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Nucleus

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that houses the majority of the cell's genetic material in the form of chromosomes, serving as the primary repository for DNA and the control center for cellular functions such as gene expression, replication, and division. First observed in the early 18th century by microscopists like Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and later described in detail, the nucleus was formally named by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in 1831 during his examination of orchid cells, marking a foundational step in recognizing its role in cellular organization. Structurally, it features a double-layered nuclear envelope studded with nuclear pores that selectively transport RNA, proteins, and other molecules to and from the cytoplasm, enclosing a nucleoplasm rich in chromatin—a complex of DNA and histone proteins that uncoils for transcription and compacts into visible chromosomes during mitosis. A prominent substructure, the nucleolus, assembles ribosomal subunits essential for protein synthesis, highlighting the nucleus's integration with broader cellular machinery. Functionally, the nucleus orchestrates transcription of DNA into , which exits via nuclear pores to guide in the , while also regulating , replication during the , and responses to environmental signals through epigenetic modifications and interactions. Absent in prokaryotes like , its evolution underscores the complexity of eukaryotic life, enabling multicellularity and specialized tissues, though disruptions in nuclear integrity contribute to diseases such as cancer via aberrant regulation or chromosomal instability. Advances in imaging and continue to reveal dynamic nuclear behaviors, including looping and mechanosensing, that fine-tune genomic activity.

Physical sciences

Atomic nucleus

The constitutes the compact, positively charged core of an , comprising protons and neutrons collectively termed nucleons, which are bound by the overcoming electrostatic repulsion among protons. This force operates over femtometer scales, rendering the nucleus's roughly 10,000 times smaller than the atom's while concentrating nearly all its mass. The nucleus's stability derives from , quantified as the energy required to disassemble it into isolated nucleons; the binding energy per nucleon peaks near at approximately 8.8 MeV, dictating that liberates energy for light nuclei (e.g., to ) while does so for heavy ones (e.g., ). This curve underpins nuclear reactions' energetics, with deviations explaining and isotopic abundances. Ernest Rutherford's 1911 gold foil experiment demonstrated the nucleus's existence: alpha particles fired at thin gold foil mostly passed undeflected, but rare large-angle scatters indicated a minuscule, dense, positive core repelling them, refuting J.J. Thomson's diffuse ". Theoretical models evolved thereafter; the liquid drop model, formulated in the 1930s by and refined by and , analogizes the nucleus to an incompressible fluid droplet, capturing collective behaviors like fission dynamics via surface tension and Coulomb terms in the . Complementarily, the , independently proposed in 1949 by and J. Hans D. Jensen, posits nucleons occupying quantized energy levels akin to electrons in atoms, incorporating spin-orbit coupling to predict "" (2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126) where closed shells confer exceptional stability, as in doubly magic lead-208. Empirical probes continue refining nuclear structure; in 2025, measurements revealed lead-208's charge distribution as prolate (elongated) rather than spherical, challenging assumptions of symmetry in this doubly magic and prompting reevaluations of quadrupole deformations. Similarly, the exotic nucleus, observed as a three-proton emitter beyond the proton drip line, exhibits a watermelon-like shape with rapid sequential proton decays, marking the lightest known isotope and highlighting proton-unstable configurations in neutron-deficient regions. Nuclear fission, induced by neutron absorption in fissile isotopes like , underpins both weaponry and power generation; the Manhattan Project culminated in the July 16, 1945, Trinity test of a implosion device, yielding the first atomic bomb. Enrico Fermi's achieved criticality on December 2, 1942, as the inaugural controlled , paving the way for commercial reactors in the 1950s, such as the 1957 Shippingport plant producing 60 MW electricity. pursuits advanced with the National Ignition Facility's December 2022 inertial confinement ignition, where lasers compressed deuterium-tritium fuel to yield 3.15 MJ output exceeding 2.05 MJ input, repeated in subsequent shots up to 8.6 MJ gain by 2025. Small modular reactors (SMRs), factory-built for scalability and safety, saw regulatory approvals and deployments accelerate in 2025, promising modular deployment for baseload power with reduced capital risks. Nuclear energy's density—millions-fold greater than chemical fuels—has averted substantial emissions, yet accidents invite scrutiny; Chernobyl's 1986 explosion caused 30 acute deaths (two from blast, 28 from radiation syndrome) with long-term cancer estimates around 4,000 per UN assessments, while Fukushima's 2011 meltdowns yielded zero direct radiation fatalities despite evacuations. Operationally, nuclear incurs 0.03 deaths per TWh versus coal's 24.6, per lifecycle analyses incorporating and accidents, underscoring empirical safety superiority despite amplified media coverage of rare events often detached from probabilistic risk metrics. This density enables dispatchable, low-carbon output, contrasting intermittent renewables' intermittency and land demands, with IAEA data affirming nuclear's minimal environmental footprint over fuel cycles.

