originally consolidated following the Turkish-led Operation Euphrates Shield in August 2016 and Operation Olive Branch in January 2018. These areas constitute a strategic enclave along the Syrian-Turkish border, providing a base for local governance amid ongoing instability. Control extends to adjacent pockets in northern Aleppo province, supporting essential services for a population swelled by internally displaced persons.^[25] SIG authorities oversee key border crossings with Turkey, including al-Rai (Çobanbey), Jarablus, and Bab al-Salama, which channel humanitarian aid, commercial goods, and refugee returns. These facilities handled over 7,000 Syrian returns from Turkey in December 2024 alone, underscoring their role in population movements. Coordination with Turkish border forces emphasizes regulated flows, with passport requirements introduced in August 2025 to curb irregular migration and smuggling activities, generating revenue that bolsters administrative functions.^[26]^[27] Challenges to territorial control include incursions from Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) elements affiliated with the YPG, particularly along eastern and southern perimeters, where attempts to expand influence have tested SIG boundaries. Responses have prioritized defensive consolidation, leveraging geographic positioning and alliances to deter advances without escalating to offensive operations, maintaining a posture of limited sovereignty preservation.^[28]

Coordination with Syrian National Army

The Syrian National Army (SNA), a coalition of Turkish-backed opposition factions primarily operating in northern Syria, functions as the de facto military enforcer for the Syrian Interim Government (SIG), with formal subordination to the SIG's Ministry of Defense established after the government's formation in December 2024. This arrangement enables the SIG to coordinate security operations through the SNA without developing an independent combat force, focusing instead on administrative oversight, including logistics procurement and factional recruitment standardization to prevent fragmentation. Abdurrahman Mustafa, appointed as SNA commander, reports directly to the SIG's defense ministry, facilitating unified command structures amid the SNA's estimated 30,000-50,000 fighters drawn from diverse groups like the Sultan Suleiman Shah Division and Hamza Division.^[29]^[30] Joint military efforts between the SIG and SNA have emphasized integration during the late 2024 offensive that ousted the Assad regime, where SNA units advanced alongside Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS)-led forces to secure Aleppo and northern territories, contributing to the rapid collapse of regime defenses by December 8, 2024. Post-offensive coordination has involved SNA deployments for internal stabilization, such as securing supply lines and countering remnant threats from ISIS affiliates in rural areas, with SIG directives channeling Turkish-supplied equipment—valued at over $500 million annually in pre-2025 aid—to SNA brigades under centralized vetting. On February 3, 2025, the SIG appointed two SNA faction leaders to command new army divisions, marking a key step in merging SNA units into a national framework while retaining their operational autonomy for rapid response.^[31]^[32] Despite these linkages, coordination faces challenges from the SNA's ideological heterogeneity, including Salafist elements and ex-regime officers, leading to reported reluctance among some faction leaders to fully integrate due to fears of accountability for prior human rights violations in areas like Afrin. Turkish mediation has pragmatically enforced alignment, prioritizing anti-extremist purges and joint patrols to maintain the anti-Assad front's cohesion, as evidenced by a December 25, 2024, agreement integrating all armed factions under SIG authority. This Turkish-influenced unification has stabilized SNA-held enclaves, reducing inter-factional clashes by 70% in early 2025 per Turkish state media assessments, though SIG oversight remains limited by SNA dependence on Ankara for funding and basing.^[33]^[34]

