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Vowel hiatus

In phonology, vowel hiatus refers to the occurrence of two adjacent vowels belonging to separate syllables, with no intervening consonant, often resulting in a perceptible break or glide between them. This contrasts with diphthongs, in which two vowels form a single syllable as a complex nucleus.^[1] Vowel hiatus is a widespread phonological phenomenon across languages, permitted freely in some (such as Hawaiian, where sequences like V.V are common) but strictly limited or prohibited in others due to markedness constraints that favor consonant interruption or syllable simplification.^[1] When hiatus arises through morphological concatenation, syntax, or historical sound changes (e.g., loss of intervocalic y, w, or h), languages employ various resolution strategies to avoid it, including vowel elision (deletion of one vowel, as in Yoruba where the first vowel deletes before another), glide formation (conversion of a high vowel to a semivowel, as in Ganda), coalescence (merging of the two vowels into one, as in Attic Greek where /a o/ becomes a long mid vowel), diphthongization (both vowels in one syllable, as in Ngiti), or consonant epenthesis (insertion of a glide or stop, such as in Washo or glottal stops at English word boundaries).^[1]^[2]^[3] In English, hiatus is frequently tolerated, particularly word-internally (e.g., in "cooperate" or "preempt," where 74% of potential cases remain unresolved in American English), though it may be mitigated across word boundaries by glottalization or stops in about 45% of instances before stressed vowels, without reliance on glide insertion.^[3] Historically, hiatus avoidance has influenced poetic scansion and prose style in languages like Ancient Greek, where it was resolved via elision, crasis (contraction across words), or synizesis (vowel contraction within a word), though it persists in specific contexts like proper names or loanwords.^[2] The study of hiatus resolution often involves optimality-theoretic analyses to explain cross-linguistic patterns, highlighting interactions between faithfulness to underlying forms and universal preferences against adjacent vowels.^[1]

Definition and Overview

Core Definition

Vowel hiatus refers to the juxtaposition of two vowels in adjacent syllables without an intervening consonant, often resulting in a sequence that may sound diphthong-like or exhibit clear separation depending on the language's phonetic properties.^[2] This phenomenon arises within words or across morpheme boundaries, where the vowels belong to distinct syllables rather than forming a single complex nucleus.^[4] Phonetically, vowel hiatus is realized as two separate vowel sounds, featuring a relatively quick transitional movement between them that distinguishes it from the smoother, slower glide in diphthongs, influenced by the language's phonotactics.^[5] Unlike diphthongs, which consist of a single syllable nucleus with a glide connecting two vowel elements, hiatus maintains two distinct vowel nuclei across syllable boundaries, ensuring each vowel functions as the peak of its own syllable.^[4] For instance, in English, the word "cooperate" exhibits hiatus in the sequence /koʊˈoʊ.pɚ.eɪt/, where the two /oʊ/ vowels are separated into adjacent syllables, contrasting with a potential diphthong if a glide were inserted.^[2] Similarly, "naive" is transcribed as [naɪˈiːv], highlighting the two vowel nuclei /aɪ/ and /iː/, distinct from a glided diphthongal realization.^[2] Many languages employ strategies like epenthesis to avoid such configurations, though hiatus persists where phonotactics permit it.^[4]

Phonological Role

Vowel hiatus plays a crucial role in delineating syllable boundaries within phonological systems, where it signifies the occurrence of two adjacent vowels belonging to separate syllables (V.V), in contrast to a diphthong (VV), which occupies a single syllable. This distinction is phonetically realized through longer durations and distinct formant trajectories in hiatus sequences, allowing listeners to perceive clear syllabic divisions. In many languages, such heterosyllabic vowel adjacency helps maintain prosodic structure by preserving the integrity of syllable onsets and codas, preventing the coalescence that might otherwise obscure rhythmic patterns.^[6] Hiatus also interacts significantly with stress and prosody, often influencing the overall rhythm and timing of utterances. This preservation affects suprasegmental features like intonation and phrasing, where hiatus boundaries can serve as cues for prosodic junctures.^[6] As a marked phonological structure, hiatus imposes phonotactic constraints in numerous languages, frequently triggering interactions with processes like vowel harmony or reduction to mitigate adjacency of dissimilar vowels. It is often dispreferred due to articulatory and perceptual challenges, leading to restrictions on permissible vowel sequences within words or across morpheme boundaries. In vowel harmony systems, hiatus can disrupt feature spreading, enforcing alignment of vowel qualities to resolve potential conflicts. Seminal cross-linguistic surveys confirm that hiatus avoidance is near-universal, underscoring its status as a costly configuration in phonological grammars.^[7] Within theoretical frameworks such as Optimality Theory, hiatus is governed by markedness constraints like *HIATUS or *VV, which penalize adjacent vowels, in competition with faithfulness constraints such as MAX-IO (preserving input segments) or DEP-IO (prohibiting epenthesis). These rankings determine whether hiatus is tolerated or repaired, with higher-ranked markedness often favoring avoidance to optimize well-formedness. This constraint-based approach highlights hiatus's role in balancing universal preferences against language-specific input fidelity, as analyzed in Bantu and Romance languages.^[8]

