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Untouchable

Untouchables, also designated as the fifth stratum beyond the four varnas in the Hindu social order, consist of castes historically viewed as ritually impure due to occupations involving death, waste, or bodily fluids, rendering physical contact with them polluting to higher castes.^[1] These groups, encompassing roles like manual scavenging and leather tanning, faced systemic exclusion from temples, wells, and education, with social norms enforcing segregation to preserve purity hierarchies derived from texts such as the Manusmriti.^[2] Though the term "untouchable" persists in historical analysis, affected communities increasingly self-identify as Dalits—"the broken" or oppressed—rejecting euphemisms like Harijan imposed by reformers.^[3] Untouchability's formal practice was prohibited by India's 1950 Constitution, which classified these castes as Scheduled Castes eligible for reservations in government jobs and education to counter entrenched disadvantages.^[4] Despite legal reforms and affirmative action, empirical surveys reveal ongoing interpersonal discrimination, including violence and economic barriers, indicating incomplete assimilation into equitable social structures.^[5] Key resistance emerged through leaders like B.R. Ambedkar, a Scheduled Caste jurist who drafted the Constitution and in 1956 led mass conversions to Buddhism, arguing Hinduism's doctrines causally perpetuate caste immobility.^[3]^[6]

Historical and Sociological Significance

Origins in the Indian Caste System

The varna system, foundational to the Indian caste hierarchy, first appears in the Rigveda's Purusha Sukta hymn, composed approximately 1500–1200 BCE, which describes society divided into four classes—Brahmins from the mouth (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas from the arms (rulers and warriors), Vaishyas from the thighs (producers and traders), and Shudras from the feet (servants and laborers)—emerging from the dismembered cosmic Purusha without mention of excluded or impure subgroups.^[3]^[7] Early Vedic texts emphasize functional roles tied to qualities (gunas) rather than rigid birth-based exclusion, with no evidence of untouchability as a systematic practice.^[8] Untouchability, involving avarna (casteless) groups segregated for perceived ritual pollution, emerged post-Vedic, likely during the later Vedic period (circa 1000–600 BCE) and intensifying thereafter, as occupational specialization in impure tasks—such as sanitation, leatherwork, and handling the dead—fostered notions of contagious impurity requiring physical and social distance.^[9]^[1] Scholarly analysis of textual evolution attributes this to the hardening of endogamy and jati (subcaste) proliferation beyond the fluid varna model, driven by Brahmanical emphasis on purity rituals rather than innate racial or conquest-based origins, though earlier theories linking it to Aryan subjugation of indigenous groups have been largely critiqued for lacking archaeological corroboration.^[10]^[11] By the Dharmashastra era, texts like the Manusmriti (composed between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE) codified untouchability's framework, designating Chandalas—typically from Shudra-Brahmin intermixtures or degraded lineages—to hereditary roles in polluting activities and mandating avoidance, such as prohibiting shared paths or vessels to prevent defilement, thereby institutionalizing exclusion as a religious duty.^[12]^[13] These prescriptions reflect causal mechanisms of ritual logic, where empirical associations between certain labors and decay justified hierarchical distancing, evolving into broader social norms observed in inscriptions and accounts from the Gupta period (4th–6th century CE) onward.^[3] While some interpretations debate the Manusmriti's explicit endorsement of total untouchability versus mere segregation, its rules on Chandala interactions provided a durable template for later enforcement.^[14]

Religious and Cultural Justifications

In Hindu tradition, untouchability has been justified through the doctrines of karma and samsara (reincarnation), which hold that birth into an untouchable group stems from demeritorious actions in prior existences, imposing ritual and social restrictions as a mechanism for eventual spiritual elevation across lifetimes.^[15] This metaphysical framework, articulated in philosophical texts like the Upanishads and later commentaries, frames caste position as a deterministic outcome of accumulated moral debt, thereby legitimizing inequality as cosmically equitable rather than arbitrary.^[16] Empirical studies confirm that belief in karma correlates with acceptance of caste hierarchies among contemporary Hindus, reinforcing social stasis by attributing disadvantage to personal failing across rebirths.^[16] Culturally and ritually, the practice derives from Brahmanical concepts of shaucha (purity) and ashucha (pollution), wherein contact with bodily fluids, death, or degrading labor—tasks assigned to untouchables—transfers defilement, necessitating physical separation to safeguard higher castes' sanctity for religious duties.^[17] Dharmashastra compilations, such as the Manusmriti (e.g., chapters 5 and 10), prescribe outcaste status for groups like Chandalas, offspring of inter-varna unions or performers of impure vocations, mandating their residence outside settlements and avoidance in daily interactions to avert communal contamination.^[18] These norms integrated social stratification with temple worship and lifecycle rites, where untouchables' exclusion preserved the efficacy of Vedic sacrifices.^[17] While these justifications invoke scriptural authority, Vedic hymns like the Purusha Sukta (Rig Veda 10.90) outline four varnas from cosmic sacrifice but omit explicit untouchables, suggesting the full doctrine evolved through post-Vedic Smritis and customary enforcement amid agrarian expansions around 200 BCE–500 CE.^[14] Critics, including reformist scholars, contend that purity-pollution binaries rationalize economic exploitation of laboring groups rather than deriving strictly from divine revelation, as evidenced by inconsistencies in early texts and regional variations in practice.^[19] Nonetheless, until colonial-era codifications and independence in 1947, these rationales sustained untouchability's endurance, with over 200 million affected by 1950 per census data.^[5]

