Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Wavelet

A wavelet is a mathematical function used to decompose data or signals into different frequency components, analyzing each with a resolution matched to its scale, thereby providing both time and frequency localization.^[1] These functions are generated by scaling (dilation) and shifting (translation) a prototype function called the mother wavelet, such as the Haar wavelet, which has compact support and integrates to zero.^[2] Unlike the Fourier transform, which excels at frequency analysis but lacks time localization, wavelets enable multi-resolution analysis, making them ideal for signals with discontinuities, transients, or localized features.^[3] The concept of wavelets traces its roots to Joseph Fourier's 1807 work on harmonic analysis using sines and cosines, but wavelet theory evolved to emphasize scale over pure frequency, with Alfred Haar introducing the first compactly supported wavelets in 1909.^[1] Independent developments occurred across disciplines, including mathematics (e.g., multiresolution analysis by Stéphane Mallat), quantum physics, electrical engineering, and seismic geology, leading to practical tools like the continuous and discrete wavelet transforms.^[1] Key properties include orthogonality for efficient bases, vanishing moments to capture polynomial trends, and the ability to form orthonormal wavelet families, such as Daubechies wavelets, which balance smoothness and support.^[2] Wavelets have transformed signal processing by enabling sparse representations, where most coefficients are zero or small for typical data, facilitating compression and denoising.^[3] Notable applications include image compression (e.g., JPEG 2000 standard^[4]), noise reduction in audio signals, turbulence modeling, human vision studies, radar processing, and earthquake prediction.^[1] The discrete wavelet transform, computable in O(n) time via pyramid algorithms, underpins fast implementations, contrasting with the O(n log n) complexity of the fast Fourier transform.^[2] Ongoing research extends wavelets to higher dimensions, curvelets for edges, and machine learning for adaptive bases.^[3]

Introduction

Etymology

The term "wavelet" derives from the English word "wave" combined with the diminutive suffix "-let," denoting a small or little wave, which captures the essence of these functions as brief, localized oscillations suitable for analyzing signals at various scales.^[5] In the context of mathematical wavelet theory, the term was first employed by geophysicist Jean Morlet and mathematician Alex Grossmann in their 1984 paper, where it described square-integrable functions of constant shape used for decomposing Hardy functions in signal analysis.^[6] This usage built on the French equivalent "ondelette," reflecting the innovative application of small-wave-like basis functions.^[7] The terminology's roots trace back to early 20th-century developments in harmonic analysis, such as Alfred Haar's 1909 construction of simple orthogonal step functions that later became known as the first wavelets, though without the specific nomenclature at the time.^[8] By the 1980s, with the rise of computational signal processing, the term "wavelet" became standard in English-language literature, notably through Yves Meyer's foundational work on orthogonal wavelets, marking its first prominent appearances in that context.^[9] (Note: An earlier, unrelated use of "wavelet" appeared in geophysics, where Norman Ricker applied it in 1940 to model finite-duration seismic pulses.)^[10]

Basic Definition and Overview

A wavelet is a mathematical function that exhibits wave-like oscillatory behavior with finite duration and limited frequency bandwidth, enabling localized analysis in both time and frequency domains. Unlike global transforms such as the Fourier transform, wavelets are generated by scaling and translating a prototype function, known as the mother wavelet ψ(t), to form a family of basis functions suitable for decomposing signals. This structure allows wavelets to capture transient features effectively, representing them as small waves that oscillate briefly and decay to near zero, often featuring compact support in time.^[11]^[12] Key properties of a wavelet include square-integrability, ensuring the function belongs to the space L²(ℝ) of square-integrable functions over the real line, which guarantees finite energy: ∫ |ψ(t)|² dt < ∞. Additionally, wavelets satisfy the admissibility condition, characterized by a finite admissibility constant C_ψ = ∫{-∞}^∞ |Ψ(ω)|² / |ω| dω < ∞, where Ψ(ω) is the Fourier transform of ψ(t); this condition implies that the wavelet has zero mean, expressed as ∫{-∞}^∞ ψ(t) dt = 0, allowing perfect reconstruction of signals via the inverse transform. Wavelets also possess vanishing moments, meaning ∫_{-∞}^∞ t^n ψ(t) dt = 0 for n = 0, 1, ..., M-1, where M is the order of vanishing moments; this property enhances the approximation of smooth signals by making wavelet coefficients sparse for polynomials up to degree M-1.^[12]^[13]^[11] In signal analysis, wavelets excel at time-frequency localization, providing variable resolution that adapts to the signal's characteristics—higher resolution in time for high-frequency components and in frequency for low-frequency ones. This makes them particularly superior for processing non-stationary signals, where frequency content varies over time, such as in seismic data or speech, by revealing localized events without the fixed window limitations of other methods.^[14]^[11]

