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Formant

A formant is a resonance frequency of the human vocal tract that appears as a local maximum in the power spectral envelope of a speech sound signal, arising from the acoustic resonances of the vocal tract's air column and providing key cues for identifying vowels and consonants.^[1] These resonances are shaped by the configuration of the articulators, such as the tongue, jaw, and lips, which filter the source sound produced by the vocal folds in a process described by the source-filter model of speech production.^[2] The first two formants, F1 and F2, are particularly significant, with F1 typically ranging from 200 Hz to 1200 Hz and correlating with vowel height, while F2 relates to vowel frontness and backness, enabling speaker-normalized perception in the auditory cortex.^[3] Formants play a central role in acoustic phonetics, as they encode articulatory and perceptual information about speech segments, including place of articulation in running speech, and are influenced by factors like speaker anatomy, coarticulation, and environmental noise.^[1] In vowel perception, neural populations in the superior temporal gyrus tune to F1 and F2 in a two-dimensional space, allowing discrimination of vowel identities even across speakers with varying vocal tract lengths, as demonstrated in electrocorticography studies where 125 of 291 speech-responsive electrodes successfully decoded vowels.^[3] Formants extend beyond natural speech, supporting the processing of complex harmonic sounds, and their encoding in the brain exhibits nonlinear, sigmoidal tuning at single sites but requires population-level analysis for accurate vowel identification.^[3] Measurement of formants involves identifying spectral peaks in wideband spectrograms or using techniques like linear predictive coding (LPC) and Burg's method to extract frequencies despite challenges such as overlapping resonances, spurious peaks from environmental factors, or latent formants not visible in the spectrum.^[1] Typically, the first three to five formants (F1 through F5) are considered, with higher formants contributing to consonant perception and timbre, though extraction can be complicated by vowel context and speaker variations.^[1] In applications like speech recognition and synthesis, formants serve as phonetic features, though their use has been limited due to variability; advances in neural decoding highlight their potential for improving systems by mimicking human auditory processing.^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition and Properties

A formant is a concentration of acoustic energy around a particular frequency in a resonant system, such as the vocal tract, resulting from acoustic resonances that shape the spectrum of produced sounds. In speech acoustics, Gunnar Fant defined formants as the spectral peaks of the sound spectrum |P(f)|. These peaks correspond to the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract, which acts as a filter modifying the source signal from the glottis. Formants are characterized by their center frequency, amplitude, and bandwidth. The bandwidth, which measures the width of the energy concentration, is typically 50-100 Hz for the first few formants in speech. For adult males, the first formant (F1) generally ranges from 300 to 800 Hz, while the second formant (F2) spans 800 to 2500 Hz, varying with vocal tract configuration and sound type. Amplitudes depend on the proximity of harmonics to the formant frequency and the overall spectral envelope. In continuous acoustic signals, such as those in speech produced by a pulsatile glottal source, formants manifest as broad peaks in the frequency spectrum, unlike the discrete, sharp resonance lines in idealized simple tube models. Mathematically, formants are represented as poles in the transfer function of the vocal tract filter, where each pole contributes a resonance at a complex frequency determined by the tract's geometry. For instance, a simple Helmholtz resonator model for certain vocal tract configurations yields a resonance frequency of

f = \frac{c}{2\pi} \sqrt{\frac{A}{V L}},

where c is the speed of sound, A the cross-sectional area of the neck, V the cavity volume, and L the neck length.

Acoustic Physics

The vocal tract functions as an acoustic tube approximately 17 cm in length for adult males, closed at the glottal end by the vibrating vocal folds and open at the lip end, which establishes boundary conditions conducive to quarter-wave resonances. These resonances arise from standing pressure waves within the tract, where the glottis approximates a pressure antinode (zero volume velocity) and the lips a velocity antinode (zero pressure), leading to odd-quarter-wavelength modes that determine the system's natural frequencies. For a uniform tube approximation, the formant frequencies F_n (where n = 1, 2, [3, \dots](/page/3_Dots)) are derived from the quarter-wave resonator model as