Practices and Empirical Realities

Traditional practices of untouchability in India's caste system involved ritual pollution attributed to certain occupations and births, leading to enforced social segregation. Affected groups, historically termed untouchables or later Scheduled Castes (SCs), were barred from physical contact with higher castes, sharing common wells or utensils, entering temples, or residing in upper-caste villages, under beliefs that proximity caused impurity requiring purification rituals.^[2] These norms extended to prohibiting inter-caste dining or marriage, with violations often met by social ostracism or violence to maintain hierarchical purity.^[20] Empirical surveys indicate persistence of such practices, particularly in rural areas. A study in Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh found over 50% of non-SC Hindu households engaging in untouchability, such as refusing shared water or entry into homes.^[21] Discrimination manifests in access to public resources, with SCs often denied temple entry or village commons, corroborated by field observations across states showing upper castes enforcing separation via threats.^[22] National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data records escalating atrocities against SCs, reflecting violent enforcement of caste norms. In 2023, 57,789 cases were registered under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, with Uttar Pradesh reporting the highest at over 14,000, followed by Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh; these accounted for 97.7% of cases concentrated in 13 states.^[23] ^[24] Crimes included murder, rape, and assault, often triggered by perceived caste transgressions like inter-caste relationships or land disputes.^[25] Manual scavenging, a demeaning practice disproportionately imposed on SCs, persists despite legal bans since 1993 and 2013. Government data reports 377 deaths from hazardous sewer and septic tank cleaning between 2019 and 2023, with over 400 such fatalities from 2018 to 2023; 77-97% of practitioners are Dalits, lacking safety gear in over 90% of audited cases.^[26] ^[27] ^[28] Underreporting likely understates scale, as official figures exclude unreported septic tank deaths, yet highlight causal links to caste-assigned labor without mechanization.^[29]

Modern Reforms, Persistence, and Debates

The Constitution of India, adopted on January 26, 1950, explicitly abolished untouchability through Article 17, declaring it a punishable offense and prohibiting its practice in any form.^[30] Subsequent legislation reinforced this, including the Untouchability (Offences) Act of 1955, which criminalized social disabilities imposed on Scheduled Castes (SCs), and the Protection of Civil Rights Act of 1955, aimed at enforcing constitutional mandates against caste-based discrimination.^[31] The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989 (SC/ST Act) expanded protections by defining specific atrocities—such as forced labor, denial of public services, and social boycotts—and mandating special courts for swift trials, while affirmative action policies introduced reservations for SCs in education (up to 15% quotas), government jobs, and legislative seats to address historical exclusion.^[32] Despite these measures, untouchability persists in social, economic, and violent forms, particularly in rural areas where cultural norms override legal prohibitions. A 2012 India Human Development Survey found that 27% of households nationwide practiced untouchability, with rural prevalence at 30% compared to 20% in urban settings, including restrictions on SC entry into homes, shared utensils, or temples.^[5] National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) data recorded 57,789 crimes against SCs in 2023, a slight increase from prior years, with Uttar Pradesh reporting the highest at 15,130 cases, often involving assault, murder, and rape linked to perceived caste violations like inter-caste marriages or resource disputes.^[23] Notable incidents include the 2022 death of a 9-year-old Dalit boy in Rajasthan after being beaten for drinking from an upper-caste pot, highlighting ongoing enforcement gaps.^[32] Debates center on the limited effectiveness of reforms, with critics citing poor implementation, low conviction rates (often below 30% under the SC/ST Act due to witness intimidation and judicial delays), and cultural entrenchment that sustains discrimination beyond legal reach.^[33] Proponents argue reservations have enabled upward mobility—evidenced by increased SC representation in higher education and bureaucracy—but opponents contend they entrench caste identities and foster reverse discrimination, potentially hindering merit-based progress.^[34] Empirical factors like education correlate with reduced practices (a 6% decline from illiterate to graduate households), yet rising atrocities amid economic competition between castes suggest reforms address symptoms rather than root causes rooted in hierarchical social structures.^[5] Some studies highlight misuse allegations, with states like Tamil Nadu reporting fewer SC/ST Act cases after awareness campaigns, though data disputes persist on whether this reflects genuine decline or underreporting.^[35]

Notable Individuals

People Nicknamed or Self-Identified as Untouchable

Leroy Nicholas "Nicky" Barnes (October 15, 1933 – June 2012) was an American drug kingpin in Harlem who earned the nickname "Mr. Untouchable" for repeatedly evading successful prosecution despite multiple arrests starting in the 1950s, due to his sophisticated operations distributing heroin through "The Council" syndicate.^[36] His moniker stemmed from law enforcement's inability to secure convictions until 1977, when federal charges finally led to a life sentence, later reduced after he became a government informant.^[36] Barnes later detailed his life in the 2007 documentary Mr. Untouchable and his autobiography, highlighting how corruption and evidentiary gaps protected him for years.^[37] Clarence Adam Vinson (born July 10, 1978), an American professional boxer from Washington, D.C., is nicknamed "Untouchable" for his elusive defensive style and speed in the ring.^[38] He won a bantamweight bronze medal at the 2000 Sydney Olympics, defeating opponents like Cuba's Yosvani Aguilera before losing in the semifinals, and claimed U.S. amateur flyweight titles in 1997 and 1998.^[39] Turning pro in 2001, Vinson compiled a record of 17 wins and 2 losses, including victories over prospects like Ildefonso Martinez, though injuries limited his career peak.^[40] Victor Kan Wah Chit (born 1936), a Hong Kong-born Wing Chun practitioner and direct student of Grandmaster Ip Man for seven years in the 1950s, was nicknamed "Untouchable" by peers for his mastery of chi sao (sticky hands) drills, where opponents struggled to "touch" or disrupt him.^[41] Also called the "King of Chi Sao," he served as Ip Man's assistant instructor before emigrating to Canada in 1962, where he taught and preserved the lineage, outranking later students like Ip Chun in training seniority.^[41] Kan's reputation derived from daily 3–4 hour sessions emphasizing practical evasion and control, influencing global Wing Chun schools.^[42]