Patterns of Occurrence

Languages Favoring Hiatus

In Romance languages, vowel hiatus is phonologically permitted, particularly in sequences involving dissimilar vowels, though it may alternate with diphthongization depending on stress and dialect. For instance, in Spanish, words like caer are realized as [kaˈeɾ] with a clear hiatus between /a/ and /e/, maintaining separate syllables without obligatory resolution.^[9] Similarly, Italian allows hiatus in lexical items such as poeta, pronounced [poˈɛ.ta] with distinct syllables for the initial /o/ and /e/, reflecting a tolerance for adjacent vowels across morpheme boundaries.^[10] This pattern extends to other Romance varieties, where hiatus contrasts with rising sonority diphthongs like /ia/, as seen in variable realizations in Romanian.^[11] Polynesian languages, such as Hawaiian, exhibit a strong preference for hiatus, freely permitting sequences of adjacent vowels without intervention, due to their limited consonant inventory and VCV syllable structure. A representative example is Hawai'i, transcribed as [həˈwai̯.ʔiː], where the /a-i/ sequence and following /i/ form distinct syllables separated by a glottal stop (ʻokina), preserving vowel separation as a core phonological feature.^[12] This tolerance aligns with the language's eight-vowel system, allowing hiatus to occur word-medially and across morphemes without resolution strategies like glides.^[4] In African languages like Yoruba, hiatus is permitted in specific contexts, particularly across word boundaries or in compounds where tone-bearing vowels maintain separation to preserve prosodic structure. For example, in òwò ìlú "trade city", the /ò-ì/ sequence across words is realized with hiatus, highlighting the language's allowance for such sequences tied to tonal and morphological factors.^[13] This occurs alongside frequent resolution in other environments, but underscores hiatus as a viable phonological option. Semitic languages, including Arabic, tolerate hiatus optionally in morphological derivations or pausal forms, where vowel sequences arise without mandatory consonant insertion. For example, in some dialects, sequences like /kaː aˈlaː/ ("like to God") can exhibit hiatus. This optional nature reflects the language's root-and-pattern morphology, where hiatus supports vowel quality distinctions in certain inflections.^[14] Typologically, hiatus is more common in languages with rich vowel inventories or agglutinative structures, as these features reduce the pressure for resolution by accommodating diverse vowel contrasts. For example, Spanish unstressed positions exhibit complete hiatus tolerance for all vowel pairs, such as in la amiga [la.aˈmiɣa], while vowel-rich systems like those in Polynesian languages further promote it by minimizing consonant-mediated breaks.^[15] Agglutinative languages often favor hiatus to preserve morpheme boundaries, aligning with patterns observed in Yoruba compounding. For instance, Finnish permits all possible VV hiatus combinations due to its 8-vowel system.^[12]

Factors Promoting Hiatus

Vowel hiatus is often promoted by phonetic factors related to the articulatory and perceptual properties of the vowels involved. Specifically, sequences of identical or similar vowel heights, such as high vowels followed by high vowels (e.g., /i.i/ or /u.u/), resist fusion or gliding because the lack of significant height contrast reduces the perceptual cue for syllable boundary perception, allowing the hiatus to persist as two distinct syllables.^[3] This resistance is particularly evident in languages where high vowels maintain clear separation to avoid ambiguous transitions into diphthongs.^[16] Morphological factors play a crucial role in preserving hiatus, especially in processes like compounding and affixation, where maintaining distinct morpheme boundaries is prioritized over phonological smoothing. In such cases, languages may permit hiatus to signal the junction between morphemes, preventing the loss of morphological transparency that could result from resolution strategies.^[17] For instance, in Bantu languages like Rutooro, certain affixations create hiatus contexts resolved variably to balance morphology and phonology.^[18] Historical factors contribute to the retention of hiatus through inheritance from proto-languages, where original vowel sequences in roots or stems were not resolved in descendant languages. In the Indo-European family, many hiatus patterns trace back to Proto-Indo-European roots, with retention observed in classical languages like Latin and Greek, where vowel adjacency in compounds or derivations was maintained without contraction in certain contexts.^[19] This diachronic stability often stems from conservative phonological systems that favored hiatus in stressed or prominent positions. Sociolinguistic influences further encourage hiatus maintenance, particularly in prestige dialects or formal registers, where speakers avoid reductions associated with casual speech to signal education or status. In varieties of Spanish, for example, formal contexts in Mexico City favor hiatus over diphthongization, reflecting sociolinguistic norms that associate clear articulation with higher prestige.^[20] Similarly, older generations in historical dialects may consistently produce hiatus variants, resisting shifts toward resolution in contemporary usage.^[21] Acoustic evidence supports the promotion of hiatus through measurable differences in speech production, notably longer durations at hiatus sites compared to diphthongs. Studies show that hiatus sequences exhibit durations approximately 50 ms longer than equivalent diphthongs, with extended formant trajectories that reinforce the perception of separate syllables.^[22] This increased duration, observed across languages like Spanish and Romanian, provides perceptual stability, making hiatus a preferred structure in certain phonetic environments.^[23]