F_n = \frac{(2n-1) c}{4L},

with c the speed of sound in air (approximately 343 m/s at body temperature) and L the effective vocal tract length. This yields typical values such as F_1 \approx 500 Hz, F_2 \approx 1500 Hz, and F_3 \approx 2500 Hz for a 17 cm tract, providing a baseline for understanding resonance without articulatory variations. Deviations from uniformity, such as constrictions or varying cross-sectional areas due to tongue and lip positioning, shift these formant frequencies according to perturbation theory, which quantifies how small local changes in tube area affect the overall resonance.^[4] For instance, a constriction near a velocity antinode (or pressure node) for a given formant lowers that formant's frequency, while one near a pressure antinode (or velocity node) raises it, enabling the tract's shape to selectively emphasize or suppress harmonics.^[4] Within the source-filter theory, formants represent the resonant peaks of the vocal tract's transfer function H(f), which acts as a linear filter modulating the glottal source spectrum—a broadband excitation rich in harmonics from vocal fold vibration. The output speech spectrum is thus the convolution of the source and filter in the time domain (or multiplication in the frequency domain), with |H(f)| exhibiting sharp peaks at formant frequencies that amplify corresponding source harmonics. Formant bandwidths, typically 50–100 Hz for lower formants, stem from energy dissipation mechanisms including viscous and thermal losses along the tract walls, as well as radiation and end-correction effects at the open lip boundary.^[5] These losses broaden the resonance peaks, with the bandwidth B_n inversely related to the quality factor Q_n = F_n / B_n, influencing the sharpness and perceptual salience of formants; higher losses increase B_n, damping the resonance more rapidly.^[5]

Role in Speech

Phonetic Function

Formants play a central role in the production and perception of speech sounds by providing the primary acoustic cues that distinguish phonetic categories, particularly vowels. In vowel articulation, the first formant (F1) correlates inversely with vowel height: higher vowels, produced with a more constricted vocal tract, exhibit lower F1 frequencies, while lower vowels show higher F1 values due to greater tract expansion. The second formant (F2) primarily encodes the front-back dimension, with front vowels displaying elevated F2 frequencies from anterior constrictions and back vowels showing reduced F2 from posterior bunching. These relationships, derived from quantitative analyses of natural speech, enable listeners to map spectral patterns onto articulatory gestures for vowel identification. The acoustic-perceptual linkage of formants underscores their contribution to speech timbre and intelligibility, as the patterned distribution of formant frequencies shapes the overall spectral envelope that the auditory system decodes. Formant configurations not only convey vowel quality but also facilitate the segmentation and recognition of phonetic units within continuous speech, enhancing comprehension across varied contexts. Psychoacoustic experiments employing formant synthesis have provided evidence that a minimal set of three to four formants suffices for robust vowel identification, demonstrating the perceptual efficiency of these cues even in isolated or synthetic stimuli.^[6] For consonants, formant transitions—dynamic changes in formant frequencies from consonant release to adjacent vowels—serve as critical cues for place of articulation, particularly in stop consonants. The second formant (F2) locus, defined as the extrapolated starting frequency of the F2 transition, differentiates places: high loci (around 1800 Hz) signal alveolar articulation, intermediate values indicate velar, and low loci (below 720 Hz) denote labial places, allowing listeners to infer consonantal identity from transitional trajectories.^[7]^[8] Cross-linguistic variations in formant spaces arise from differences in vowel inventories and phonological systems, yet perceptual invariance is maintained through speaker normalization techniques that adjust for anatomical differences. Females and children typically produce higher formant frequencies due to shorter vocal tracts, but normalization methods—such as z-score transformations relative to a speaker's mean formants—enable consistent mapping of formant patterns across speakers and languages, preserving phonetic distinctions.^[9]

Vowel and Consonant Formants

Formants play a central role in distinguishing vowels through their characteristic frequency patterns, with the first two formants (F1 and F2) primarily determining vowel quality in most languages. In American English, classic measurements from recordings of 76 speakers (33 men, 28 women, 15 children) pronouncing ten monophthongs in /hVd/ contexts reveal systematic differences in formant frequencies across vowels and speaker groups. These data show that high front vowels like /i/ have low F1 (around 270 Hz for men) and high F2 (2290 Hz), while low back vowels like /ɑ/ exhibit high F1 (730 Hz) and low F2 (1090 Hz), reflecting tongue height and backness. The following table summarizes average F1, F2, and F3 frequencies (in Hz) from this study, highlighting speaker variations due to vocal tract length differences—children have the highest formants, followed by women, then men.