Historical Figures Associated with the Term

Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891–1956), born into the Mahar caste classified as untouchable, emerged as the preeminent leader advocating for the rights of untouchables in India. He organized the first conference of the Depressed Classes in 1927 and led the Mahad Satyagraha in 1927, where untouchables asserted their right to access public water sources previously denied to them on caste grounds.^[43] Ambedkar viewed untouchability as an entrenched feature of the Hindu caste system, criticizing religious texts like the Manusmriti for perpetuating it, and argued that political safeguards, such as reserved seats in legislatures, were essential for uplifting the community rather than relying solely on moral persuasion.^[44] As chairman of the drafting committee for the Indian Constitution adopted in 1950, he incorporated Article 17, which explicitly abolishes untouchability and forbids its practice.^[45] Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) also prominently associated with the term through his campaigns against untouchability, which he termed a "blot on Hinduism" and sought to eradicate via personal example and mass mobilization. In 1932, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death opposing the British Communal Award's provision for separate electorates for untouchables, leading to the Poona Pact agreement with Ambedkar that expanded joint electorates with reserved seats instead.^[43] He coined the term "Harijan" (children of God) in 1932 to replace derogatory labels like untouchable, founding the Harijan Sevak Sangh to promote temple entry, sanitation work, and education among the group, while living in Harijan ashrams and cleaning latrines to symbolize equality.^[46] However, Gandhi's approach emphasized reforming Hinduism from within and appealing to upper-caste conscience, contrasting Ambedkar's insistence on structural dismantling of caste hierarchies, which Ambedkar saw as incompatible with Hindu scriptures.^[47] Earlier reformers like Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890) laid groundwork by challenging caste discrimination in the 19th century, founding the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 to unite lower castes, including those deemed untouchable, against Brahmanical dominance, though his efforts predated widespread use of the specific term "untouchable" in modern discourse.^[48] These figures' efforts culminated in legal abolition under India's 1950 Constitution, yet empirical data from post-independence surveys indicate persistence of caste-based practices, underscoring the limitations of reform without broader socio-economic transformation.^[49]

Entertainment Media

Films and Documentaries

India Untouched: Stories of a People Apart (2007), directed by Stalin K., provides an extensive examination of untouchability's persistence in contemporary India, interviewing Dalits across Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and Sikh communities to reveal ongoing segregation in temples, schools, and public spaces.^[50] The film documents empirical instances of discrimination, such as Dalits being barred from shared water sources and facing violence for inter-caste interactions, underscoring the gap between legal abolition and social practice.^[51] Jai Bhim Comrade (2011), a documentary by Anand Patwardhan, follows the Dalit Panther movement through the lens of Mumbai activist Vilas Ghogre, exploring caste violence, police brutality, and Ambedkarite resistance via music and protests following the 1992 Babri Masjid demolition.^[51] It highlights causal links between historical untouchability and modern urban ghettoization, with footage of Dalit funerals and rallies evidencing suppressed dissent.^[51] Achhut Kanya (1936), directed by Franz Osten and produced by Bombay Talkies, depicts a forbidden romance between an untouchable girl and a Brahmin boy, exposing early 20th-century untouchability through narrative tragedy rooted in ritual impurity norms.^[52] Released during British India, the film drew from real social barriers, including excommunication for touch, and influenced pre-independence discourse on caste reform.^[52] Fandry (2013), directed by Nagraj Manjule, portrays a Dalit adolescent boy's struggle against caste prejudice in rural Maharashtra, including school bullying and parental labor in pig-rearing, a profession stigmatized for untouchables.^[53] The film uses autobiographical elements to illustrate intergenerational transmission of discrimination, with the protagonist's pursuit of an upper-caste girl ending in communal backlash.^[53] Jai Bhim (2021), directed by T. J. Gnanavel, dramatizes a real 1993 case of police torture against an Irular tribesman (classified as Dalit), leading to advocacy by a lawyer inspired by B. R. Ambedkar, emphasizing systemic judicial bias against untouchables.^[54] Starring Suriya, it amassed over 200,000 five-star IMDb ratings shortly after release, reflecting public resonance with documented atrocities like custodial deaths.^[54] Origin (2023), directed by Ava DuVernay, adapts Isabel Wilkerson's Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents, interweaving India's untouchability with U.S. racism and Nazi Germany through a researcher's global journey, including visits to Dalit sites like manual scavenging areas.^[55] The film cites historical data, such as 1,200 annual Dalit suicides from caste humiliation per India's National Crime Records Bureau, to argue enduring hierarchies beyond race.^[56]