Strategies for Avoidance

Epenthesis

Epenthesis serves as a phonological strategy to resolve vowel hiatus by inserting a consonant between two adjacent vowels, thereby creating a consonant-vowel (CV) sequence that aligns with the language's syllable structure preferences. This process typically involves the addition of glides such as or , fricatives, or glottal stops, which act as syllable onsets for the following vowel and prevent the perceptual or articulatory challenges posed by consecutive vowels. The inserted consonant often harmonizes with nearby segments, such as copying features from adjacent sounds, or defaults to a language-specific unmarked consonant like the glottal stop [ʔ].^[24] In English, glide epenthesis commonly occurs in hiatus contexts involving high vowels, as in the word "seeing," where the underlying sequence /siːɪŋ/ surfaces as [ˈsiːjɪŋ] with an inserted derived from the preceding high front vowel. Similarly, in German, a glottal stop [ʔ] is frequently epenthesized to break hiatus, particularly before stressed vowels, as in compounds or prefixed words like "reaktivieren" realized as [ʁeːʔak.tiˈviː.ʁən], where the glottal stop provides an onset to the second syllable and avoids the unmarked vowel sequence. In French, epenthesis of appears in specific syntactic contexts to prevent hiatus, such as in inverted subject-verb constructions like "a-t-il" [a.til] ("has he?"), inserting between the verb-final vowel and the pronoun-initial vowel.^[25]^[26]^[26] This process is often triggered in rapid or casual speech, where the need for smooth articulation becomes prominent, or across morpheme boundaries, such as in derivations or compounds, where underlying hiatus may emerge due to affixation. For instance, epenthesis is more likely in connected speech environments, like between words or clitics, to facilitate prosodic well-formedness without altering lexical forms.^[24]^[27] Phonologically, epenthesis in hiatus can be formalized as a rule transforming a vowel-vowel (V+V) sequence into V C V, where C is either copied from an adjacent segment (e.g., place or manner features from nearby consonants) or supplied as a default, such as [ʔ] in languages lacking other options. This rule operates within Optimality Theory frameworks as a repair mechanism driven by constraints against complex nuclei or onsetless syllables, outranking faithfulness to the input form.^[24]^[26]

Contraction

Contraction is a phonological process that resolves vowel hiatus by merging two adjacent vowels into a single vowel or diphthong, typically through the syncope (internal deletion) or apocope (final deletion) of one vowel, resulting in compensatory lengthening or qualitative change in the remaining vowel.^[28] This mechanism reduces the syllabic structure, avoiding the dispreferred sequence of two vowel nuclei in consecutive syllables. In many languages, contraction occurs obligatorily or optionally within words or across morpheme boundaries, contributing to smoother prosodic flow.^[4] A classic example appears in Latin, where the nominative dual duo [ˈdu.o] contracts in the accusative plural duōs [ˈduːs], fusing the short /u/ and /o/ into a long /uː/ under the influence of inflectional endings.^[29] Similarly, in historical English, contractions like thou art → th'art demonstrate the fusion of /aʊ/ and /ɑː/ across words in informal or poetic speech, eliding the unstressed vowel to form a single syllable.^[30] In Ancient Greek, contraction frequently resolved hiatus created by the loss of intervocalic /h/, or specific shifts like /ea/ → [æː] in words such as orea > ὄρη "mountains." Phonological conditioning for contraction often targets unstressed positions, where the weaker vowel is more prone to deletion, or identical vowels, which fuse straightforwardly into a long vowel, such as /i+i/ → /iː/ in various Indo-European languages.^[28] For instance, in Attic-Ionic Greek, sequences like /e/ + /e/ contracted to long mid vowels, producing "spurious diphthongs" such as ει [ɛː] or ου [ɔː], conditioned by the preceding environment like /r/ or /e/. This process is favored in rapid speech or morphological contexts, where maintaining distinct syllables would violate sonority preferences.^[31] Diachronically, contraction plays a key role in sound changes, notably in Vulgar Latin, where hiatus resolution through vowel fusion contributed to systemic mergers, such as identical vowels combining into long forms (e.g., co(h)orte(m) → cōrte "court") and the shift from a quantitative to a qualitative vowel system in emerging Romance languages.^[29] These mergers reduced the seven-vowel stressed inventory of Proto-Western-Romance to patterns seen in modern descendants like French and Spanish, where former hiatus sequences evolved into monophthongs or diphthongs.^[31] In Greek dialects, such contractions post-700 BCE led to further innovations, like [æː] merging with [ɛː] by the 5th century BCE, influencing nominal and verbal morphology.