Crystal nucleus

A crystal nucleus is the smallest stable aggregate of atoms or molecules capable of serving as an embryo for the growth of a crystalline phase from a supersaturated solution, supercooled melt, or vapor. This initial cluster initiates the phase transition from a metastable liquid or solution state to an ordered solid lattice, marking the onset of crystallization. Nucleation proceeds through homogeneous or heterogeneous pathways. Homogeneous nucleation emerges from spontaneous fluctuations within a pure medium, devoid of foreign substrates, and demands substantial undercooling to surmount the . Heterogeneous nucleation, predominant in real systems, occurs on particles, container surfaces, or inclusions, which reduce the interfacial barrier and promote nucleus formation at milder conditions. The thermodynamic foundation rests on the change for cluster formation, where small nuclei face a positive energy barrier from effects that initially exceed the volume decrease. A defines the threshold size—typically on the order of nanometers—beyond which the nucleus is stable and net growth occurs, as attaching further units lowers the total . Empirical studies reveal that pure liquids can achieve deep before homogeneous dominates; for instance, remains liquid down to about -40°C under clean conditions, underscoring the rarity of fluctuation-driven events without catalysts. In industrial contexts, control is vital: pharmaceuticals leverage it to tailor polymorphs and sizes for optimized and efficacy, as seen in purification processes yielding high-purity active ingredients. employs heterogeneous nucleants, such as additions in , to refine grain structures and improve strength via finer microstructures during solidification. Geological applications include cooling, where dictate textures, from coarse plutonic to fine volcanic varieties.

Life sciences

Cell nucleus

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle present in eukaryotic cells, serving as the primary site for storage, replication, and expression of genetic information encoded in DNA. Enclosed by a double-layered nuclear envelope perforated by nuclear pore complexes that regulate macromolecular transport, the nucleus contains chromatin—complexes of DNA wrapped around histone proteins organized into chromosomes—and the nucleolus, a substructure dedicated to ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome biogenesis. This organelle is absent in prokaryotic cells, which instead harbor a nucleoid region of loosely organized DNA, highlighting a fundamental distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes that emerged in the fossil record around 1.8 to 1.6 billion years ago with the appearance of ornamented, organic-walled microfossils indicative of early eukaryotic forms. Key functions of the nucleus include safeguarding the genome's integrity, directing prior to , and facilitating transcription of DNA into within the nucleoplasm, followed by processing and export of transcripts through nuclear pores for cytoplasmic translation. Epigenetic modifications to , such as histone acetylation or , enable precise gene regulation, influencing and response to environmental cues, while during the disassembles to allow segregation. The coordinates ribosomal subunit assembly, essential for protein synthesis across the cell. These integrated roles position the nucleus as the central coordinator of eukaryotic cellular activities, enabling the complexity of multicellular organisms. The nucleus was first observed and termed by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in 1831 during microscopic examination of plant cells, particularly orchids, where he noted a dark spot consistently present amid the cell's contents; subsequent studies in the mid-20th century, leveraging electron microscopy and molecular techniques, revealed its and molecular mechanisms. Despite these advances, the evolutionary origin of the nucleus remains debated, with hypotheses including autogenous development from archaeal plasma membrane invaginations forming an internal compartment, endosymbiotic integration of a bacterial entity providing nuclear precursors, or viral eukaryogenesis positing descent from a large DNA virus's replication factory that commandeered an archaeal host's . for these models is sparse, as no clear transitional intermediates exist in the fossil record or genetic data to demonstrate stepwise assembly of interdependent components like the pore complexes, , and spliceosomal machinery required for mRNA processing. Causal analysis of the nucleus's integrated systems—where removal of elements like selective transport pores or chromatin-remodeling enzymes disrupts core functions—poses challenges to gradual, mutation-selection mechanisms, as partial precursors would likely confer no selective advantage and face thermodynamic barriers to spontaneous . sources, often aligned with neo-Darwinian frameworks, emphasize symbioses but underexplain the coordinated of informational specificity and compartmentalization, with genomic investigations revealing chimeric archaeal-bacterial contributions yet no viable pathway for nucleus formation without invoking multi-step fusions lacking direct support. This gap underscores the nucleus's role in enabling eukaryotic innovation, such as advanced , while highlighting empirical hurdles to purely materialistic s, where the of specified genetic exceeds physical contingencies alone.