Books and Literature

Mulk Raj Anand's novel Untouchable, published in 1935, depicts a single day in the life of Bakha, an 18-year-old sweeper from the untouchable caste in a northern Indian town during the colonial era, exposing the daily degradations, ritual pollution taboos, and social exclusion enforced by the caste hierarchy. The narrative draws on Anand's observations of sanitation workers and incorporates influences from Mahatma Gandhi's views on untouchability, while critiquing Hindu customs through Bakha's encounters with higher castes, a Christian missionary, and a poet advocating flush toilets and Gandhi's message.* Foreworded by E.M. Forster, the book marked Anand's rise as a pioneer in Indian English literature addressing subaltern experiences, though some later Dalit critics have faulted its portrayal of untouchables as passive victims shaped by an upper-caste author's perspective rather than authentic insider testimony.^[59] Dalit literature, emerging prominently from the 1970s onward as a distinct genre of autobiographical and testimonial writing by former untouchables, provides firsthand accounts of caste-based oppression, often rejecting reformist narratives in favor of radical self-assertion and historical reclamation.^[60] Omprakash Valmiki's Joothan: A Dalit's Life (1997, English translation 2003) chronicles the author's childhood humiliations, such as being forced to eat leftovers (joothan) and barred from school temples, illustrating persistent untouchability in post-independence India despite legal abolition in 1950.^[61] Similarly, Bama's Karukku (1992), the first Tamil Dalit feminist autobiography, details a Paraiyar woman's experiences of gender-inflected caste violence in a Christian convent and village, blending critique of religious hypocrisy with communal solidarity.*^[60] B.R. Ambedkar's Annihilation of Caste (1936), an undelivered speech later published as a tract, systematically dismantles religious justifications for untouchability rooted in texts like the Manusmriti, arguing for its eradication through inter-caste dining, marriage, and constitutional reforms rather than mere upliftment.^[59] Drawing on historical evidence of caste as a post-Vedic innovation enforcing hereditary pollution, Ambedkar's work influenced Dalit Panther activism in the 1970s and remains a foundational text, with over 1 million copies circulated by his Navayana trust by 2020.^[62] Narendra Jadhav's Untouchables: My Family's Triumphant Journey Out of the Caste System in Modern India (2005) recounts three generations of Mahars escaping manual scavenging via education and migration, supported by 2003 census data showing Dalits comprising 16.6% of India's population amid ongoing disparities in literacy (66.1% vs. national 73%) and land ownership.*^[62] These works collectively underscore empirical persistence of untouchability practices, such as segregated water access documented in 2019 surveys affecting 40% of rural Dalits, challenging optimistic reform accounts from state-affiliated sources.^[61]

Music

The Casteless Collective, a Chennai-based ensemble formed in 2019, repurposes gaana—a high-energy Tamil folk genre originating from working-class communities—to confront caste-based exclusion and related social ills, including untouchability's lingering effects such as segregated labor and violence against Dalits.^[63] Their music emphasizes empirical testimonies of discrimination, drawing on first-hand accounts from Dalit performers to challenge hierarchical norms embedded in Hindu traditions.^[64] Other Dalit artists, such as rapper Sumeet Samos and singer Ginni Mahi, incorporate hip-hop and folk elements to amplify narratives of marginalization, with lyrics often referencing specific atrocities like caste-motivated killings and economic boycotts reported in regions like Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.^[65]^[66]

Albums

Gaana Mutants (2020) by the Casteless Collective compiles tracks that fuse electronic beats with gaana percussion to critique caste violence and corruption, featuring collaborations with Dalit vocalists who highlight ongoing segregation practices in urban India.^[63] Matangi (2013) by M.I.A. explores themes of otherness tied to her family's Matanga (untouchable) lineage, incorporating Tamil folk samples and lyrics alluding to enlightenment outside caste reincarnation cycles, as per the artist's statements on her heritage.^[67] Untouchable Outcaste Beats 1 (2003), a compilation from Outcaste Records, curates underground tracks from Dalit and tribal musicians, showcasing experimental sounds that protest the systemic devaluation of outcaste labor in India's informal economy.^[68]

Songs

Arivu's "Ava Maya" (2020), performed with the Casteless Collective, uses rap to decry Dalit women's subjugation under caste norms, referencing real incidents of honor killings and temple entry bans documented in Tamil Nadu since the 2010s.^[69] Ginni Mahi's "Bhim Jayate" (2018) honors B.R. Ambedkar while condemning persistent untouchability in rural Punjab, with verses citing data on Dalit landlessness (over 70% in some districts per 2011 census analyses).^[66] Folk performer Katie Rouse's "Untouchable" (2016) draws parallels between Indian Dalit exclusion and global inequality, explicitly naming practices like manual scavenging, which affected an estimated 1.3 million people as of 2016 government surveys.^[70] A traditional Kerala folk song, translated as questioning "What kind of untouchability is this?", satirizes upper-caste hypocrisy in enforcing pollution taboos while relying on Dalit services.^[71]

Albums

The Untouchable is the fourth studio album by American rapper Scarface, released on March 11, 1997, by Rap-A-Lot Records and Noo Trybe Records.^[72] The album features production from Scarface himself alongside Mike Dean and others, with guest appearances from artists including Ice Cube and Jay-Z, and debuted at number one on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart.^[72] Untouchables is the fifth studio album by nu metal band Korn, released on June 11, 2002, by Immortal and Epic Records.^[73] It includes the Grammy-winning single "Here to Stay" and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200, selling over 434,000 copies in its first week.^[74] Untouchable is the second studio album by rapper Mac Mall, released on April 23, 1996, by Relativity Records.^[75] Produced primarily by Mike Mosley, the album emphasizes West Coast gangsta rap themes and features tracks like "Let's Get a Telly."^[76] Untouchable is the third studio album by post-hardcore band Before Their Eyes, released on March 9, 2010, by Rise Records.^[77] The record blends heavy riffs with melodic elements, reaching number 22 on the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart.^[78]