Mathematical Foundations

Scaling Function and Filter

The scaling function, denoted \phi(t), is a cornerstone of wavelet construction in discrete wavelet transforms and multiresolution analysis. It is defined as the unique L^2(\mathbb{R})-normalized solution to the dilation equation (or refinement equation):

\phi(t) = \sqrt{2} \sum_{k \in \mathbb{Z}} h_k \phi(2t - k),

where \{h_k\}_{k \in \mathbb{Z}} are the coefficients of a low-pass filter satisfying \sum_k h_k = \sqrt{2} to ensure \int \phi(t) \, dt = 1. This equation expresses the scaling function at a given scale as a linear combination of its dilated and translated versions, enabling iterative refinement in wavelet decompositions.^[15]^[16] In multiresolution analysis, the translates and dilates of \phi(t) generate nested approximation spaces V_j = \operatorname{span} \{ 2^{j/2} \phi(2^j t - k) \mid k \in \mathbb{Z} \}, where V_j \subset V_{j+1} and \bigcup_j V_j is dense in L^2(\mathbb{R}), capturing low-frequency components at dyadic scales $2^j. Key properties include orthogonality, achieved when the filter satisfies the quadrature mirror filter condition \sum_k h_k h_{k-2m} = \delta_{m,0}, ensuring \{2^{j/2} \phi(2^j t - k)\}_{k \in \mathbb{Z}} forms an orthonormal basis for V_j; regularity, which measures smoothness and increases with the filter length (e.g., linearly for Daubechies wavelets), determined by the number of zeros of the filter's Fourier transform at \pi; and compact support, where \operatorname{supp}(\phi) = [0, 2N-1] for a filter of length $2N, facilitating efficient computation. These properties balance localization in time and frequency, essential for practical implementations.^[16]^[15] A canonical example is the Haar scaling function, the simplest orthogonal case, given by \phi(t) = \chi_{[0,1)}(t) (the indicator function on [0,1)), with low-pass filter coefficients h_0 = h_1 = 1/\sqrt{2}. This piecewise constant function has compact support of length 1 and zero regularity beyond discontinuities but forms the basis for the original Haar wavelet system.^[15] The solution to the dilation equation can be obtained iteratively, starting from an initial approximation (e.g., a rectangular pulse) and refining through repeated application of the filter, converging in the L^2 norm under stability conditions on \{h_k\}. In the Fourier domain, this yields the infinite product representation:

\hat{\phi}(\omega) = \prod_{j=1}^\infty m_0(2^{-j} \omega),

where m_0(\xi) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \sum_k h_k e^{-i k \xi} is the Fourier transform of the filter, with the product ensuring \hat{\phi}(0) = 1 and decay for stability. This formulation highlights the self-similar, fractal-like structure of \phi(t).^[15]

Wavelet Function

The wavelet function \psi(t) is generated from the scaling function \phi(t) through a two-scale dilation equation that captures high-frequency details orthogonal to the low-frequency approximations spanned by \phi. Specifically, for orthogonal wavelets, it is defined as