Vowel	Example Word	F1 (Men)	F1 (Women)	F1 (Children)	F2 (Men)	F2 (Women)	F2 (Children)	F3 (Men)	F3 (Women)	F3 (Children)
/i/	heed	270	310	370	2290	2790	3200	3010	3310	3730
/ɪ/	hid	390	430	530	1990	2480	2730	2550	3070	3600
/e/	head	530	610	690	1840	2330	2610	2480	2990	3570
/æ/	had	660	860	1010	1720	2050	2320	2410	2850	3320
/ɑ/	father	730	850	1030	1090	1220	1370	2440	2810	3170
/ɔ/	ball	570	590	680	840	920	1060	2410	2710	3180
/ʊ/	hood	440	470	560	1020	1160	1410	2240	2680	3310
/u/	who'd	300	370	430	870	950	1170	2240	2670	3260
/ʌ/	hud	640	760	850	1190	1400	1590	2390	2780	3360
/ɜ/	heard	490	500	560	1350	1640	1820	1690	1960	2160

Higher formants like F3 and F4 contribute less to vowel identity but help in overall spectral shape, with values typically ranging from 1600–3700 Hz depending on the vowel and speaker. Consonant formants differ markedly from those of vowels, often lacking steady-state portions and instead featuring dynamic transitions that cue place and manner of articulation. Approximants such as /l/, /r/, /w/, and /j/ exhibit relatively steady formants resembling weakened vowels; for instance, the alveolar lateral /l/ shows F1 around 350 Hz, F2 near 1100 Hz, and a prominent F3 at about 2500 Hz, with energy concentrated below 3000 Hz due to the side passage for airflow.^[10] In contrast, stops and fricatives display rapid formant transitions during consonant-vowel (CV) or vowel-consonant (VC) transitions rather than steady states—for example, alveolar stops like /d/ produce a characteristic F3 burst with energy peaking around 3000–4000 Hz at release, distinguishing them from bilabials or velars.^[11] Fricatives, such as /s/, show noise-dominated spectra with minimal formant structure, though transitions into adjacent vowels reveal place cues via F2 and F3 loci.^[12] Coarticulation influences formant trajectories by causing anticipatory or carryover effects from neighboring segments, resulting in nonlinear changes like S-shaped F2 patterns in VCV sequences. For example, in sequences involving velar consonants, F2 may dip and then rise due to tongue back advancement overlapping with vowels, with the extent of overlap varying by speech rate and prosodic context. Across languages, formant dispersion—the average Euclidean distance between vowel formant positions in F1-F2 space—serves as a metric for vowel inventory size, with larger inventories (e.g., 7–12 vowels in English or German) showing greater dispersion (around 1500–2000 Hz) to maximize perceptual contrasts, while smaller systems (3–5 vowels, as in some Arabic dialects) exhibit reduced dispersion (under 1000 Hz) but lower variability.^[13] This pattern supports adaptive dispersion theory, where vowel systems evolve to balance inventory size and acoustic distinctiveness.^[13]