Glide Formation

Glide formation is a phonological process in which a high vowel in a vowel hiatus sequence is realized as a semivowel (glide) to resolve the adjacency of two vowels, typically transforming the first vowel into an onset consonant for the following syllable. This strategy is common in languages where syllable structure favors complex onsets over onsetless syllables, converting sequences like /ViV/ or /VuV/ (where V represents any vowel) into [jV] or [wV], respectively, without inserting new material but reinterpreting the existing high vowel. For instance, in Spanish, the underlying form /ˈielo/ 'ice' surfaces as [ˈhjelo], where the initial /i/ glides to before the following mid vowel, preserving the word's prosodic structure.^[32] This process is exemplified across various languages. In Portuguese, the word "dia" /ˈdi.a/ 'day' often realizes as [ˈdʒja], with the high vowel /i/ becoming a palatal glide in the onset position, particularly in Brazilian varieties where rising diphthongs are prevalent. In Japanese, optional glide insertion resolves certain vowel sequences, such as /o.a/ becoming [o.wa] in words like doa 'door'.^[33]^[34] Glide formation is constrained to non-low vowels, as low vowels like /a/ lack the articulatory height necessary to reduce to a glide without significant distortion, and it is often position-dependent, occurring more readily in word-medial or post-consonantal contexts than word-initially to maintain perceptual clarity. For example, in many Romance languages, initial high vowels may resist gliding if they bear stress, but medial ones glide freely to optimize syllable contact. These restrictions ensure that the process aligns with universal phonological preferences, avoiding suboptimal sonority profiles.^[20]^[35] Theoretically, glide formation adheres to the sonority hierarchy, which ranks sounds by acoustic prominence: vowels as most sonorous, followed by glides, liquids, nasals, and obstruents as least sonorous. By converting a high vowel (high sonority) into a glide (slightly lower sonority) in the onset position, the process creates a rising sonority contour within the syllable—glide (onset) to vowel (nucleus)—thus satisfying principles like the Sonority Sequencing Generalization and avoiding the dispreferred flat sonority of two adjacent vowels. In optimality-theoretic terms, this repair is driven by constraints favoring onsets (e.g., ONSET) over those penalizing feature changes (e.g., IDENT-IO[high]), treating glides as consonantal variants of vowels to repair hiatus while minimizing violations.^[36]^[37]

Representation in Writing and Speech

Transcription Methods

In phonetic transcription, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) employs a midline dot or period (.) to denote syllable boundaries, particularly in cases of vowel hiatus where two adjacent vowels occur in separate syllables without an intervening consonant. This convention aids in distinguishing hiatus from diphthongs, which form a single syllable nucleus; for instance, the English word "naive" is represented as [na.ɪv] to indicate the break between the vowels /a/ and /ɪ/, preventing interpretation as a diphthong [naɪv]. The symbol is classified under suprasegmentals in the IPA chart (IPA Number 506) and is used when syllable division is phonologically or phonetically relevant, as in examples like English [naɪ.treɪt] ("nitrate") versus [naɪt.reɪt] ("night rate"). Other phonetic systems, such as the Americanist phonetic notation traditionally used in North American linguistics for indigenous languages, similarly utilize a period (.) for syllable division in hiatus contexts, mirroring the IPA approach (e.g., CV.CV structure), though hyphens (-) may occasionally appear for morpheme boundaries (CV-CV). Broad transcriptions in these systems often omit the divider if the hiatus is predictable from phonological rules, focusing on phonemic representation, whereas narrow transcriptions include it to capture fine-grained allophonic details, such as slight glottal reinforcement at the boundary. This distinction ensures clarity in documenting languages with frequent hiatus, like many Native American tongues. A key challenge in transcribing vowel hiatus arises from potential ambiguity with diphthongs, as both involve sequential vowels that may appear identical without explicit marking; for example, the sequence [ai] could denote a rising diphthong in one language or a hiatus [a.i] in another, requiring the syllable divider or contextual analysis to resolve. Phonologists address this by relying on prosodic cues like stress placement or duration, but transcription alone may necessitate additional annotations for precision in ambiguous cases. Historical notations by early phoneticians, including Henry Sweet in his development of the Romic alphabet (a precursor to the IPA), incorporated raised dots (˙) to mark syllable breaks, including in hiatus, as part of broader efforts to systematize visible speech representations in the late 19th century. These symbols evolved into modern conventions, reflecting a shift toward standardized, unambiguous systems like the IPA established in 1886.

Orthographic Marking

In some writing systems, vowel hiatus is indicated through spacing or hyphens to prevent misreading of adjacent vowels as diphthongs. In archaic English orthography, hyphens were commonly inserted in compound words to signal hiatus, as in "co-operate" or "re-enter," where the break clarifies that the vowels belong to separate syllables.^[38] Similarly, Finnish orthography relies on simple adjacency of vowels to denote hiatus, writing sequences like "vaa'an" ([va:.an]) without additional marks, as each vowel represents a distinct sound in separate syllables, reflecting the language's phonemic tolerance for such configurations.^[39] In Hawaiian orthography, an apostrophe represents the ʻokina, a glottal stop that occurs between vowels to enforce hiatus and create a clear syllabic break, as in "Hawaiʻi" where it separates the vowels /a/ and /i/. This convention treats the glottal stop as a consonant, ensuring the vowels are pronounced in distinct syllables rather than blending.^[40] Language-specific conventions for marking hiatus in borrowed words include the use of katakana in Japanese for gairaigo (loanwords), where vowel sequences from foreign sources are orthographically represented as consecutive kana to approximate hiatus, though often adapted to Japanese phonotactics that favor resolution through lengthening or epenthesis. For instance, English words with potential hiatus are transcribed with adjacent vowels like "アイ" for "eye," maintaining separation in writing despite spoken coalescence.^[41] The marking of vowel hiatus has evolved from more explicit notations in classical languages, such as Latin's use of poetic elision rules to handle hiatus in verse, to largely implicit representations in modern European orthographies, where adjacent vowels are written without intervention unless ambiguity arises, reflecting phonetic shifts toward diphthongization or resolution over time.^[42]