Songs

Songs protesting untouchability within India's caste system have emerged primarily from Dalit artists and activist groups, using folk, rap, and hip-hop genres to challenge discrimination and advocate for equality. Kabir Kala Manch, a Maharashtra-based performance troupe formed in the early 2000s, produces songs that confront caste-based violence and social exclusion, often drawing from the experiences of those historically deemed untouchable; their work gained attention following arrests under anti-terror laws in 2011 for alleged Maoist links, which activists argued targeted their anti-caste messaging.^[79] The Casteless Collective, an ensemble of musicians from diverse castes founded in Chennai in 2017, performs Tamil folk-inspired tracks that critique systemic inequalities and promote intercaste solidarity, emphasizing the persistence of untouchability in rural and urban settings.^[80] Similarly, Punjabi artist Ranjit Bawa's track "Mera Ki Kasur" depicts the hardships of caste discrimination and poverty, portraying the plight of lower castes and igniting debates on religious and social practices in Punjab.^[81] In contemporary Tamil music, composer Sean Roldan partnered with rapper Kumaran for a 2021 music video that directly addresses casteism, lamenting the continued enforcement of untouchability despite legal prohibitions.^[82] Dalit rap collectives, such as those inspired by figures like S. Kumar (Samosa), further amplify these themes through urban beats blended with Ambedkarite ideology, focusing on institutional biases and everyday humiliations faced by former untouchables.^[83]

Television Series

Caminho das Índias (English: "Way of India") is a Brazilian telenovela produced by Rede Globo that aired from January 26 to September 21, 2009, consisting of 203 episodes. The series centers on Indian immigrants in Brazil but prominently features storylines rooted in India's caste system, including a forbidden romance between Maya Meetha, a woman from a high Brahmin family, and Bahuan, a Dalit man historically deemed an untouchable due to his low social status.^[84] This plotline highlights the social stigma, discrimination, and violence associated with inter-caste relationships, drawing from real cultural practices while dramatizing the conflict between tradition and modernity. The show received international acclaim for its authentic portrayal of Hindu customs, including untouchability, and won multiple awards, such as the International Emmy for Best Telenovela in 2009. Documentary television series have also addressed the untouchable caste directly. India's Untouchables, a three-part series released in 2013, documents the persistent oppression of Dalits—formerly known as untouchables—in contemporary India, covering topics like economic exploitation, social exclusion, and limited access to education and healthcare despite legal reforms.^[85] Produced with on-the-ground reporting in regions like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the episodes feature interviews with Dalit individuals facing daily caste-based violence and segregation, estimating that over 200 million Dalits remain affected.^[86] The series underscores the gap between constitutional protections under Article 17 of the Indian Constitution, which abolishes untouchability, and ground realities, including upper-caste backlash against affirmative action policies. Other series occasionally incorporate untouchable themes episodically rather than as central focus. For instance, the Indian web series Made in Heaven (2019–present) on Amazon Prime includes a 2023 episode portraying a Dalit character's struggles with caste prejudice during high-society weddings, marking rare mainstream representation of untouchability in urban elite contexts. However, dedicated narrative television series on the topic remain limited, with most explorations occurring in documentaries or international co-productions rather than ongoing scripted formats.

Other Uses

Linguistic and Idiomatic Meanings

The term "untouchable" functions primarily as an adjective in English, denoting something forbidden to the touch or incapable of being physically contacted, such as an object deemed sacred or hazardous.^[87] This literal sense derives from the prefix "un-" combined with "touchable," with the earliest recorded usage appearing around 1546 in English texts.^[88] It can also describe intangible qualities, like abstract concepts that lack physical palpability.^[89] As a noun, "untouchable" refers to a member of the lowest social strata in the traditional Indian caste system, historically excluded from physical contact with higher castes due to ritual impurity beliefs; this usage emerged in English to translate the social practice of untouchability, though the word's core etymology predates its application to this context by centuries.^[90] Idiomatically, "untouchable" describes a person or entity in a position of such power, protection, or invulnerability that they cannot be effectively criticized, punished, or harmed, often applied to influential figures in politics, crime, or business who evade accountability through connections or status.^[91] ^[92] For instance, it may characterize a criminal syndicate leader deemed "untouchable" by law enforcement or an athlete considered indispensable to a team.^[93] This figurative extension emphasizes immunity from external interference, distinct from the literal prohibition on contact.

Contemporary and Miscellaneous References

Despite constitutional bans since 1950, practices of untouchability and discrimination against Dalits persist in India, manifesting in social exclusion, violence, and barriers to access in public spaces such as temples, schools, and water sources. In 2022, India's National Crime Records Bureau reported over 57,000 cases of atrocities against Scheduled Castes (Dalits), with Uttar Pradesh recording the highest at 12,287, followed by Rajasthan (8,651) and Madhya Pradesh (7,732); these figures reflect underreporting due to social stigma and police reluctance.^[24] As of 2024, Human Rights Watch documented ongoing caste-based violence and discrimination, including assaults on Dalits for perceived violations of traditional hierarchies, amid broader minority targeting.^[94] Surveys indicate that in rural areas, up to 70% of Dalits face restrictions on entering upper-caste homes or using shared facilities, perpetuating economic marginalization despite reservation policies.^[95] In global discourse, the term has been analogized to racial hierarchies outside India, notably by Isabel Wilkerson, who in 2020 equated the status of African Americans in the U.S. to that of untouchables within a caste-like system of inherited inferiority, enforced through segregation and violence.^[96] This framing, drawn from comparisons with India's varna system, highlights parallels in ritual pollution concepts but has drawn criticism for oversimplifying distinct historical oppressions rooted in race versus endogamous occupation.^[96] Miscellaneous contemporary usages include descriptions of legal or political immunity, as in critiques of qualified immunity doctrine shielding U.S. police from civil suits for constitutional violations, rendering officers "untouchable" absent clearly established precedents.^[97] In sports, "untouchable" denotes indispensable athletes exempt from trade considerations due to elite performance, such as star pitchers in Major League Baseball valued for their irreplaceable contributions. In idiomatic extensions beyond linguistics, it signifies superlative skill or status, like "untouchable" records in athletics unbroken for decades, emphasizing enduring superiority verifiable through performance metrics.^[87]