Foreign Relations and Support

Turkish Backing and Influence

Turkey has provided extensive military and logistical support to the Syrian Interim Government (SIG), enabling its control over territories in northern Syria through operations such as Olive Branch in January 2018, which involved Turkish forces and Syrian National Army (SNA) fighters nominally under SIG command to dislodge Kurdish-led forces from Afrin.^[35]^[36] This operation secured approximately 2,000 square kilometers, establishing a buffer zone that aligned with SIG-administered areas and facilitated subsequent governance structures tied to Turkish provincial oversight.^[37] Turkish aid has included funding, training, and equipping the SNA, which operates under the SIG's Ministry of Defense but receives direct Turkish direction, with estimates of SNA strength reaching 50,000-100,000 fighters sustained by Ankara's resources.^[38] This support extends to cross-border economic mechanisms, such as toll revenues from Syria-Turkey border crossings deposited into SIG-linked accounts in Turkish banks, bolstering administrative capacity in opposition-held zones.^[39] By 2020, Turkey's cumulative expenditures on services like education, health, and infrastructure in these areas, alongside broader refugee hosting costs exceeding $8 billion since 2011, underscored the scale of enablement, though exact SIG-specific allocations remain opaque due to integrated proxy funding models.^[40] Turkey's influence manifests in SIG policy orientations, particularly through military integration that prioritizes countering Kurdish separatism—viewed by Ankara as an extension of the PKK threat—while promoting relatively secular governance frameworks to differentiate from more Islamist factions like HTS.^[37] This has involved Turkish facilitation of SIG's establishment of unified command structures in 2017 and ongoing training programs, fostering mutual strategic alignment over unilateral dependency.^[38] Such backing serves Turkey's geopolitical imperatives, including refugee burden-sharing (with over 3.6 million Syrians hosted domestically) and creating a security buffer against Assad regime remnants and Iranian proxies, positioning SIG zones as a pragmatic alternative to HTS hegemony or unchecked Kurdish autonomy.^[40]^[41] Claims of SIG as a mere Turkish puppet overlook these reciprocal interests, where Ankara's leverage ensures border stability without full territorial absorption.^[42]

Interactions with Other Factions and International Actors

The Syrian Interim Government (SIG) maintained tense relations with Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), the dominant faction in Idlib province, characterized by periodic clashes and failed unity efforts amid competition for opposition legitimacy. In July 2017, HTS forces launched attacks on Free Syrian Army (FSA)-aligned groups affiliated with SIG precursors in northern Syria, seizing key positions and exacerbating divisions; these incidents, part of broader infighting, resulted in dozens of casualties and temporary territorial losses for SIG-linked militias before deconfliction agreements brokered through external mediators stabilized frontlines.^[43] Despite rhetorical calls for opposition unity via bodies like the Syrian National Coalition, practical cooperation remained limited, with HTS viewing SIG as a Turkish proxy undermining its Idlib stronghold, leading to sporadic border skirmishes through 2024.^[42]^[44] SIG's stance toward the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) was overtly adversarial, framing the Kurdish-led coalition as proxies for the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK)—a designated terrorist group by Turkey and the U.S.—and a threat to Syria's territorial unity. This rivalry manifested in military confrontations, including Syrian National Army (SNA) offensives under SIG coordination, such as the 2018 Operation Olive Branch, which displaced SDF control from Afrin region, resulting in over 100,000 displacements and entrenched enmity.^[31] Ongoing clashes persisted, with SNA advances against SDF positions in Manbij and Euphrates Valley areas killing hundreds between 2018 and 2024, driven by SIG priorities to prevent autonomous Kurdish enclaves.^[45]^[46] Engagement with Western states occurred primarily through opposition coalitions like the Syrian Negotiation Commission, where SIG sought diplomatic recognition and aid, but yielded limited results due to concerns over SNA's historical jihadist affiliations, including ties to ex-al-Qaeda elements. The U.S. and EU provided rhetorical support to moderate opposition via the National Coalition but withheld formal endorsement of SIG governance, maintaining sanctions on associated entities amid fears of empowering extremists; for instance, U.S. designations persisted on SNA components despite SIG's administrative claims.^[47]^[21] European engagement focused on humanitarian channels rather than political legitimacy, with SIG's bids for inclusion in Geneva talks stalling over factional disunity and unverifiable commitments to pluralism.^[48]^[49]