Analysis Methods

Estimation Techniques

Linear predictive coding (LPC) serves as the primary method for computationally extracting formant frequencies from speech audio signals by modeling the vocal tract as an all-pole autoregressive filter. In this approach, the speech signal s(n) is predicted as a linear combination of past samples: \hat{s}(n) = \sum_{k=1}^{p} a_k s(n-k), where p is the predictor order and a_k are the LPC coefficients that minimize the prediction error. The formants correspond to the frequencies of the complex roots of the denominator polynomial A(z) = 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{p} a_k z^{-k} = 0 that lie near the unit circle in the z-plane, with their angles yielding the formant frequencies and magnitudes related to bandwidths.^[14] LPC coefficients are commonly estimated using algorithms such as the Burg method, which employs a lattice structure to recursively compute reflection coefficients while maximizing the entropy of the prediction error spectrum, providing stable estimates even for short signal segments. This method is particularly favored in speech processing for its robustness to initialization and lower sensitivity to windowing compared to autocorrelation-based alternatives. The predictor order p is typically selected as 10 to 14 for adult speech sampled at 10 kHz, corresponding roughly to twice the number of expected formants plus adjustments for the glottal pulse shape.^[15] Frequency-domain approaches offer alternatives to LPC by directly analyzing the spectral envelope. In peak-picking methods, formant candidates are identified as local maxima in the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) spectrogram, where formants manifest as persistent ridges of high energy across time frames, often refined by dynamic programming to enforce temporal continuity. Cepstral analysis, on the other hand, decomposes the log-spectrum into source and filter components via the inverse Fourier transform of the log-magnitude spectrum, with formant frequencies recoverable from the peaks in the spectral envelope obtained by low-pass filtering the cepstrum to remove the source component and inverse Fourier transforming back to the frequency domain. These techniques are computationally simpler than LPC for certain applications but require careful preprocessing to isolate voiced segments.^[16]^[17] Emerging deep learning methods, such as convolutional and recurrent neural networks, have been applied to formant estimation and tracking, often outperforming LPC in noisy conditions and across speakers by directly learning spectral patterns from labeled data. For example, feed-forward networks trained on datasets like VTR-TIMIT achieve lower RMSE than traditional trackers.^[18] Recent probabilistic heat-map approaches further enhance tracking reliability.^[19] Formant estimation faces several challenges, including overlapping formants that arise when higher resonances (e.g., F3 and F4) are closely spaced in nasalized or children's speech, leading to ambiguous root assignments in LPC or merged peaks in spectrograms. Noise robustness is another issue, as additive environmental noise can distort the spectral envelope, though LPC often outperforms frequency-domain methods in moderate signal-to-noise ratios by emphasizing prediction error minimization. Real-time processing demands low-latency algorithms, such as those implemented in the Praat software, which uses Burg LPC with adaptive windowing to achieve interactive formant tracking during speech analysis.^[20]^[21]^[22] Evaluation of these techniques typically involves comparing automated estimates to manual labels on benchmark datasets like the VTR-TIMIT corpus, using metrics such as root-mean-square error (RMSE) in formant frequency. For LPC-based trackers like Praat's Burg method, average RMSE values range from 96-234 Hz for F1, 211-338 Hz for F2, and 225-404 Hz for F3 across male and female speakers, roughly twice the inter-labeler variability of expert annotators (around 96 Hz overall). These errors highlight the need for speaker-specific parameter tuning, with frequency-domain methods showing similar performance but greater variability in noisy conditions.^[15]

Visualization and Plots

Formants are commonly visualized using spectrograms, which are time-frequency representations of speech signals generated via the short-time Fourier transform (STFT). In these plots, formants appear as dark horizontal bands corresponding to regions of high energy concentration, reflecting the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract.^[23] The STFT typically employs overlapping windows of 20-50 milliseconds to balance temporal and frequency resolution, allowing clear delineation of formant structures amid the harmonic series of voiced speech.^[24]^[25] Beyond spectrograms, formant plots such as locus diagrams provide a targeted view of formant dynamics by graphing the first formant (F1) against the second (F2) over time, tracing trajectories that reveal coarticulatory influences and vowel targets. These diagrams illustrate how formant frequencies transition between consonants and vowels, with steady-state portions showing stabilization at perceptual vowel centers.^[26] For perceptual relevance, formant values are often plotted on a Bark scale, which approximates the nonlinear spacing of critical bands in human hearing and enhances the interpretability of vowel distinctions by aligning acoustic data with auditory perception.^[27] Software tools facilitate these visualizations, overlaying formant grids on vowel triangles to map F1 and F2 coordinates against standard phonetic spaces, or rendering dynamic tracks that highlight formant evolution in real-time annotations. For instance, WaveSurfer, an open-source platform, generates spectrograms with superimposed formant curves extracted from linear predictive coding, enabling interactive analysis of speech segments.^[28] These tools support vowel triangle plots where formants are normalized and gridded to compare speaker variations or dialectal patterns. In interpreting these plots, bandwidth ellipses represent the variability in formant frequencies around vowel targets, often depicted as confidence regions in F1-F2 space to quantify production consistency across tokens. For steady-state vowels, formant tracks converge toward central values after initial transitions, indicating articulatory stabilization and aiding in the identification of phonetic categories.^[29] A representative example is the visualization of the /æ/ vowel in words like "gap," where the F2 locus diagram shows an initial low frequency near the velar /g/ (around 1000-1200 Hz) rising sharply to a target of approximately 1800 Hz during the vowel nucleus, illustrating fronting coarticulation in the trajectory plot.^[30] Such patterns in spectrograms and loci underscore how formant transitions encode consonant-vowel interactions without delving into extraction algorithms.^[26]