Diaeresis Usage

The diaeresis, also known as the trema, is a diacritical mark consisting of two closely spaced dots (¨) placed horizontally above a vowel letter to indicate that it forms a separate syllable from an adjacent vowel, thereby signaling a vowel hiatus. This mark prevents the vowels from being interpreted as a diphthong or a single syllable, as seen in examples like naïve (pronounced /naɪˈiːv/, with hiatus between /aɪ/ and /iː/) and Brontë (preserving the separate pronunciation of the final vowel in the surname).^[43] The diaeresis has historical origins in the ancient Greek trema, which emerged during the Hellenistic period (c. 323–31 BCE) to mark the separate pronunciation of vowels, particularly iota and upsilon, avoiding diphthong formation in adjacent syllables. This Greek convention was adapted in Latin orthography during the Renaissance, particularly in printed editions of classical texts, to denote hiatus where elision did not occur, and it further evolved in Romance languages to clarify pronunciation in vernacular writing. By the 17th century, it had become established in Spanish orthography for similar purposes, though its application was later refined.^[44]^[45] In modern usage, the diaeresis appears sporadically in English, primarily in loanwords from French or other languages to maintain hiatus, such as noël (a Christmas carol, pronounced /noʊˈɛl/) and naïve. In Spanish, it is obligatorily placed over the letter u in the digraphs gue and gui to indicate that the u is pronounced as /u/, creating a hiatus, as in pingüino (/piŋˈɡwi.no/, where the u separates from the following i). This usage ensures the u is not muted, distinguishing it from cases like guerra (/ˈɡe.ra/), where no hiatus occurs.^[43]^[45] Variations of the diaeresis include inverted forms (with dots placed below the letter) in certain non-Latin scripts or older typographic traditions, and occasional substitutions like colons (::) in medieval manuscripts to denote separation. However, its overall use has declined in digital typography, as standard keyboards and early font sets lacked easy support for the mark, leading publishers and writers to omit it or replace it with hyphens or nothing in words like cooperate (formerly coöperate). This trend persists despite Unicode support, contributing to its rarity outside proper names and specialized contexts.^[46]^[45]

Alternative Diacritics

In French orthography, accents such as the acute (´) and circumflex (^) serve as alternatives to the diaeresis for indicating vowel hiatus by specifying vowel quality and stress, thereby ensuring the separate pronunciation of adjacent vowels. For instance, the prefix "aéro-" in words like aéronautique employs an acute accent on the e to pronounce it as /e/, maintaining the hiatus with the preceding a rather than allowing a diphthongal glide, as might occur without the mark.^[47] This approach is preferred in standard spelling to avoid the less common diaeresis form aëro-, prioritizing etymological and phonetic clarity in compound words derived from Greek or Latin roots.^[48] The polytonic system of Ancient and early Modern Greek utilizes acute (´) and grave (`) accents primarily for prosodic stress, but these marks also function to separate vowels in hiatus by placing the accent on the stressed syllable, clarifying the boundary between them. In sequences like those in the verb ταΐζω (taízō, "I feed"), the acute tonos on the second vowel after a diaeresis reinforces the hiatus, though in simpler cases, the accent alone signals the distinct syllabification without additional diacritics. This method, rooted in the historical breathing and accent system, helps distinguish hiatus from potential contractions or diphthongs in classical texts.^[49] Linguistic orthographies for various languages employ vertical bars (|) as a diacritic to explicitly denote syllable breaks in vowel hiatus, especially in pedagogical or analytical transcriptions. This symbol, drawn from phonetic notation traditions, is placed between vowels to indicate no glide or contraction, as seen in broad orthographies for languages like some Austronesian or Bantu systems where standard letters alone might ambiguity.^[50] Vietnamese orthography relies on tone marks—including acute (´), grave (`), hook (̉), tilde (~), and dot below (̣)—to distinguish hiatus from diphthongs by assigning independent tones to each vowel in a sequence. For regional examples, in words like buồn (with tilde for falling tone) versus potential diphthong forms, the marks on adjacent vowels (e.g., aò in compounds) signal separate tonal contours, confirming hiatus and avoiding misreading as a single syllabic unit.^[51] This system integrates tone and vowel separation, crucial for the language's six tones, where unmarked sequences might otherwise imply gliding.^[52]