\psi(t) = \sum_k g_k \phi(2t - k),

where the coefficients g_k = (-1)^k h_{1-k} are derived from the low-pass filter coefficients h_k associated with the scaling function, ensuring the wavelet acts as a high-pass filter.^[15] This construction, part of the multiresolution framework, positions the wavelet function to extract differences between finer and coarser approximation spaces.^[16] Key properties of the wavelet function enable its role in localized signal analysis. It exhibits oscillatory behavior, characterized by a zero mean \int \psi(t) \, dt = 0, which allows it to detect variations rather than constant offsets.^[15] Many orthogonal wavelets possess compact support, meaning \psi(t) is nonzero only over a finite interval, facilitating efficient computation and localization in time.^[15] Additionally, the number of vanishing moments—defined as the largest integer M such that \int t^m \psi(t) \, dt = 0 for m = 0, 1, \dots, M-1—determines the wavelet's ability to approximate polynomials; higher vanishing moments imply orthogonality to low-degree polynomials, enhancing the approximation of smooth signals by the scaling spaces.^[15] In the multiresolution analysis, the wavelet function relates directly to the detail spaces W_j, which represent the orthogonal complement of the approximation space V_j in the finer space V_{j+1}, i.e., V_{j+1} = V_j \oplus W_j. The translated and dilated versions \psi_{j,k}(t) = 2^{j/2} \psi(2^j t - k) form an orthonormal basis for W_j, capturing incremental details at scale j.^[16] This decomposition satisfies the perfect reconstruction condition, where the full signal in L^2(\mathbb{R}) can be recovered exactly as f = \sum_j \sum_k \langle f, \psi_{j,k} \rangle \psi_{j,k} + low-frequency component, due to the orthonormality of the basis.^[15] In the frequency domain, the wavelet function is characterized by its Fourier transform \hat{\psi}(\omega), which satisfies \hat{\psi}(0) = 0 to enforce the zero mean and exhibits bandpass behavior, concentrating energy away from zero and high frequencies depending on the filter design. For orthogonal wavelets, the relation is given by

\hat{\psi}(\omega) = \sqrt{2} \, G\left(\frac{\omega}{2}\right) \hat{\phi}\left(\frac{\omega}{2}\right),

where G(\omega) is the Fourier transform of the high-pass filter coefficients g_k, typically G(\omega) = e^{-i\omega} H(\omega + \pi) with H(\omega) the low-pass filter transform, ensuring orthogonality via |H(\omega)|^2 + |H(\omega + \pi)|^2 = 2.^[15] This frequency characterization underscores the wavelet's role in isolating scale-specific frequency bands while maintaining time localization.

Mother Wavelet

The mother wavelet, denoted as \psi(t), serves as the prototype function in wavelet theory from which an entire family of wavelets is generated through operations of scaling and translation. This generating function must belong to the space L^2(\mathbb{R}) and typically exhibits oscillatory behavior with finite energy and zero mean. The scaled and translated versions, known as daughter wavelets, are defined by the equation

\psi_{a,b}(t) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{|a|}} \psi\left( \frac{t - b}{a} \right),

where a > 0 is the scale parameter controlling the dilation or compression of the wavelet, and b \in \mathbb{R} is the translation parameter shifting its position along the time axis. The normalization factor \frac{1}{\sqrt{|a|}} preserves the L^2-norm of the wavelet across different scales, ensuring consistent energy measurement in applications.^[12] A critical selection criterion for the mother wavelet, particularly in the context of the continuous wavelet transform, is the admissibility condition, which guarantees the invertibility of the transform. This condition requires that the admissibility constant C_\psi be finite, given by

C_\psi = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{|\Psi(\omega)|^2}{|\omega|} \, d\omega < \infty,

where \Psi(\omega) is the Fourier transform of \psi(t). The finiteness of C_\psi implies that \Psi(0) = 0, or equivalently \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \psi(t) \, dt = 0, ensuring the wavelet has no DC component and allowing perfect reconstruction of the original signal. This criterion was formalized in the foundational work linking wavelet decompositions to square-integrable representations.^[12]^[17] Prominent examples of mother wavelets illustrate diverse properties suited to different analytical needs. The Haar mother wavelet, the simplest orthogonal wavelet, is explicitly defined piecewise as

\psi(t) = \begin{cases} 1 & 0 \leq t < \frac{1}{2}, \\ -1 & \frac{1}{2} \leq t < 1, \\ 0 & \text{otherwise}. \end{cases}

It features compact support on [0, 1], one vanishing moment, and discontinuity, making it ideal for detecting abrupt changes but limited in smoothness. In contrast, Daubechies wavelets form a family of orthogonal mother wavelets with compact support and increasing regularity; for instance, the Db1 (or D1) wavelet is the Haar, while higher-order ones, such as Db4, are defined via filter coefficients without a simple closed-form expression but possess support on [0, 7] (for Db4), four vanishing moments, and approximately C^{1.6} smoothness, enabling better approximation of smooth signals. These properties arise from constructing the wavelet to satisfy orthogonality and maximal flatness conditions in the frequency domain. The Morlet mother wavelet, originally developed for seismic analysis, is a complex-valued function approximating a Gaussian-modulated plane wave:

\psi(t) = \pi^{-1/4} e^{i \omega_0 t} e^{-t^2 / 2},

with \omega_0 \approx 6 for admissibility; it offers excellent time-frequency localization due to its Gaussian envelope but infinite support, prioritizing resolution in continuous transforms over computational efficiency.^[18]^[15]

Comparisons with Other Transforms

With Fourier Transform

The Fourier transform decomposes a signal into global sinusoidal basis functions, providing frequency information across the entire domain but failing to localize events in time, particularly for non-stationary signals where frequency content varies over time. This limitation arises because the basis functions, such as complex exponentials e^{i \omega t}, extend infinitely in time, spreading energy uniformly and requiring numerous coefficients to represent localized transients like edges or abrupt changes. For instance, the Fourier transform of a signal f(t) is given by

\hat{f}(\omega) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(t) e^{-i \omega t} \, dt,

which captures global frequency content but obscures temporal dynamics, leading to phenomena like Gibbs oscillations near discontinuities.^[19] In contrast, wavelet transforms address these shortcomings by employing basis functions that are localized in both time and frequency, achieved through dilations and translations of a mother wavelet, enabling variable window sizes that adapt to the signal's scale. This provides superior time-frequency resolution for non-stationary signals, allowing analysis of how frequencies evolve locally without the global averaging inherent in Fourier methods. Wavelets thus offer a more flexible representation, concentrating energy near singularities and reducing the number of significant coefficients needed for sparse approximations.^[19] These advantages stem from implications of the time-frequency uncertainty principle, which states that the product of time and frequency spreads satisfies \sigma_t \sigma_\omega \geq 1/2, limiting simultaneous precise localization in both domains. The Fourier transform achieves optimal frequency resolution but at the expense of time spread, whereas wavelets attain a better joint time-frequency spread by varying the scale parameter, balancing the trade-off more effectively for signals with multiscale features.^[19]

With Short-Time Fourier Transform

The short-time Fourier transform (STFT) provides a time-frequency representation of a signal by applying a fixed-duration window to localize the Fourier transform in time. It is mathematically defined as

V_g f(x, \omega) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(t) \overline{g(t - x)} e^{-2\pi i \omega t} \, dt,

where f(t) is the input signal, g(t) is the window function (typically of fixed width), x denotes time shift, and \omega denotes frequency.^[20] This formulation computes the Fourier transform of the signal multiplied by a shifted version of the window, yielding a two-dimensional time-frequency map. The fixed window width, such as a Gaussian g(t) = e^{-\pi t^2}, ensures consistent temporal resolution across all frequencies but limits adaptability to signals with varying scales.^[20] A key limitation of the STFT arises from the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which imposes a lower bound on the product of time and frequency resolutions: \Delta t \cdot \Delta \omega \geq \frac{1}{2}, where \Delta t and \Delta \omega are the standard deviations in the time and frequency domains, respectively.^[21] This fixed resolution trade-off results in either poor temporal localization for high-frequency components (with a wide window) or inadequate frequency resolution for low-frequency components (with a narrow window), making the STFT suboptimal for analyzing non-stationary signals exhibiting multi-scale features, such as transients or chirps. The spectrogram, defined as |V_g f(x, \omega)|^2, further illustrates this by providing an energy density estimate but suffering from smeared representations due to the uniform window, without the oscillating cross-terms prevalent in other quadratic time-frequency distributions like the Wigner-Ville distribution.^[22] In contrast, wavelet transforms achieve superiority over the STFT through multi-resolution analysis, where the analyzing function is dilated to adaptively adjust time and frequency resolutions according to the signal's local scales—offering finer temporal detail at high frequencies and better frequency detail at low frequencies. This dilation-based approach overcomes the STFT's rigid Heisenberg constraint by varying the effective window width with scale, enabling more precise localization of multi-scale phenomena without the resolution compromises inherent in fixed-window methods. The Gabor transform serves as a specific example of an STFT variant using a Gaussian window, which minimizes the uncertainty product but still retains the fixed-width limitation, highlighting why wavelets provide enhanced flexibility for signals with heterogeneous frequency content. Quadratic time-frequency distributions, including the STFT spectrogram, mitigate severe cross-term interference through kernel smoothing but at the expense of reduced resolution, whereas wavelets inherently avoid such artifacts by design in their linear, scale-adapted framework.^[22]