Neuroanatomical nucleus

In , a nucleus refers to a cluster of neuronal cell bodies within the , distinct from surrounding tracts and serving as organized processing or relay stations for neural signals. These structures are embedded in the and , where they integrate inputs from diverse pathways and generate outputs to coordinate functions such as , , and autonomic regulation. Thalamic nuclei exemplify relay functions, acting as gateways that filter and direct sensory and motor information from the periphery to the , excluding olfaction; specific subgroups, such as the ventral posterior nucleus, process somatosensory data, while others like the anterior nucleus contribute to limbic circuits for and . The , located in the , modulates motor coordination, particularly for upper limb movements and posture, via rubrospinal projections that influence flexor tone and gait stability in . nuclei, including those for , number approximately 18 (10 motor and 8 sensory), handling vital reflexes like , , and visceral through connections to tracts such as the . Dysfunction in specific nuclei underlies neurological disorders; for instance, degeneration of neurons in the pars compacta, a nucleus, reduces release in the , causing bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor in , with postmortem studies showing up to 80% neuronal loss by symptom onset. These nuclei interconnect via myelinated axons in bundles, enabling causal chains from sensory afferents to effector outputs, as mapped historically through Camillo Golgi's silver chromate staining method introduced in , which first revealed complete neuronal morphologies and nuclear boundaries in fixed tissue. Contemporary mapping employs functional MRI (fMRI) to delineate active nuclei during tasks, such as arousal-related clusters at 7-Tesla , and diffusion tensor imaging to reconstruct connectivity, revealing pathway hubs like thalamo-cortical fibers with probabilistic accuracy exceeding 70% in healthy adults. This empirical approach confirms nuclei as causal nodes in neural circuits, with disruptions quantifiable via volumetric loss or altered metrics in disease states.

Astronomy

Cometary nucleus

The cometary nucleus constitutes the solid, central body of a , typically an irregular, porous aggregate of frozen volatiles—including , , , , and —intermixed with dust grains and materials, comprising roughly 75% ices by volume. These nuclei exhibit low values, around 0.04 for Halley, reflecting their dark, carbon-rich surfaces. Ranging from 1 to 10 kilometers in diameter for most, exceptions like Comet 1P/Halley feature a peanut-shaped nucleus approximately 15 kilometers long and 8 kilometers across at its widest. Upon perihelion approach, solar radiation heats the nucleus, driving of the ices and ejection of entrained dust, which forms the surrounding and ion/dust tails. Direct observations began with the European Space Agency's Giotto spacecraft, which flew within 596 kilometers of Halley's nucleus on March 13, 1986, capturing the first close-up images revealing its irregular shape, jet activity from active regions, and evidence of organic constituents. The Rosetta mission provided unprecedented detail on Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, achieving orbit in August 2014 and mapping a bilobate, layered structure with regional variations in terrain, including smooth plains and fractured cliffs indicative of internal evolution. Rosetta measurements yielded a bulk density of 0.538 ± 0.006 g/cm³ for 67P, implying 70-80% porosity and a fragile, rubble-pile composition rather than a monolithic ice-rock body. Cometary nuclei represent unaltered relics from the solar nebula's collapse approximately 4.6 billion years ago, retaining volatile ices and organics that escaped incorporation into planets. Long-period comets derive from the distant , a reservoir perturbed by galactic tides or passing stars, while short-period ones like Jupiter-family comets trace to the or scattered disk via dynamical scattering by giant planets. Models suggest these bodies contributed water and prebiotic organics to the via heavy impacts, though isotopic mismatches in / ratios temper the dominance of cometary delivery over asteroidal sources. Unpredictable outbursts, observed as sudden brightness increases, arise from localized pockets, , or proposed cryovolcanic ejections of subsurface volatiles in some structural models.