Specialized Phenomena

Correption in Metrics

In classical Latin and Greek prosody, correption refers to the metrical shortening of a syllable that would normally be scanned as long, often applied to resolve or accommodate vowel hiatus across word boundaries in poetry. This device allows poets to maintain rhythmic flow by treating the sequence of vowels as a single short syllable or one mora, effectively shortening the final long vowel or diphthong of the first word before an initial vowel in the next.^[53]^[54] A prominent form is epic correption, commonly used in dactylic hexameter verse, where the long ending (such as -ā or -ē) is scanned short to avoid disrupting the meter. For instance, in Virgil's Aeneid (1.405), the phrase "dea. ille" features hiatus between the final a of dea and the initial i of ille; here, the final syllable of dea undergoes correption, allowing it to scan as short and preserving the hexameter's rhythm. Similarly, in Aeneid 1.17 (as cited in metrical analyses), "dea gentibus" demonstrates this shortening to fit the line, treating the hiatus as prosodically light. Another example appears in phrases like "ita me dī ament," where the long ī in dī is shortened before the vowel-initial a of ament, creating a smooth iambic or trochaic flow.^[53]^[55] Correption follows specific rules, primarily occurring at word ends before a vowel or h + vowel, but it is selective and not universal. It is permitted between certain vowel combinations (e.g., avoiding it before i or u in some strict traditions) and often in non-elidable positions, such as after certain consonants or in emphatic contexts; however, elision remains the preferred resolution for hiatus, with correption serving as an exception for metrical necessity. Exceptions include prohibitions in iambic senarii or when the shortening would violate word-internal quantity, and it is rarer in Latin than in Greek epic due to Latin's stricter prosodic constraints. In Greek, analogous rules apply in Homeric and Attic drama, where correption shortens finals like those in "melihdea oīnon."^[56] This metrical technique provided a foundation for flexibility in syllable timing, influencing subsequent European versification traditions that drew from classical models, such as the adaptation of iambic shortenings in English blank verse and Renaissance poetry emulating Virgilian hexameter.^[56]

Hiatus Resolution in Loanwords

When foreign words containing vowel hiatus are borrowed into languages that generally disfavor such sequences, the recipient language's phonological constraints often trigger resolution strategies such as glide formation, epenthesis, or contraction to align the loanword with native syllable structure preferences.^[57] This adaptation is driven by perceptual and articulatory factors, where speakers map source-language sounds onto the closest permissible forms in the borrowing language, prioritizing faithfulness to the original while avoiding marked structures like adjacent vowels.^[58] For instance, the Japanese loanword karaoke (originally /ka.ɾa.o.ke/ with hiatus between /a/ and /o/) is pronounced in English as [ˌkær.əˈoʊ.ki], retaining the hiatus between /ə/ and /oʊ/ due to English's tolerance for certain non-native sequences, whereas in French it becomes karaoké [ka.ʁa.o.ke] with a subtle glide approximation between /o/ and /e/ to facilitate smoother articulation.^[59] Examples from Japanese loans into English illustrate varying degrees of resolution based on the specific vowels involved. In contrast, geisha (/ɡe.i.ɕa/ in Japanese, with hiatus between /e/ and /i/) undergoes glide formation to [ˈɡeɪ.ʃə], where the high vowel /i/ semivowels to /j/, forming a diphthong that conforms to English's preference for rising sonority in nuclei.^[60] Similarly, Sanskrit loanwords into Indo-European languages like English often resolve hiatus through contraction or insertion; for example, maharaja (from Sanskrit /ma.hɑː.rɑː.dʒa/, with /ɑː/-/ɑː/ hiatus) is adapted as [ˌmɑː.həˈrɑː.dʒə], incorporating a schwa epenthesis to break the sequence and match English's avoidance of identical adjacent vowels.^[61] The dominance of the recipient language's phonology can lead to epenthesis or contraction as primary mechanisms, especially when source hiatus violates syllable contact laws.^[62] Diachronic shifts further illustrate this: the Spanish siesta, derived from Latin sexta ("sixth"), entered English around the 17th century as [siˈɛstə], with its structure evolving through phonetic changes but without specific hiatus resolution, reflecting progressive nativization over time.^[63] These processes highlight how loanword adaptation balances perceptual similarity to the source with phonological well-formedness in the host language.^[64]