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Manusmriti Verse 5.124
Feb 16, 2018 · 'Unclean'—Untouchable. “If that be so, then what is not eatable by the person concerned, that alone will be a source of contamination for him; e ...
[19]
Untouchability: A Discussion Beyond the Purity–Pollution Dichotomy
In the study of untouchability, the concepts of purity, impurity and pollution are crucial for understanding the practice of untouchability and its presence ...
[20]
[PDF] The Continuing Practice of Untouchability in India
Jan 11, 2020 · many of the ex-untouchable sub-castes (jatis) no longer pursue traditional occupations. However, many untouchables (Dalits)5 still perform ...
[21]
Explicit Prejudice: Evidence from a New Survey - PMC
We find that more than half of non-Dalit Hindu adults in Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh live in households where someone practises untouchability. In Delhi and ...Missing: empirical | Show results with:empirical
[22]
Untouchability in India: A Reading List | Economic and Political Weekly
Although constitutionally banned, untouchability is still practised in both rural and urban India, by upper castes and lower castes.
[23]
Over 57,000 Cases Registered For Committing Crimes Against ...
Sep 30, 2025 · A total of 57789 cases were registered in 2023 with regard to crimes against people belonging to Scheduled Castes (SCs), with Uttar Pradesh ...Missing: 2024 | Show results with:2024
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U.P., Rajasthan, M.P. top in cases of atrocities on Dalits: report
Sep 23, 2024 · Nearly 97.7% of all cases of atrocities against Scheduled Castes in 2022 were reported from 13 States, with Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh ...
[25]
[PDF] government of india - Ministry of Home Affairs
Mar 18, 2025 · (a) : National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) compiles statistical data on crimes as reported to it by the States/UTs and publishes the same in its ...
[26]
[PDF] Deaths of manual scavengers
Jul 31, 2024 · (b) 377 persons have died in State/UTs, during last five years from 2019 to 2023 due to hazardous cleaning of sewers and septic tanks. (c) The ...
[27]
Over 400 manual scavengers died in last five years: Centre
Dec 5, 2023 · Over 400 people died while cleaning septic tanks and sewers in India between 2018 and 2023, the Parliament was informed on Tuesday.
[28]
77% of manual scavengers are Dalit, says report despite Union ...
Oct 1, 2024 · Union govt says no manual scavenging deaths in 2023, activists slam misleading data. Inconsistent stands on the issue. In its first reply to ...
[29]
In over 90% of sewer deaths, workers had no safety gear - The Hindu
Jul 22, 2025 · In an audit of 54 sewer deaths in 2022 and 2023, no mechanised equipment was given in 47 cases; only five of the deceased workers had gloves, ...
[30]
India's Dalits still fighting untouchability - BBC News
Jun 27, 2012 · ... untouchability. India's constitution banned the practice of untouchability - in which members of India's higher castes will not touch ...
[31]
From Traditional to Modern Atrocities: Has Caste Changed in ...
Dec 21, 2022 · The Untouchability (Offences) Act (UOA), 1955, was formulated to make this law more stringent and prescribe punishment under Article 17.<|separator|>
[32]
Seven Decades After It Was Abolished, 'Untouchability' Continues to ...
Aug 23, 2022 · Seven Decades After It Was Abolished, 'Untouchability' Continues to be Practiced in India. The recent killing of a Dalit child for drinking ...
[33]
The Impact and Implementation of the Scheduled Castes and ...
Sep 17, 2024 · The study concludes that while the SC/ST Act is a powerful tool for combating caste-based atrocities, its effectiveness in Karnataka is ...
[34]
From transformation to dilution: The weakening of the SC/ST ...
Apr 14, 2024 · From transformation to dilution: The weakening of the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act through judicial decisions.
[35]
Effective awareness brought down SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities ...
Mar 29, 2025 · Effective awareness brought down SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act cases, says TN CM. PTI. 29 March, 2025 05:01 pm IST ...
[36]
Nicky Barnes, 'Mr. Untouchable' of Heroin Dealers, Is Dead at 78
Jun 8, 2019 · Nicky Barnes, 'Mr. Untouchable' of Heroin Dealers, Is Dead at 78 ... “Nicky Barnes is not around anymore,” said the balding, limping grandfather ...Missing: famous | Show results with:famous
[37]
Leroy “Nicky” Barnes (1933-2012) - BlackPast.org
Mar 29, 2018 · He acquired the nickname “Mr. Untouchable” because the police's attempts to charge him for his crimes consistently failed due to absence of ...
[38]
Vinson at Home in Four-Round Bout - The Washington Post
Jun 28, 2001 · ... Untouchable"; and he has shown that pro's proclivity of referring to himself in the third person. "Clarence Vinson loves to be successful.
[39]
Clarence Vinson - Olympedia
Clarence “Untouchable” Vinson was a bantamweight boxer who won a bronze medal at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. He was US Champion at flyweight in 1997-98 and at ...
[40]
Clarence Vinson - BoxRec
Clarence Vinson ; alias, Untouchable ; nationality, USA ; stance, orthodox ; height, 5′ 2″ / 157cm ; reach, 69″ / 175cm.
[41]
Victor Kan (Wah Chit) - eWingChun
His fellow student's nicknamed him 'King of Chi Sao' or 'The Untouchable'. In the late 1950's he became Yip Man's assistant chief instructor until he left Hong ...
[42]
Issue No. 1 Table Of Contents - Wing Chun Illustrated