Specialized Cases

Singer's Formant

The singer's formant is a clustered high-frequency resonance typically occurring between 2 and 3.5 kHz, resulting from modifications to the vocal tract that enhance vocal projection in trained singers.^[31] This resonance arises primarily from a lowering of the larynx, which lengthens the vocal tract, combined with a narrowing of the epilaryngeal tube—a constriction just above the vocal folds—leading to the clustering of the third, fourth, and fifth formants (R3, R4, R5).^[31] Additional physiological adjustments, such as pharyngeal widening and aryepiglottic sphincter constriction, contribute to this effect by creating a resonance that boosts higher harmonics.^[32] Acoustically, the singer's formant exhibits a bandwidth of approximately 1 kHz or less and an amplitude that is 20-30 dB stronger than surrounding formants, making it a dominant spectral feature.^[33] This elevated energy concentration, often centered around 2.8-3 kHz in males, amplifies harmonics in a frequency range where human hearing is particularly sensitive.^[33] It is more prominent in male voices due to narrower epilaryngeal tubes and wider harmonic spacing compared to females, where it may be less distinct or absent.^[31] Spectrographic analyses reveal the singer's formant as a prominent peak in the spectra of trained classical singers, such as tenors, particularly during vowel production in the modal register.^[32] In long-term average spectra (LTAS) of professional opera singers, this cluster shows significantly higher power levels (e.g., -12 dB for dominant harmonics) compared to untrained voices, where the feature is typically weak or missing.^[32] For instance, power spectra of trained male voices display a clear energy boost around 2.5-3.5 kHz, contrasting with the more even distribution in untrained spectra.^[31] In operatic singing, the singer's formant plays a key adaptive role by enhancing audibility without amplification, allowing the voice to project over orchestral accompaniment in the 2-4 kHz range where ensemble noise is relatively low.^[31] This resonance boosts partials that align with peak auditory sensitivity, ensuring the soloist's timbre cuts through the musical texture effectively.^[32]