Galactic nucleus

A galactic nucleus constitutes the compact, central core of a , distinguished by elevated densities of stars, gas, dust, and molecular clouds, typically spanning tens to hundreds of parsecs. This region often hosts a (SMBH) at its heart, whose gravitational influence dominates the dynamics, alongside dense star clusters formed from concentrated gas inflows. In quiescent galaxies like the , the nucleus exhibits relatively subdued activity, but it remains a site of elevated stellar density and occasional bursts of formation. The Milky Way's galactic nucleus, centered on Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*), exemplifies these traits, with the core encompassing roughly 100 parsecs in radius and containing Sgr A*, an SMBH of 4.3 million solar masses. The Event Horizon Telescope (EHT) captured the first direct image of Sgr A* in 2022, revealing a bright ring of emission from an encircling the black hole's , consistent with predictions for light bending in strong gravity. Orbital monitoring of stars like S2, which completes a 16-year elliptical path around Sgr A* with a pericenter distance of about 120 and speeds reaching 2.5% of speed, provides dynamical evidence for the SMBH's mass and confirms relativistic effects such as orbital . In active galactic nuclei (AGN), which occur when gas accretion onto the SMBH intensifies, the nucleus powers luminous phenomena including relativistic jets, broad emission lines, and broadband radiation from radio to gamma rays, outshining the host galaxy's stars by orders of magnitude. Quasars represent extreme AGN cases, where the nucleus appears star-like due to intense luminosity, while Seyfert galaxies and radio galaxies exhibit milder jets and outflows. Starburst activity, driven by gas inflows triggering rapid rates up to hundreds of solar masses per year, often coexists with AGN, as seen in ultraluminous galaxies. Observational signatures of nuclear activity include the Fermi bubbles in the —two gamma-ray emitting lobes extending 25,000 light-years above and below the plane, likely remnants of a past SMBH outburst injecting cosmic rays and hot gas about 2 million years ago. (JWST) data from 2022 onward have uncovered compact, red AGN in early-universe galaxies (redshift z > 6), dubbed "little red dots," revealing overmassive SMBHs forming via direct collapse or rapid mergers, challenging models of black hole seeding. Theoretical models posit that AGN feedback—energetic outflows, winds, and radiation from accreting SMBHs—regulates host galaxy evolution by heating or expelling inflowing gas, thereby quenching and establishing correlations like the SMBH-bulge mass relation (where black hole mass scales with bulge stellar mass by ~0.001–0.002). This process promotes co-evolution, as feedback episodes suppress excessive starbursts while allowing intermittent growth, consistent with empirical trends where galaxies hosting more massive SMBHs exhibit lower specific rates. Such mechanisms explain the transition from star-forming disks to quiescent ellipticals observed since z ~ 2.

Formal sciences

Mathematics

In non-associative algebras over a field, the nucleus N(A) of an algebra A is the subalgebra consisting of all elements x \in A such that the associators [x, y, z] = 0, [y, x, z] = 0, and [y, z, x] = 0 for every y, z \in A, where the trilinear associator is defined by [a, b, c] = (a \cdot b) \cdot c - a \cdot (b \cdot c). This set N(A) is the intersection of the left nucleus \{x \mid [x, y, z] = 0 \ \forall y,z\}, the middle nucleus \{x \mid [y, x, z] = 0 \ \forall y,z\}, and the right nucleus \{x \mid [y, z, x] = 0 \ \forall y,z\}. The nucleus forms an associative subalgebra containing the center of A, and in fully associative algebras, it coincides with A itself. For example, in the algebra of octonions, which is alternative (satisfying [x, y, y] = [y, y, x] = 0), the nucleus equals the entire algebra. In , a nucleus on a meet-semilattice L (or more generally , i.e., where finite meets distribute over arbitrary joins) is a closure operator j: L \to L that is extensive (a \leq j(a)), idempotent (j(j(a)) = j(a)), , and preserves binary meets (j(a \wedge b) = j(a) \wedge j(b)). Such operators arise naturally in pointfree , where frames model locales, and each nucleus j determines a sublocale consisting of its fixed points \{a \in L \mid j(a) = a\}, with the quotient frame L / j given by identifying elements via the induced by j. The collection of all nuclei on L, ordered , forms a complete (hence itself), enabling the study of sublocales without reference to points. For instance, on the frame of open sets of , the nucleus corresponding to induces the via fixed opens.