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Vowel hiatus resolution in ciNsenga: An Optimality Theory analysis
Jun 30, 2014 · This article examines patterns of vowel hiatus resolution in ciNsenga, using Optimality Theory (OT). We present a formal analysis of the ...
[11]
(PDF) From hiatus to diphthong: the evolution of vowel sequences in ...
Vowel sequences in five Romance languages exhibit varying contrasts between hiatus and diphthong realizations. Romanian displays the strongest diphthong/hiatus ...
[12]
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/478456339.pdf
[13]
[PDF] Comparing vowel hiatus resolution in ciNsenga and chiShona - CORE
Hawaiian is a typical example of a language that allows vocalic hiatus freely, as in the following examples. (Senturia 1998:26, Casali 2011):. Page 2. Kadenge ...
[14]
[PDF] Yoruba Vowel Elision and Compounding - University of Pennsylvania
When one of the vowels in hiatus is [i], it is always deleted, regardless of whether it is the first or the second vowel. For example, in (11a) the first vowel ...
[15]
(PDF) Yoruba Phonology - Academia.edu
... hiatus resolution in the language. Vowel hiatus, a sequence of vowels across a syllable boundary, is prohibited in many languages. vowels may be changed ...
[16]
[PDF] Glides, hiatuses and universal effects on [h] loss in Palestinian Arabic
Moving on to post-vocalic cases, we account for the retention of [h] using the well-known constraint *hiatus, which is undominated in Palestinian Arabic.
[17]
[PDF] ExtendedAbstract: Vowel hiatus and Dispersion Theory
Stressed and unstressed vowel contexts in both languages show four different patterns of sensitivity to vowel quality in hiatus. In Spanish determiner-noun ...
[18]
Against Intrusive r Strategy in English Vowel Hiatus - ResearchGate
This paper attempts to examine and analyze whether such /r/-epenthesis takes place to avoid vowel hiatus in the speeches of Korean L2 English speakers (KS) ...Missing: similarity | Show results with:similarity
[19]
[PDF] Vowel Hiatus Resolution in Simbiti and the Orthographic Implications
Table xx: Duration of consonant-glide transition ... In his very comprehensive, cross-linguistic study of vowel hiatus resolution, Casali concludes.
[20]
Phonological and morphological influences on vowel hiatus ...
This paper presents a wide variety of instances where vowel hiatus is created within verbs in Rutooro, a Ugandan Bantu language.Missing: definition sources
[21]
From hiatus to diphthong: the evolution of vowel sequences in ...
Jul 2, 2007 · There appears to be a natural cross-linguistic tendency for unstressed hiatus [iV] sequences to be replaced by [jV] diphthongs. The hypothesis ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
[PDF] A sociolinguistic perspective toward hiatus resolution in Mexico City ...
All of the stops and fricatives, both voiced and voiceless, represent the less sonorant sounds, followed by nasals, liquids, high vowels (these include the high ...
[23]
[PDF] From Hiatus to Diphthong: variation and change in the ... - Labphon
We find that a variety of linguistic and social factors influence this variation. Most notably, historical speakers (born 1871-1916) consistently produce the ...
[24]
[PDF] Crosslinguistic Comparison of Acoustic Variation in the Vowel ...
Sep 5, 2024 · In other words, when the second vocalic element is stressed or the entire vowel sequence is unstressed, either a diphthong or a hiatus can occur ...Missing: realization | Show results with:realization
[25]
Hiatus and diphthong: Acoustic cues and speech situation differences
Aug 7, 2025 · Results show that hiatuses and diphthongs differ in the temporal and frequential domain: hiatuses have a longer duration and a greater degree of ...
[26]
[PDF] Consonant Epenthesis: Natural and Unnatural Histories*
There is little debate as to the phonetic explanation for this process. In hiatus contexts formant transitions between adjacent vowels can give rise to the ...
[27]
[PDF] Coronal epenthesis and markedness - Rutgers Optimality Archive
Finally, English has epenthesis of glottal stop after pause, and no real ... Lass,ed., English phonology and phonological theory. Cambridge University.
[28]
Glottal Stop Epenthesis and Dissimilation in Standard and Southern ...
In sum we can say that a glottal stop appears in Standard German in the following two contexts: at the left edge of a vowel-initial stressed syllable and at the ...
[29]
Tone-driven epenthesis in Wamey | Phonology | Cambridge Core
Jan 30, 2023 · This paper argues that tone-driven epenthesis is possible in tonal languages, contrary to claims in the literature that it is unattested/impossible.
[30]
Vowel Elision in Hiatus Contexts: Which Vowel Goes? - jstor
Many languages do not tolerate vowel hiatus. Where hia- tus would arise in such languages through morphological or syntactic concaten- ation, it is ...
[31]
British Romance: Phonology - Vowels
Aug 30, 2025 · ... vowel because in Vulgar Latin hiatus was generally reduced thus: two identical vowels are simply fused into a single long vowel, e.g. co(h) ...
[32]
A short introduction to English grammar: with critical notes
Grammar is the Art of rightly expressing our thoughts by Words. Grammar in ... As, “Thou art wiser than I [am.]” “You are not so tall as I [am.]” “You ...
[33]
A Crosslinguistic Investigation of Palatalization - eScholarship
... glide formation. Hiatus resolution and the formation of palatal glides is one ... Vowel hiatus reduction led to the formation of new palatal glides, as ...
[34]
[PDF] Glide insertion to break a hiatus across words in European Portuguese
Jun 11, 2024 · Therefore, for instance, the noun phrase (um muito belo dia)PhP is a PhP despite including two lexical heads. Lexical syntactic heads form a ...
[35]
[PDF] On a Certain Type of Hiatus Resolution in Japanese - Keio
One might argue that some complex words do allow glide formation across a putative morphological boundary, as in examples like hu+[w]an 'worry' and gu+[w]ai ' ...
[36]
[PDF] Position and Height Asymmetries in Hiatus Resolution - UC Berkeley
It is not the case that weakening of high V1 takes place only next to a morpho- logical boundary. In language change, glide-formation of V1 is very common.<|separator|>
[37]
[PDF] clements90.pdf