Formants in Pathology and Synthesis

In pathological conditions affecting the vocal tract or larynx, formant patterns often deviate from typical values, providing acoustic markers for diagnosis. For instance, in muscle tension dysphonia, the first formant (F1) and second formant (F2) frequencies are elevated compared to healthy speakers during vowel production, reflecting altered vocal tract configurations due to hyperfunctional muscle activity.^[34] Similarly, vocal fold nodules are associated with lowered F1 values for vowels such as /a/ and /u/, indicating compensatory adjustments in vocal tract resonance to accommodate irregular glottal vibration.^[35] In cases of cleft palate, nasal coupling between the oral and nasal cavities leads to shifted formant frequencies and additional nasal resonances, which distort the spectral envelope and contribute to hypernasality.^[36] Formant analysis of sustained vowels serves as a non-invasive diagnostic tool for identifying laryngeal pathologies, including cancer. Recordings of vowels like /a/, /i/, and /u/ allow extraction of formant frequencies and bandwidths, where deviations signal irregular vocal fold vibration or tract modifications indicative of malignancy.^[37] For example, in laryngeal cancer patients, formant perturbations during prolonged vowel phonation correlate with tumor-induced changes in glottal source and resonance, enabling machine learning models to classify pathological voices with high accuracy using acoustic features such as spectral analysis.^[38] Formant measures help quantify severity and monitor treatment progress without invasive procedures.^[39] Recent advances in deep learning have further enhanced the accuracy of formant-based detection for vocal pathologies as of 2024.^[40] In speech synthesis, formant-based approaches replicate these acoustic properties by parametrically controlling formant frequencies, bandwidths, and amplitudes to generate intelligible output. Pioneered by Dennis Klatt's cascade/parallel synthesizer, this method uses a cascaded branch for vowel-like resonances and a parallel branch for fricative noise, allowing precise adjustment of parameters like F1 bandwidth to simulate breathiness by broadening the resonance and mimicking glottal air escape.^[41] Such models produce compact, modifiable speech suitable for resource-constrained devices, though they require careful tuning to avoid metallic artifacts.^[42] Applications of formant synthesis extend to text-to-speech (TTS) systems and voice conversion, where formant manipulation enhances versatility over concatenative methods that rely on pre-recorded segments for naturalness but limit prosodic control. In formant-based TTS, parameters are rule-derived from text to drive synthesis, enabling efficient generation of diverse utterances, whereas concatenative TTS prioritizes realism through unit selection at the cost of flexibility.^[43] For voice conversion, scaling formant frequencies—typically by a factor of 0.8–1.2—alters perceived vocal tract length, facilitating gender morphing while preserving linguistic content; for example, raising formants simulates a shorter tract associated with female voices.^[44] A key challenge in formant synthesis lies in achieving perceptual naturalness, particularly with limited formants (e.g., 3–5), as higher-order resonances contribute to timbre richness absent in simplified models. In singing synthesis, 5-formant approximations struggle to capture the dynamic spectral envelope needed for vibrato and timbre variation, often resulting in unnatural brightness or dullness unless augmented with noise sources or additional poles.^[45] Balancing computational efficiency with these nuances remains critical for applications like expressive TTS or pathological voice simulation.^[46]

Historical Development

Early Discoveries

In the mid-19th century, Hermann von Helmholtz laid foundational groundwork for understanding formants through experiments on vowel resonances. Using an array of tuning forks driven by electromagnets to generate pure tones and spherical Helmholtz resonators tuned to specific frequencies, he analyzed sung vowels by holding resonators near the singer's mouth to isolate and amplify reinforced harmonics. This approach revealed that vowels exhibit three primary resonance bands, corresponding to what would later be termed the first three formants (F1, F2, and F3), which shape the spectral envelope of vowel sounds independently of the exact pitch of the source.^[47] Building on this in the early 20th century, Edward Wheeler Scripture conducted experiments to replicate and study vowel acoustics using mechanical models of the vocal tract. In his work with artificial diaphragms and tubes mimicking laryngeal vibration and tract configurations, Scripture produced synthetic diphthongs—combinations of two adjacent vowel sounds—to match natural speech patterns, demonstrating how tube lengths and shapes alter resonance frequencies to produce distinct vowel qualities. Similarly, Sir Richard Paget advanced these efforts in the 1920s by constructing adjustable artificial rubber tubes connected to sound sources, systematically varying tube dimensions to synthesize and match the formant structures of English vowels like /i/, /a/, and /u/, confirming the role of tract geometry in defining vowel timbre.^[48] Early visual evidence of formant bands emerged through spectrographic techniques pioneered by Rudolph Koenig around 1900. Koenig's manometric flame apparatus, which directed sound waves onto a gas flame via a rotating mirror and a series of tuned resonators, produced oscillating flame patterns that visually depicted the harmonic reinforcements in vowels, revealing broad spectral bands indicative of formant locations during sustained vowel production. These flame traces provided the first graphical approximations of formant clustering, though limited to steady-state tones. A pivotal insight from these sustained tone studies was that formants represent imprints of the vocal tract's resonance properties, remaining consistent regardless of the glottal source's fundamental frequency or waveform, as demonstrated by Helmholtz's resonator isolations and later confirmed in tube syntheses where the same tract configuration yielded similar formant peaks with varied excitations.^[47] However, these analog-era methods faced significant limitations in analyzing dynamic speech, as resonators and manometric flames could only capture quasi-steady resonances effectively, struggling to resolve rapid formant transitions in connected discourse due to mechanical inertia and low temporal resolution.