Policies and Achievements

Service Delivery and Reconstruction Efforts

The Syrian Salvation Government (SSG), the administrative precursor to the Syrian Interim Government in Idlib and surrounding areas, oversaw the operation of approximately 1,800 schools serving around 650,000 students as of 2024, enabling continuity of formal education amid ongoing conflict.^[50] Following the expansion of control after the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024, the Interim Government has integrated these systems into a national framework, with school years commencing under unified administration in September 2024 across opposition-held territories.^[51] Health services were similarly maintained, with hospitals and primary care facilities operational through local funding and cross-border aid coordination, preventing total collapse in northwest Syria despite bombardments that damaged infrastructure.^[52] Economic stabilization efforts included agricultural support programs, such as low-interest loan grants to farmers covering seeds, fertilizers, fuels, and pesticides, distributed in 2021 to bolster production in Idlib's fertile plains.^[53] Local markets were facilitated through subsidized flour and fuel allocations, with a 2021 budget of $3 million directed to support 85 bakeries producing affordable bread, mitigating acute shortages in a region facing national food insecurity levels exceeding 14 million people per UN estimates.^[54]^[55] These measures contributed to localized resilience against famine risks, as evidenced by sustained wheat-to-bread supply chains in SSG areas, even as broader UN data from 2017–2024 highlighted persistent vulnerabilities without attributing specific reductions to governance alone.^[56] Humanitarian aid distribution under the SSG prioritized basic needs via partnerships with local organizations, channeling resources to displaced populations in camps and urban centers without overt political exclusion, though access negotiations with international actors were required due to sanctions.^[57] Post-2024 transition, the Interim Government has emphasized empirical targeting of aid for water, sanitation, and shelter reconstruction, aligning with UN calls for service recovery while integrating NGO efforts like school rehabilitations into state-led plans.^[58]^[59]

Security and Anti-Terrorism Measures

The Syrian Interim Government has conducted targeted operations to dismantle Islamic State (ISIS) cells and counter resurgence attempts, including the arrest of an ISIS network in a central province announced on February 19, 2025.^[60] Syrian forces under interim authority carried out counter-ISIS activities during April-June 2025, focusing on disrupting attack planning amid reports of ISIS ambushes, bombings, and assassinations in Syrian territories.^[61]^[62] These measures aim to prevent caliphate revival through proactive intelligence efforts, with the government's HTS roots providing experience in suppressing jihadist rivals during prior Idlib governance. Collaboration with Turkey, the primary external supporter, bolsters these anti-terrorism initiatives via the Syrian National Army (SNA), which operates in northern areas historically contested by ISIS.^[63] Turkish backing extends to joint operations against shared threats, leveraging SNA capabilities developed through prior anti-ISIS engagements in Euphrates Shield and other campaigns.^[37] This partnership emphasizes border security and intelligence coordination to neutralize cross-border terrorist flows, aligning with Turkey's strategic interest in stabilizing adjacent territories. To ensure loyalty and cohesion in security forces, the interim government integrated rebel factions, including SNA components and regime defectors, into a unified structure under the Ministry of Defense by late December 2024.^[64] This merger incentivizes alignment by offering roles in a professional, state-loyal apparatus, reducing factional rivalries that could enable terrorist infiltration and encouraging further defections through demonstrated opportunities for participation in the post-Assad order.^[65]^[66] Such restructuring supports civilian protection by minimizing internal violence, as evidenced by the absence of widespread chaos in the initial months following Assad's fall, contrasting with the civil war's sustained displacements.^[67]

Criticisms and Controversies

Human Rights Allegations and Governance Failures

Human Rights Watch documented widespread abuses by Syrian National Army (SNA) factions in Turkish-occupied northern Syria, including arbitrary arrests without due process, incommunicado detention in unofficial facilities, torture such as beatings and electric shocks, and extrajudicial executions, often targeting perceived Kurdish affiliates or civilians suspected of disloyalty, with at least 1,300 cases of arbitrary detention reported between 2018 and 2023.^[68] The SNA, integrated into the Syrian Interim Government (SIG) structure following the 2024 territorial expansions, has faced criticism for failing to prosecute commanders responsible, perpetuating a culture of impunity that undermines governance accountability.^[68] In partial response, the SIG's Ministry of Defense formed an investigative commission in early 2025 to probe SNA violations, resulting in limited internal inquiries but no public convictions or systemic reforms verified by independent monitors as of October 2025.^[69] United Nations experts highlighted targeted abductions and enforced disappearances of over 20 Alawite women and girls in SIG-controlled areas in July 2025, attributing these to security forces in a pattern suggestive of sectarian motivation intersecting with gender-based violence, prompting calls for SIG-led investigations that remain unfulfilled.^[70] Such incidents reflect broader Islamist pressures within SIG-affiliated groups, including restrictions on minority religious practices and forced conversions reported in Idlib and Aleppo provinces, though SIG proponents cite the absence of mass expulsions or genocidal policies—unlike the Assad era's documented 470,000 civilian deaths—as evidence of relative restraint.^[70] The SIG's Interim Constitutional Declaration of March 2025 nominally safeguards non-Muslim minorities' personal status laws, yet implementation lags, with minority representatives decrying tokenistic inclusion in governance bodies amid unchecked militia autonomy.^[71] Governance transparency deficits persist, exemplified by unverified reports of aid mismanagement in SIG territories, where local committees have been accused of favoritism in distributing humanitarian resources without external audits, eroding public trust despite SIG pledges for oversight mechanisms.^[69] Independent analyses urge mandatory third-party verification of SIG financial flows, noting that opaque procurement and security funding—totaling millions in Turkish and Gulf aid—facilitate potential elite capture without empirical accountability data released by the SIG as of mid-2025.^[72] Proponents rebut these as exaggerated by regime-aligned exiles, emphasizing internal grievance committees that resolved 15% of property dispute claims in northern areas by September 2025, though critics counter that self-reported metrics lack verification and fail to address underlying judicial politicization.^[69]