Linguistics

In phonology, the nucleus constitutes the obligatory core of a syllable, defined as the element of peak sonority around which the syllable is structured. Typically realized as a vowel, as in the /æ/ of English "" (/kæt/), the nucleus serves as the sonority peak, with preceding onsets and following codas exhibiting decreasing sonority. This structure enables phonological processes such as rhyme formation, where the nucleus and coda align across words (e.g., "" and "hat"), and stress assignment, which often targets the nucleus in languages like English. The sonority hierarchy underpins nucleus identification, ranking speech sounds by relative loudness and resonance: vowels exceed glides, which exceed liquids and nasals, which exceed obstruents. Sonority ascends toward the nucleus and descends afterward, as observed in English clusters like /str/ in "street," where /i/ forms the peak. In some languages, syllabic consonants—such as the nasal /n/ in English "button" or liquid /l/ in "bottle"—function as nuclei when vowels are absent or reduced, expanding the category beyond strict vocalic elements. Cross-linguistically, English permits complex onsets and codas around the nucleus, while Japanese favors simpler CV (consonant-vowel) syllables with clear vocalic nuclei, yet both adhere to sonority sequencing. Nuclei play a central role in prosody, forming the basis for footing in and bearing primary accents in intonation. Acoustic analyses reveal nuclei through structures—resonant frequencies like F1 and —that distinguish qualities and support perceptual salience. In intonation, the nuclear accent conveys pragmatic force, with pitch contours peaking or falling on the nucleus to signal statements, questions, or emphasis. A holds that every contains a nucleus, typically vocalic or syllabic consonantal, challenging models positing purely consonantal syllables or rigid templates without peaks. This holds across diverse languages, from vowel-heavy systems like to those with frequent syllabic sonorants like English, underscoring the nucleus's foundational status in syllable typology.

Computing and engineering

Operating system nucleus

The operating system nucleus designates the minimal core of an operating system that executes in privileged mode to manage essential primitives, including interrupt handling, rudimentary , and basic or task switching. This architecture prioritizes reliability and efficiency by isolating critical functions from higher-level services, enabling deterministic behavior in resource-constrained environments. The concept traces to mid-20th-century developments in multiprogramming systems, where the nucleus served as the protected inner layer shielding user code from direct access, as seen in early designs like those influencing frameworks. A prominent historical example is the , initiated in 1984 by a team under Ken Sakamura, which defined "The Nucleus" as an open specification for and distributed systems, emphasizing and guarantees through minimal core services like and scheduling. Commercially, Nucleus RTOS exemplifies this approach; originally developed by Accelerated Technology as Nucleus PLUS in 1993 for applications requiring low-latency responses, it provides a scalable supporting up to 64-bit architectures with features like priority-based preemptive scheduling and synchronization. Acquired by in 2002 and later integrated into ' portfolio following their 2017 acquisition of Mentor, Nucleus RTOS has evolved to include POSIX-compliant interfaces for portability while maintaining a footprint as small as 13 KB in minimal configurations. In functional terms, the nucleus abstracts specifics—such as CPU registers and controllers—via standardized primitives, facilitating verifiable certified under standards like for safety-critical applications. This contrasts with monolithic kernels like , which bundle file systems and drivers into a larger privileged space, potentially increasing vulnerability to faults; nucleus designs mitigate this by offloading non-essential services to user space, akin to principles that reduce the to under 10,000 lines of code in some implementations. Applications span legacy mainframes for process control, embedded s in (e.g., flight systems), and IoT endpoints demanding sub-millisecond latency, with over 3 billion deployments reported for Nucleus RTOS derivatives by 2010.