For example, given the sonority scale in (6) and (7), the natural class of liquids, glides and vowels can be referred to by the expression "[2-4 sonority]" (cf.
[38]
[PDF] Onset sonority constraints and subsyllabic structure Jennifer L. Smith
Apr 15, 2003 · Onset sonority constraints must be sensitive to the structural distinction between true onset glides, which are pre-peak glides dominated by a ...
[39]
What's the standard rule for the use of hyphens and diaereses in ...
Apr 29, 2012 · The hyphen can be used in lieu of the diaeresis when applying to a word beginning with a vowel a productive prefix that ends in a vowel, such as ...
[40]
[PDF] Formal and empirical issues in phonological typology∗
For example, Finnish has hiatus, e.g. vaa'an [va:.an] ... derlying consonant+vowel sequences, hence exempt from the prohibition against adjacent vowels.
[41]
Hawaiian Language Online - University of Hawaii System
Apr 2, 2018 · The Hawaiian language uses two diacritical markings. The 'okina is a glottal stop, similar to the sound between the syllables of "oh-oh."Missing: orthography hiatus
[42]
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/45674/626372.pdf
[43]
[PDF] Orthographies in Early Modern Europe - OAPEN Library
This volume brings together a series of articles written by specialists in the orthography of European languages, the aim of which is to promote a better.
[44]
The Influence Of Other Languages On English
Jun 22, 2021 · The earliest known reference to diaeresis is 1611, where it's used to distinguish adjacent vowels in such words as queuë – the intention being ...
[45]
None
### Summary of Diaeresis or Trema Section
[46]
La diéresis | Ortografía de la lengua española
### Summary of the Diaeresis (La diéresis)
[47]
The Curse of the Diaeresis | The New Yorker
Apr 26, 2012 · A diaeresis goes over the second vowel and indicates that it forms a separate syllable. Most of the English-speaking world finds the diaeresis inessential.Missing: decline typography
[48]
Acute Accent: é - Lawless French Pronunciation
In French, E is the only letter that can be modified with l'accent aigu, the acute accent. It changes the vowel's pronunciation to [e].
[49]
An essential guide to French accent marks & how to type them - Berlitz
Apr 18, 2023 · There are 5 French diacritical marks. French e accent. l'accent aigu (acute accent) – é; l'accent grave (grave accent) – à, è, ù. Other marks.
[50]
Accent Marks denoting Stress in Greek, and Other Diacritics
Here is a general, diachronic, and absolute rule regarding stress in Greek: Only the last three syllables of a word can be stressed in Greek.<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
A Brief Introduction To Portuguese Accent Marks - Babbel
Apr 18, 2022 · Portuguese accent marks include the tilde, but it uses the symbol a little differently. In Brazil, the tilde is used to represent nasal vowels.
[52]
Learn European Portuguese - Vowel Pronunciation Guide
Nasal Vowels Pronunciation. Any vowel with a tilde or an N/M at the end of the syllable will be nasal. There are only 5 nasal vowels and they always ...
[53]
https://antigonejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Metre-IV.pdf
[54]
Tone Marks | Vietnamese Typography
In writing, one tone is represented as unmarked (a), four are indicated with diacritics marked on a vowel (á, à, ả, and ã), and one is marked with a dot under a ...
[55]
Sounds of Vietnamese - Language Miscellany
Apr 24, 2025 · Vietnamese writing uses diacritic marks to distinguish pairs of vowels: a circumflex above the letters in <e> and <o> in < ê> and <ô> shows a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
[PDF] Musae, quae pedibus magnum pulsatis Olympum aetheris et terrae ...
et uera incessu patuit dea. ille ubi matrem. Correption [=prosodic hiatus]:. A final long vowel or diphthong in hiatus before a word beginning with a vowel or ...
[57]
Epic Correption or “Traditional” Correption?
Epic correption can be defined as “the shortening of a long vowel or diphthong at the end of a word before an initial vowel or diphthong in the following word”4 ...
[58]
[PDF] The Christianisation of Latin Metre : A Study of Bede's De arte metrica
As W. Sidney Allen has noted, their scansion as long has occasionally led to confusion as to their vowel quantity, and older dictionaries have often given ...
[59]
[PDF] An Introduction to Greek and Latin Metre Two Ways of Making Verse:
(ii). Iambic correption (a.k.a. breuis breuians / iambic shortening):. In early Latin (and certain words that entered common usage in this form), a long ...
[60]
Loanword adaptation of Japanese vowels in Truku
Apr 22, 2025 · This article provides the first formal account of empirical generalizations concerning the adaptation of Japanese vowels in Truku, an Austronesian language ...Missing: representation | Show results with:representation
[61]
[PDF] The Role of Perception in Loanword Phonology - MIT
If epenthetic vowels are optimally the shortest ones that the phonemic sys- tem allows then we expect high vowel vowels to be chosen in Fon adaptation. And that ...
[62]
How to pronounce KARAOKE in English - Cambridge Dictionary
How to pronounce KARAOKE. How to say KARAOKE. Listen to the audio pronunciation in the Cambridge English Dictionary. Learn more.Missing: IPA | Show results with:IPA
[63]
https://www.oed.com/dictionary/siesta_n1
[64]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0095447016300869
[65]
(PDF) Vowel adaptation patterns within English loanwords in Iraqi ...
Oct 22, 2023 · This research examines the phonological adaptation of pure vowels in English loanwords in Iraqi Arabic (IA).
[66]
[PDF] Phonetics or Phonology: Asymmetries in Loanword Adaptations
It is one of the most highly debated issues in loanword phonology whether loanword adaptations are phonologically or phonetically driven. This paper.<|separator|>
[67]
siesta, n.¹ meanings, etymology and more | Oxford English Dictionary
An afternoon rest or nap; esp. that commonly taken during the hottest hours of the day in tropical countries.Missing: hiatus | Show results with:hiatus
[68]
Language experience, speech perception and loanword adaptation
This study examines the influence of experience with the source language for loanwords on loanword adaptation, asking whether the influence can be ...