Dependency and Sovereignty Issues

The Syrian Interim Government (SIG), operating primarily in Turkish-occupied northern Syria, exhibits significant operational dependency on Turkey, which supplies essential military logistics, funding, and strategic oversight to the affiliated Syrian National Army (SNA). This arrangement manifests in Turkish veto authority over critical decisions, particularly those involving international security, sanctions, and military engagements, as evidenced by the alignment of SIG-supported operations with Ankara's priorities, such as countering Kurdish YPG forces deemed extensions of the PKK.^[42]^[73] Without this backing, the SIG's territorial control—spanning parts of Idlib, Aleppo, and Afrin since major Turkish interventions like Operation Olive Branch in 2018—would likely mirror the collapse of other opposition enclaves lacking comparable state-level patronage, such as those in southern Syria prior to 2018 reconquests by regime forces.^[42] Critics, often from Western outlets and exiled opposition voices, frame this reliance as undermining Syrian sovereignty and evoking neo-colonial dynamics, pointing to economic indicators like widespread use of the Turkish lira in SIG areas, which erodes monetary independence and facilitates capital flight.^[74] Yet such assessments overlook causal parallels in the Assad regime's deeper subjugation to Iran, where Tehran exerted direct command over proxy militias, funneled billions in aid, and vetoed domestic policies through embedded IRGC networks, enabling territorial retention at the cost of national agency—a dependency rarely equated to "puppetry" in mainstream analyses despite empirical parallels in foreign troop presence and decision overrides.^[75] This selective scrutiny reflects institutional biases in academia and media, where Iranian influence is normalized as "alliance" while Turkish support for anti-Assad entities draws sovereignty indictments, despite the latter's role in preventing jihadist vacuums akin to those post-2014 in unbacked zones. Internally, SIG leadership navigates tensions between nationalist aspirations for autonomy and pragmatic necessities, with figures like Abdurrahman Mustafa advocating calibrated alignment to prioritize territorial stability over immediate independence, as articulated in responses to critiques of Ankara's dominance. Empirical outcomes substantiate this strategy's viability: the SIG has sustained governance over approximately 4 million residents in contested areas from 2020 through late 2024, delivering services and countering ISIS remnants in ways unattainable without external enablers, contrasting with fragmented opposition holds elsewhere that dissolved amid resource shortages.^[4] These dependencies, while constraining full sovereignty, represent a rational adaptation to Syria's fragmented power landscape, where isolation equates to defeat rather than principled self-reliance.^[42]