Victor Kan Wah Chit, nicknamed “Untouchable” and “King of Chi Sau”, is one of the last active students of Grandmaster Ip Man. Senior in rank to both Ip Chun ...
[43]
Gandhi, Ambedkar, and the Eradication of Untouchability 1
He soon realized that the removal of untouchability will require the mobilization and the organization of untouchables. As Ambedkar engaged with the issue of ...
[44]
Dr. Ambedkar: Abolishing Discrimination - Drishti IAS
Jan 25, 2022 · Here, he criticised Hindu religious texts for their propagation of untouchability. He worked to ensure the 'untouchables' were allowed to enter ...<|separator|>
[45]
[PDF] DR. AMBEDKAR AND UNTOUCHABILITY - IJCRT.org
He criticized the caste system as unjust and the practice of untouchability as inhuman. He sought to awaken and organize the untouchables into a potent social ...
[46]
India's Untouchables -- Still the 'Black Sin'; Gandhi called them ...
May 13, 2025 · He called them Harijans, meaning Children of God. Gandhi went to live among the Harijans, fought their battles and made the ending of their age- ...
[47]
AMBEDKAR'S ROLE IN THE ERADICATION OF UNTOUCHABILITY ...
According to Dr. Ambedkar, untouchability was a unique phenomenon unknown to humanity except the Hindus. “The Untouchables were depressed by the Government, ...
[48]
Challenging The Caste System: Reforms And Movements In India
Oct 19, 2024 · Gandhi's Campaign Against Untouchability: Gandhi was committed to completely eradicating untouchability. His approach was rooted in humanism ...
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India's "Untouchables" Face Violence, Discrimination
Jun 2, 2003 · India's "Untouchables" Face Violence, Discrimination. More than 160 million people in India are considered "Untouchable"—people tainted by their ...
[50]
India Untouched: Stories of a People Apart - YouTube
Aug 27, 2019 · This documentary is the most comprehensive look at the "untouchables" in India. Motivated ... The Caste System in India. Mundi•2.7M views · 29:47.
[51]
Dalit History Month: 5 Must-Watch Documentaries on Caste - Belongg
Directed by Anand Patwardhan, Jai Bhim Comrade is a musical documentary that explores caste in India. The film delves deep into issues of casteism and ...
[52]
15 Great Movies About Caste Discrimination, Dalit Resistance, And ...
“Achhut Kanya” (1936), directed by Franz Osten and produced by Bombay Talkies, is often cited as one of the earliest films to address untouchability. It tells ...
[53]
9 films about the caste system that everyone should watch
Oct 8, 2020 · Nagral Manjule's Fandry is a well-rounded cinematic portrait of the social evil. Jabya (Somnath Avghade) hails from the Dalit 'Kaikadi' tribe ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[54]
Jai Bhim: The Indian film that overtook The Godfather on IMDb - BBC
Nov 16, 2021 · Jai Bhim draws attention to the repression of Dalits in today's India. Jai Bhim, a Tamil language film, has been rated the top film by users ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[55]
With 'Origin,' Ava DuVernay illuminates America's racial caste system
Jan 15, 2024 · The Caste Formerly Known As 'Untouchables' Demands A New Role In India. And with these particular men, I wanted to find people who actually ...
[56]
Origin: this outstanding portrayal of India's caste system is hugely ...
Feb 8, 2024 · Origin: this outstanding portrayal of India's caste system is hugely important to Dalit people like me ... untouchables”. Despite facing ...
[57]
11 Books to Read If You Want to Understand Caste in India
Dec 4, 2017 · A Reading List Anchored by Dalit Voices · R. · Premchand, “Deliverance” The World of Premchand, trans. · Mulk Raj Anand, Untouchable · U. R. ...
[58]
10 Dalit literature you should read to educate yourself
Apr 7, 2023 · Dalit History Month: 10 Dalit literature you should read to educate yourself · 'Annihilation of Caste' by B.R. · 'Karakku' by Bama · ' ...
[59]
A list of must-read books about the oppression, marginalisation and ...
“Untouchable” by Mulk Raj Anand: The novel will simply shake your moral compass. In his book Untouchables, the author uses powerful words to criticise social ...
[60]
Three Books That Convey The Complexity Of Caste - NPR
Oct 3, 2011 · Three Books That Convey The Complexity Of Caste ; Untouchables. Untouchables · BookUntouchables · Narendra Jadhav ; The White Tiger. The White Tiger.
[61]
'We will bring change': the Indian band shaking a cruel caste system
Sep 7, 2020 · ... Untouchable' Bollywood poster provokes outrage over caste stereotypes. 12 Jan 2021. Caste-based area names to be changed across Indian state ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[62]
India's Dalit artists are shaking the age-old system of caste oppression
Aug 31, 2021 · Dalit artists in India are certainly making waves and shaking up the age-old system of caste oppression. While Dalits and other marginalized ...
[63]
Dalit Rap Is India's New Musical Vanguard - Frieze
Sumeet Samos is an Indian Dalit music artist and rapper. He writes and sings in English, Hindi and Odia. He lives in Koraput and New Delhi, India.
[64]
Dalit Musicians Are Playing A New Tune - Hyperallergic
Dec 12, 2019 · Through their music, artists like Ginni Mahi and The Casteless Collective have protested the ways Dalits have been maltreated and marginalized ...
[65]
'I Built The Platform Myself': M.I.A. On Being Heard - NPR
Nov 5, 2013 · Matangi's dad was called Matanga, and he was the first person to gain enlightenment as an untouchable, without being reincarnated as a Brahman.
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https://hyperallergic.com/528733/dalit-musicians-are-playing-a-new-tune/
[67]
From Chamkila's pop to Arivu's rap, Dalit resistance gets wings ...