Arts and media

Music

Nucleus was a British jazz-rock fusion band formed in 1969 by trumpeter Ian Carr, a veteran of the bebop scene who sought to integrate jazz improvisation with rock instrumentation and rhythms. The ensemble drew inspiration from Miles Davis's electric-era experiments, employing electric guitars, keyboards, and amplified horns alongside fluid, extended improvisations characteristic of jazz. Nucleus performed as the UK representatives at the 1970 Montreux Jazz Festival, where they secured first prize, marking an early validation of their innovative sound. The band's debut album, , released in 1970 on , reached number 46 on the and featured tracks like "Tarantula" and "Stones" that exemplified their elastic, groove-driven style. Subsequent releases included We'll Talk About It Later (1970), (1971), and (1972), each showcasing evolving lineups with contributions from musicians such as guitarist and keyboardist , who later joined . Nucleus recorded 13 studio albums through the and , transitioning toward funkier, more accessible by the mid-decade, before Carr disbanded the core group in 1989; a one-off reunion occurred in 2005. As one of the earliest jazz-led fusions of the genre, Nucleus exerted significant influence on British jazz-rock, bridging improvisational freedom with rock's structural drive and paving the way for acts like and later fusion developments in Europe. Their work emphasized collective over rigid , contrasting with more rock-oriented contemporaries and highlighting jazz's adaptive potential to amplified formats. Beyond the band, "Nucleus" has appeared as a title in experimental and electronic music contexts, such as Audio Imperia's 2024 orchestral library album Nucleus, which features hybrid scores blending cinematic strings with electronic elements for media production. Such uses evoke structural metaphors akin to atomic cores, though lacking the band's historical prominence in live jazz performance.

Visual arts

In comics, "Nucleus" refers to a superhero character from the 1996-1997 Amalgam Comics crossover between DC and Marvel, depicted as an amalgamation of DC's Element Lad (Jan Arrah) and Marvel's Molecule Man (Owen Reece), with powers involving atomic manipulation and elemental transmutation. Nucleus serves as a member of the Legion of Galactic Guardians 2099, appearing in limited issues such as Magnetic Men featuring Magneto (1997). Earlier, "Nucleus" titled underground and fanzine comics, including Heiro-Graphic Publications' Nucleus #1 (1979), which featured an early appearance of Cerebus the Aardvark, though these were anthology-style rather than centered on a singular character. Sculptures titled "Nucleus" emphasize structural centrality and kinetic or sonic elements. Phil Price's Nucleus (2006) is a 9-meter-high kinetic of four equal parts on a plinth, installed at the corner of High, , and streets in , , symbolizing the city's engineered heritage and role as a connective "positively charged centre." Unveiled on September 29, 2006, as part of , it rotates to evoke and personal significance for the artist, who studied in . Similarly, Kevin Caron's Nucleus (circa 2017) is a 9-foot-tall free-standing sound with an inverted bell design, where the stand encircles the resonant inner form, evoking and cellular nuclei enclosing latent energy; it produces tonal sounds when struck and draws from the artist's interest in flowing lines and segmentation. In , Nucleus Medical Media produces precise 3D animations and static visuals of biological nuclei, cellular structures, and anatomical processes for educational and clinical use. Founded in 1997 by medical illustrators Ronald L. Collins and Keith A. Pavlik, the company prioritizes anatomical accuracy over stylization, creating content like animations of nuclear division and to enhance in healthcare settings. Their library includes thousands of illustrations licensed for publications, emphasizing evidence-based representations derived from peer-reviewed sources rather than interpretive abstraction.

Other uses

Organizations and brands

Nucleus Research, founded in 2000, operates as a global provider of ROI-focused technology research and advisory services, delivering case studies, value matrices, and insights to evaluate technology investments across sectors like and management. Nucleus Advertising, based in , , functions as a full-service emphasizing bold strategies, design, and digital campaigns for client brands. Nucleus Gallery, established in 2004 in , serves as a store and space dedicated to original artwork, prints, books, and collectibles in , , , and narrative genres, acting as a hub for enthusiasts and creators. Nucleus Arts, centered in , UK, manages a creative complex with over 42 self-contained artist studios, three galleries, meeting rooms, and digital facilities, supporting painters, illustrators, photographers, ceramicists, and printmakers as an incubator for and collaboration.

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