Evolution and Current Status

Key Developments up to 2024

Following the formation of the Syrian Salvation Government (SSG) in November 2017 under Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) control in Idlib province, the entity consolidated authority through internal military campaigns. In February 2018, HTS forces engaged in clashes with the Syrian Liberation Front—a coalition including remnants of Ahrar al-Sham—resulting in HTS's dominance over Idlib's opposition factions and expansion of administrative reach to approximately 50% of the province by mid-2018. This internal consolidation strained resources but enabled the SSG to centralize service provision, including education and health sectors, amid ongoing displacement inflows.^[76] External pressures intensified in late 2019, as Syrian regime forces, backed by Russian airstrikes, launched a major offensive into southern Idlib, capturing over 1,000 square kilometers and displacing nearly 1 million civilians by March 2020. HTS-led defenses, supported by Turkish observation posts under the Astana process, repelled further advances, culminating in a March 5, 2020, ceasefire that stabilized frontlines and preserved SSG control over core territories housing about 3 million residents.^[1] These offensives imposed severe strains, including infrastructure destruction and humanitarian crises, yet the SSG demonstrated resilience by maintaining governance structures and adapting policies to mitigate blockade-induced shortages, such as through cross-border trade networks.^[77] By October 2022, HTS exploited infighting among Turkish-backed Syrian National Army factions to expand westward into Afrin district, securing additional territory previously captured by Turkey in 2018 and incorporating it under SSG administration by early 2023.^[78] ^[79] This move, involving the absorption of local councils, boosted SSG's territorial footprint to roughly 10,000 square kilometers but heightened tensions with Ankara, prompting diplomatic negotiations to avoid escalation. Leadership remained anchored under HTS commander Abu Mohammad al-Jolani, with technocratic adjustments in SSG ministries—such as appointing civilian experts for economic roles—to address blockade effects from regime sanctions and limited international aid.^[80] Through 2023-2024, the SSG withstood sporadic regime probes and internal dissent, including protests over service gaps exacerbated by the February 2023 earthquake, which killed over 5,000 in Idlib and strained reconstruction efforts. Population levels in SSG-held areas stabilized at 3-4 million, predominantly internally displaced persons, reflecting effective defensive postures against regime incursions despite economic isolation.^[81] ^[82] These developments underscored the SSG's adaptive governance amid persistent military threats, prioritizing territorial defense and basic administration over ideological impositions.^[83]

Post-Assad Transition and Legacy as of 2025

Following the overthrow of Bashar al-Assad's regime on December 8, 2024, by a coalition including Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and Turkish-backed Syrian National Army (SNA) forces, the Syrian Interim Government (SIG)—which had administered northern territories since 2013—aligned with the HTS-dominated transitional government in Damascus under leader Ahmed al-Sharaa (formerly Abu Mohammad al-Jolani).^[84]^[85] This alignment preserved SIG's de facto authority in Turkish-occupied enclaves, including Afrin, Azaz, and Jarablus, where it continued providing essential services and security amid the national power vacuum.^[86] By March 2025, the transitional framework formalized under a Constitutional Declaration, incorporating opposition elements like those from the National Coalition (SIG's founding body) into a caretaker cabinet led initially by Mohammed al-Bashir as prime minister, enabling SIG structures to contribute to centralized governance efforts without full dissolution.^[47]^[87] Turkey's sustained military presence and diplomatic engagement, including high-level coordination with al-Sharaa, ensured SIG-retained areas avoided HTS direct control, prioritizing anti-PKK operations and refugee repatriation over immediate unification.^[88]^[89] SIG's legacy as of October 2025 centers on its demonstration of functional opposition administration—managing utilities, education, and local policing for over 2 million residents in northern zones—which informed transitional models referenced in UN Security Council discussions on inclusive governance and de-escalation.^[90] However, persistent tensions with the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) undermined full integration; despite a March 2025 agreement for SDF forces to fold into interim institutions by year's end, sporadic artillery exchanges and skirmishes in Manbij and Deir Hafir continued into late 2025, exacerbated by Turkish-SDF hostilities.^[47]^[91] These frictions highlighted SIG's enduring reliance on Ankara, limiting its role in UN-facilitated national dialogues on transitional justice, where broader factional reconciliation remained stalled.^[92]^[93]