Apr 27, 2024 · Chamkila was the first Dalit singer to hit unprecedented heights in pop music in India and internationally. After his assassination, no ...
[68]
Untouchable Song - by Katie Rouse - Medium
Aug 25, 2016 · Untouchable Song Untouchables are everywhere. In India and Nepal people in the lowest ranking caste are known as untouchables.
[69]
folk songs - Round Table India
May 8, 2022 · A folk song from Kerala translated by Sreekala Sivasankaran What kind of untouchability is this? The untouchability of the lords!
[70]
The Untouchable - Scarface | Album - AllMusic
Rating 7.5/10 (83) The Untouchable by Scarface released in 1997. Find album reviews, track ... Release Date. March 11, 1997. Duration. 55:31. Genre. Rap. Styles. Gangsta Rap ...
[71]
Untouchables - Korn | Album - AllMusic
Rating 7.2/10 (771) Untouchables by Korn released in 2002. Find album reviews, track lists ... Release Date. June 11, 2002. Duration. 01:05:01. Genre. Pop/Rock. Styles.
[72]
Korn Can't Stop Eminem's 'Show' At No. 1 - Billboard
Jun 20, 2002 · Eminem's “The Eminem Show” held off a rampant charge from Korn's “Untouchables,” selling an impressive 530,000 units in its third full week, ...<|separator|>
[73]
https://www.allmusic.com/album/untouchables-mw0000214016
[74]
Untouchable - Album by Mac Mall - Apple Music
Listen to Untouchable by Mac Mall on Apple Music. 1996. 16 Songs. Duration: 1 hour 2 minutes.
[75]
https://www.discogs.com/release/566064-Mac-Mall-Untouchable
[76]
Album Review : Before Their Eyes - Untouchable | Indie Vision Music
Overall: Before Their Eyes' new release “Untouchable” is crunchy on the outside and creamy on the inside. It's heavy in places and soft in ...
[77]
Meet the musicians challenging India's rising inequality and ...
Apr 17, 2015 · Meet the musicians challenging India's rising inequality and untouchability ... Kabir Kala Manch's first performance at a Songs of Protest event ...
[78]
The Casteless Collective - An Indian Folk Music Band Fighting for ...
Jun 22, 2019 · Singing songs that talk about the inherent inequalities that exist in Indian society ... caste', if you are an 'untouchable' then you don't get to ...
[79]
Anti-Hindu or Pro-Dalit? Punjabi Song Riles Some, Inspires Others
May 7, 2020 · This song by Punjabi singer Ranjit Bawa has stirred up a debate in Punjab. The song primarily deals with caste discrimination and the plight of the poor.Missing: protest | Show results with:protest
[80]
Sean Roldan and Kumaran team up for a music video about casteism
Jul 3, 2021 · Sean Roldan and Kumaran team up for a music video about casteism ... Says Kumaran, “It is quite sad that people still practice untouchability and ...
[81]
Songs of Protest | Economic and Political Weekly
Oct 23, 2021 · Young Dalit musicians and artists like Samos are increasingly using the medium of music to challenge upper-caste hegemony and expose hypocrisy, ...
[82]
Caminho das Índias (TV Series 2009) - IMDb
Rating 6.8/10 (969) The daughter of a traditional, rich Indian family falls in love for a Dalit, an "untouchable" man.
[83]
India's Untouchables - Redeem TV
The situation of India's Dalit community, formerly known as the Untouchables, is a disgrace in the modern world. These three documentary films expose the ...
[84]
India's Untouchables | TV Series - YouTube
India's Untouchables (2013) | Preview | Kumar Swamy | Ela Banerjee | Dr. · India's Untouchables | Episode 3 | Trailer | India's New Beginnings: Suffering and ...
[85]
UNTOUCHABLE Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of UNTOUCHABLE is forbidden to the touch : not to be handled. How to use untouchable in a sentence.
[86]
untouchable, adj. & n. meanings, etymology and more
The earliest known use of the word untouchable is in the mid 1500s. OED's earliest evidence for untouchable is from around 1546, in the writing of W. Peryn.
[87]
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/untouchable
[88]
Untouchable - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating in the 1560s from un- (not) + touchable, "untouchable" means immaterial or incapable of being touched, also linked to untouchability.
[89]
UNTOUCHABLE | definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary
not able to be punished, criticized, or changed in any way: He believed the police would never arrest him, that he was untouchable.
[90]
UNTOUCHABLE definition in American English - Collins Dictionary
An untouchable is someone who is untouchable. ...an anti-corruption squad nicknamed the "Untouchables." 2. adjective.
[91]
untouchable - LDOCE - Longman
someone who is untouchable is in such a strong position that they cannot be defeated, affected, or punishedMissing: idiomatic | Show results with:idiomatic
[92]
World Report 2025: India | Human Rights Watch
India. Events of 2024. Voters wait to cast their ballots at a polling ... discrimination and violence against minority communities including religious ...
[93]
Lives, buried: Untouchability persists in India, across villages and ...
Apr 13, 2025 · Discrimination permeates areas such as educational institutions, places of worship, courtrooms, police stations, factories, government offices— ...
[94]
America's 'untouchables': the silent power of the caste system | Race
Jul 28, 2020 · The principal made the introduction. “Young people,” he said, “I would like to present to you a fellow untouchable from the United States of ...
[95]
Qualified Immunity Is Burning a Hole in the Constitution - POLITICO
Feb 19, 2023 · ... Untouchable,&quot. In this excerpt adapted from her book, “Shielded: How the Police Became Untouchable,” UCLA law professor Joanna Schwartz ...Missing: modern | Show results with:modern