Key Milestones and Researchers

In the 1940s, Tsuguhiko Chiba and Masaru Kajiyama conducted pioneering X-ray cinematography studies on the vocal tract configurations of Japanese speakers, mapping articulatory shapes to formant frequencies for the five cardinal vowels and establishing early quantitative links between anatomy and acoustics.^[49]^[50] The invention of the sound spectrograph at Bell Laboratories in the early 1940s, developed by Winston E. K. Koenig, Homer Dudley, and Lawrence Lacy, revolutionized formant measurement by producing visual representations of frequency and intensity over time, enabling precise identification of formant bands in speech signals from the mid-1940s onward.^[51]^[52] Building on this tool, researchers like Ralph Potter and Martin Joos created influential vowel formant atlases in the late 1940s and 1950s, compiling F1-F2 frequency data from spectrograms of American English vowels to standardize perceptual-acoustic correspondences.^[52] A major theoretical advancement came in 1960 with Gunnar Fant's Acoustic Theory of Speech Production, which formalized the source-filter model, describing formants as resonant peaks shaped by the vocal tract filter acting on a glottal source, providing a foundational framework for subsequent speech synthesis and analysis.^[53]^[54] In the digital era, John D. Markel and Augustine H. Gray Jr. advanced formant estimation in 1976 through their work on linear predictive coding (LPC), a method that models speech as an all-pole filter to efficiently extract formant frequencies from short-time spectra, widely adopted in vocoders and speech processing systems.^[55] Post-2010 developments integrated deep learning for formant tracking, with data-driven approaches like neural network-based estimators outperforming traditional signal processing in noisy or dynamic speech, as demonstrated in models trained on large corpora to predict formant trajectories directly from spectrograms.^[56]^[57] Key researchers shaping formant theory include Gunnar Fant for source-filter integration, Kenneth N. Stevens for quantal theory linking stable formant regions to discrete articulatory targets in acoustic phonetics, and Ingo Titze for biomechanical analyses of the singer's formant, elucidating how pharyngeal adjustments cluster higher formants to enhance vocal projection.^[54]^[58]