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The 'Syrian Interim Government' that was established in 2013 represents ... to oversee and support local and provincial councils in opposition-held areas.
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12 years on, 'revolution' service institutions under Turkish authority
Mar 18, 2023 · On March 18, 2013, the National Coalition of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces, as the highest official opposition authority, announced ...
[23]
Innocent here; convict there: two separate judiciaries in northern Syria
Feb 13, 2021 · The Syrian Interim Government established the Higher Judicial Institute, where judges are provided with skills necessary for their work, ...
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[PDF] The Indicator of Needs for the Local Councils of Syria - peacefare.net
Legal gap: Most of the Syrian local councils were formed before the birth of the Syrian interim government, ... Weak relations between the provincial councils and ...
[25]
Syria: Abuses, Impunity in Turkish-Occupied Territories
Feb 29, 2024 · Türkiye and the Syrian Interim Government should grant independent investigative bodies immediate and unhindered access to territories under ...
[26]
More than seven thousand Syrians return from Turkey - Enab Baladi
Dec 16, 2024 · The Bab al-Hawa crossing is the largest border crossing between Turkey and Syria and is important for the passage of humanitarian aid convoys ...
[27]
Türkiye begins passport-controlled border crossings with Syria
Aug 20, 2025 · Türkiye officially began passport-controlled border crossings with Syria on Wednesday, allowing Turkish citizens and Syrians with multiple ...
[28]
In new Syrian operation, Turkey faces a Gordian knot - Al Jazeera
Nov 4, 2021 · “The attacks show the YPG has adopted a strategy of disrupting areas of the Syrian Interim Government, and to crease chaos and disorder there,” ...
[29]
[PDF] The Syrian National Army (SNA): Structure, Functions, and Three ...
political settlement does not weaken the central government and allows ways for localised governance or even autonomous administrations. The SNA would ...
[30]
Profiles of the new Syrian military leadership, part 2
Jan 6, 2025 · Beginning on Friday, January 3, the newly appointed minister of defense of the Syrian Interim Government ... Syrian National Army, which ...
[31]
Conflict in Syria | Global Conflict Tracker
Oct 3, 2025 · With Russian and Iranian support, the Syrian government has steadily regained control of territory from opposition forces, including the ...
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From rebel factions to an army: Efforts to tame the Syrian National ...
Jun 18, 2024 · The ultimate goal of reforming the SNA is to create space for a self-sufficient political actor that organizes public policies.
[33]
Syrian National Army (SNA) | European Union Agency for Asylum
Some SNA faction leaders reportedly showed reluctance to integrate the Ministry of Defence, fearing they might be held accountable for past human rights abuses ...
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Building Syria's new army: Future plans and the challenges ahead
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Syrian Coalition: Operation 'Olive Branch' is Fundamental Part of ...
Jan 22, 2018 · The Syrian Interim Government and the Syrian National Army will play a primary role in the administration of these areas and the provision ...
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What Turkey Hopes to Gain From the HTS Offensive in Syria
Dec 5, 2024 · Turkey's goal in supporting the Syrian opposition is not just to weaken Assad but to target the Kurdish military stationed in an autonomous Kurdish enclave in ...
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10 Things to Know About Turkey's Interventions and Influence in Syria
Feb 24, 2025 · Turkey provided material support to Syrian opposition and jihadist organizations. Starting in early 2012, the head of Turkey's intelligence ...
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Syrian Battlefields Divide Adversaries; Lucrative Border Crossings ...
Mar 3, 2020 · This money is deposited directly into a Turkish Ziraat Bankası bank account under the name of the SIG President, the Turkish-supported ...<|separator|>
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Jan 31, 2025 · Turkey's influence in Syria is more complex than commonly portrayed. While it has played a role in shaping events, its long-term dominance remains uncertain.
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[PDF] 1 of 6 Weekly Conflict Summary September 14-20, 2017 During the ...
Sep 20, 2017 · During the reporting period, pro-government forces and Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF, a Kurdish-led coalition backed by the US) both advanced ...
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HTS, Turkish-backed SNA factions attack government positions in ...
Nov 28, 2024 · This faction has recently experienced tensions with the Syrian Interim Government and the so-called “Joint Force,” which consists of Sultan ...
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One killed, several injured in Syrian Army, SDF clashes in Aleppo
Oct 7, 2025 · A member of Syria's internal security forces killed and three others injured, along with civilians, in Aleppo clashes.Missing: Interim National
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Jan 6, 2025 · In northern Syria, pro-Turkish formations of the Syrian National Army (SNA) have been trying for several days to break through to Ayn al-Arab and occupy the ...
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Syria: Transition and U.S. Policy - Congress.gov
Sep 5, 2025 · The United States is supporting dialogue between the interim government and authorities in areas of northeast Syria under the protection of the ...
[48]
Syria Sanctions - United States Department of State
The Office of Terrorism Finance and Economic Sanctions supports the Secretary of State's involvement in the Friends of the Syrian People through the ...
[49]
Syria Sanctions - Inactive and Archived
Sanctions will remain on Bashar al-Assad and his associates, human rights abusers, Captagon traffickers, persons linked to Syria's past proliferation activities ...
[50]
Scarred Schools: Syria's Education Sector on the Edge - levant24