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[PDF] Fronting of /æ/ and /ε/ before /g/ in Seattle English
A simple plot of F1 x F2 vowel midpoints stops short of addressing the phonological. Page 14. 14 phenomena at work here, rather the trajectory plots and ...
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[PDF] Vocal tract resonances in speech, singing, and playing ... - HAL
Oct 13, 2010 · Singers produce the singers formant by keeping the larynx low and by narrowing the epilaryngeal tube – a constriction in the vocal tract just ...
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[PDF] Physiological and Acoustic Characteristics of the Bel Canto Tenor's ...
The formants F3, F4 and F5 are more related to the vocal timbre, constituting the singer's formant cluster, essentially a concentration of acoustic energy in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
The Singer's Formant and Speaker's Ring Resonance: A Long-Term ...
The greatest harmonics peak between 2 and 4 kHz is roughly the center frequency for the singer's formant (2). ... 20-30 dB below that of singer's formant ...
[31]
[PDF] Accuracy of traditional and formant acoustic measurements in the ...
A study(14) conducted with 111 women with muscle tension dysphonia found similar results. The F1 and F2 formants were elevated in this population compared to ...
[32]
[PDF] Auditory-perceptual and acoustic measures in women ... - Redalyc
As for formant measures, women with vocal nodules had lower F1 values for vowels /a/ and /u/ and F2 values for vowel /a/ than women without vocal nodules.<|control11|><|separator|>
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The Relation of Nasality and Nasalance to Nasal Port Area Based ...
Nov 1, 2012 · The effect of this acoustic coupling is a shift in the formant ... Cleft palate speech assessment through oral nasal acoustic measures. In ...
[34]
Convolutional Neural Network Classifies Pathological Voice ... - MDPI
Oct 25, 2020 · We investigated whether automated voice signal analysis can be used to distinguish patients with laryngeal cancer from healthy subjects.
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Laryngeal disease classification using voice data: Octave-band vs ...
Laryngeal cancer diagnosis relies on specialist examinations, but non-invasive methods using voice data are emerging with artificial intelligence (AI) ...
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Assessment of the Formant Frequencies in Normal and ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The objective of this study was to assess the difference in voice quality as defined by acoustical analysis using sustained vowel in laryngectomized patients.
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[PDF] Software for a Cascade/parallel Formant Synthesizer
The steps used to synthesize an utterance in our labor- atory are described and a simple example is presented. A. Synthesis of vowels. The control parameters ...Missing: Delattre | Show results with:Delattre
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Software for a cascade/parallel formant synthesizer
The parallel configuration can also be used to model vocal tract characteristics for laryn- geal sound sources, although the approximation is not quite as good ...
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A review-based study on different Text-to-Speech technologies - arXiv
Dec 17, 2023 · The paper examines the different TTS technologies available, including concatenative TTS, formant synthesis TTS, and statistical parametric TTS.
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[PDF] A NOVEL EFFICIENT ALGORITHM FOR VOICE GENDER ...
Realistic Voice Gender Conversion (VGC) requires independent scaling of the glottal (pitch) and vocal tract (formant) related features of the input speech ...Missing: morphing | Show results with:morphing
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Mechanics of human voice production and control - PMC
... formant synthesis still suffers limited naturalness. This limited naturalness may result from the primitive rules used in specifying dynamic controls of the ...
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(PDF) Synthesis and expressive transformation of singing voice
This thesis aimed at conducting research on the synthesis and expressive transformations of the singing voice, towards the development of a high-quality ...
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On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of ...
Jun 4, 2008 · On the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music. by: Helmholtz, Hermann von, 1821-1894; Ellis, Alexander John, 1814 ...
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From articulatory phonetics to the physics of speech: Contribution of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The classical work of phonetics published in a book by Chiba and Kajiyama was reviewed. The book opened the way to calculate a vowel tract ...
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Acoustic Theory of Vowel Production | Ento Key
Aug 28, 2021 · For vowel production, the vocal tract resonates like a tube closed at one end, and shapes an input signal generated by the vibrating vocal folds.
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Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. List of Significant Innovations ...
Nov 21, 2019 · 1940, Photovoltaic P-N Junction, Russell Shoemaker Ohl ; 1941, Sound Spectrograph, W. Koenig, H. K. Dunn & L. Y. Lacy ; 1941, Vocoder Speech ...
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[PDF] a short history of acoustic phonetics in the us - Haskins Laboratories
The Bell electrical engineers found it natural not only to use electrical methods but also to draw on electrical analogies in thinking about phonetic questions.
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Acoustic Theory of Speech Production - Gunnar Fant - Google Books
Acoustic Theory of Speech Production: With Calculations Based on X-Ray Studies of Russian Articulations. Front Cover. Gunnar Fant. Walter de Gruyter, 1971.<|control11|><|separator|>
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(PDF) The Gunnar Fant Legacy in the Study of Vocal Acoustics
Gunnar Fant made a number of seminal contributions to the acoustics of human speech and voice production.
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[PDF] Linear Predictive Coding and the Internet Protocol A survey of LPC ...
Figure 9.1 from this seminal paper depicts the LP parameters being extracted using the autocorrelation method and transmitted to a decoder with voicing ...
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Formant estimation and tracking: A deep learning approach - PubMed
Formant frequency estimation and tracking are among the most fundamental problems in speech processing. In the estimation task, the input is a stationary ...Missing: analysis seminal paper
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Formant Estimation and Tracking Using Deep Learning - ISCA Archive
Traditionally, formant estimation and tracking is done using ad-hoc signal processing methods. In this paper we propose using machine learning techniques ...Missing: post- 2010
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Ingo TITZE | Executive Director, National Center for Voice and Speech
Many future questions about the physiology, biomechanics, and acoustics of vocalization are expected to be answered by simulation to avoid excessive use of ...