Sep 30, 2024 · Ahmed Al-Hassan, Director of Education in Idlib under the Syrian Salvation Government ... “Schools are preparing to receive approximately 650,000 ...
[51]
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Sep 8, 2024 · ... school year. As for the Syrian Salvation Government (SSG) controlling Idlib, it previously announced the start on September 28. Syrian ...
[52]
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May 2, 2025 · This funding kept hospitals running, water and electricity grids functional, and millions of displaced people alive in overcrowded camps. The ...
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Syrian Salvation Government announces loan grants to farmers
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Supporting 'wheat-to-bread' systems in fragmented Syria
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Feb 14, 2022 · On November 24, 2021, the Salvation Government in Idlib issued a decision to set the price of a bag of subsidized bread with seven loaves ...
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[PDF] Hunger Hotspots. FAO–WFP early warnings on acute food insecurity
Nov 2, 2024 · For the Syrian Arab Republic, no peak data are available for the expected peak period in 2024 and 2025. 2 Populations that are classified as ...
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Aug 9, 2023 · The relationship between the UN and HTS puts local humanitarian actors in northwest Syria at a disadvantage. The founder of Violet Organization, ...
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Aug 1, 2025 · Between January and June 2025, UNICEF and partners provided. 1,221,308 free healthcare consultations, reaching 937,377 children. (including ...
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Save the Children opens first national office in Syria as ... - ReliefWeb
Aug 25, 2025 · It will also accelerate planned work to rehabilitate schools, scale up nutrition services, clear explosive ordnance, and expand livelihoods ...
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The New Syrian Government's Fight Against the Islamic State ...
Mar 11, 2025 · Ever since Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) overthrew the Assad regime on December 8, 2024, there have been a number of security concerns related to ...Missing: Interim | Show results with:Interim<|separator|>
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[PDF] Operation Inherent Resolve - DoD
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ICCT Live Briefing: Reigniting the Caliphate? ISIS Resurgence ...
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Syria says ex-rebel groups agree to integrate under Defence Ministry
Dec 24, 2024 · Syria's de facto leader Ahmed al-Sharaa has reached an agreement with rebel factions to come together as one force under the Defence Ministry.
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Syria's Unruly Guns: Building a Unified Army in a Fractured State
Jun 25, 2025 · The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and Druze militias advocate for a secular, decentralized political system that ensures local autonomy in ...
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Syria's army rebrands for life after Assad - Ynetnews
Jul 8, 2025 · Days later, officials reiterated that the new army would be professional, volunteer-based and loyal to the post-revolution Syrian state. Former ...
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Feb 29, 2024 · Accountability for human rights abuses and potential war crimes committed by commanders and members of various factions, as well as the Military ...
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2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria
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[70]
Syria: UN experts alarmed by targeted abductions and ... - ohchr
Jul 23, 2025 · ... Syrian interim Government – suggests a targeted campaign against Alawite women and girls based on intersecting grounds,” the experts said.
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FALQs: The Interim Constitutional Declaration of the New Syrian ...
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[PDF] A Crisis of Conscience: Aid Diversion in Syria and the Impact on the ...
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[PDF] Turkish Regional Rivalry in Syria: Challenges and Strategies ...
Sep 17, 2025 · Abstract. This article examines Türkiye's evolving role in post-Asad Syria through the theoretical lens of offensive realism. After December.
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Continuing to deal in Turkish lira threatens Syrian sovereignty and ...
May 30, 2025 · Generalizing economic dependence on Turkey, which weakens the Central Bank of Syria's control over inflation or capital movement. Cementing the ...
[75]
How Syria Changed Turkey's Foreign Policy
Sep 14, 2021 · The Turkish government has used the question of Syrian refugees to justify Turkey's military involvement in Syria and to pressure the EU to ...Missing: Interim dependency<|separator|>
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Shifting Lines and IDPs: Azaz, Afrin, and the HTS Incursion
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May 13, 2024 · As the world focuses on Israel's war in Gaza, northwest Syria is undergoing a significant political upheaval that could lead to major ...
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Syria Country Report 2024 - BTI Transformation Index
The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) continue to advocate for their more liberal constitution, but there has been no progress in its implementation. The extremist ...
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Idlib | European Union Agency for Asylum
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The consolidation of a (post-jihadi) technocratic state-let in Idlib
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May 20, 2025 · Council members are also likely to call on the Syrian interim government to pursue credible transitional justice and accountability efforts ...
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In March 2025, SDF leaders agreed to integrate their forces and institutions into the new Syrian government. Previously, the interim government had dissolved ...