Core Wavelet Theory

Continuous Wavelet Transform

The continuous wavelet transform (CWT) provides a time-scale representation of signals, particularly suited for analyzing nonstationary phenomena in continuous-time signals belonging to the space L^2(\mathbb{R}). Introduced by Grossmann and Morlet, it decomposes a function f \in L^2(\mathbb{R}) using a family of dilated and translated versions of a mother wavelet \psi \in L^2(\mathbb{R}), where \psi satisfies the admissibility condition ensuring zero mean and finite energy concentration. The transform is defined as

W_f(a, b) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(t) \frac{1}{\sqrt{|a|}} \overline{\psi}\left( \frac{t - b}{a} \right) \, dt,

with continuous parameters a > 0 (scale) and b \in \mathbb{R} (translation). This formulation correlates the signal with wavelets of varying widths and positions, allowing localization of features in both time and scale domains. A key property of the CWT is its invertibility, enabling perfect reconstruction of the original signal under the admissibility condition. The constant C_\psi = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \frac{|\hat{\psi}(\omega)|^2}{|\omega|} \, d\omega < \infty (where \hat{\psi} is the Fourier transform of \psi) ensures the transform is a frame for L^2(\mathbb{R}). The reconstruction formula is

f(t) = \frac{1}{C_\psi} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \int_0^{\infty} W_f(a, b) \frac{1}{\sqrt{|a|}} \psi\left( \frac{t - b}{a} \right) \frac{da \, db}{|a|^2}.

Additionally, the CWT satisfies a Plancherel theorem, preserving the L^2-norm of the signal: for an admissible wavelet normalized such that C_\psi = 1,

\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \int_0^{\infty} |W_f(a, b)|^2 \frac{da \, db}{a^2} = \|f\|_2^2.

These properties underpin the CWT's utility in theoretical analysis of continuous-time signals. In signal processing, the CWT facilitates ridge detection to identify prominent features such as transients or singularities. Ridges correspond to curves in the time-scale plane where the modulus |W_f(a, b)| achieves local maxima, often aligning with the instantaneous frequency of oscillatory components in the signal; for example, in a chirp signal, ridges trace frequency variations over time. This technique extracts skeletal structures of signals, enabling characterization of nonstationary behaviors like abrupt changes or modulated oscillations. The CWT's continuous parameterization supports applications in continuous-time analysis, including seismic wave propagation and gravitational wave detection, where it reveals time-varying spectral content without discrete approximations.

Discrete Wavelet Transform

The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is a mathematical operation that computes wavelet coefficients for a signal by discretizing the continuous wavelet transform parameters on a dyadic grid, where the scale parameter a = 2^j and translation parameter b = k \cdot 2^j for integers j, k \in \mathbb{Z}.^[23] This discretization enables efficient computation while preserving key properties of the continuous transform, such as localization in time and frequency. The wavelet coefficients are defined as

W_f(j, k) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(t) \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{2^j}} \overline{\psi\left( \frac{t - k \cdot 2^j}{2^j} \right)} \, dt,

where f(t) is the input signal, \psi(t) is the mother wavelet, and \overline{\psi} denotes its complex conjugate.^[16] This formulation arises from sampling the continuous wavelet transform at dyadic locations to approximate the integral efficiently for discrete signals.^[23] In practice, the DWT is implemented via convolution of the signal with dilated and translated versions of the wavelet and its associated scaling function, followed by downsampling. The coefficients can thus be expressed as W_f(j, k) = f * \psi_{j,k}, where \psi_{j,k} is the appropriately normalized and shifted wavelet, and * denotes convolution.^[24] A seminal fast algorithm for computing the DWT is Mallat's pyramid algorithm, which uses a bank of quadrature mirror filters: a low-pass filter h for approximations and a high-pass filter g for details.^[16] Decomposition proceeds recursively by convolving the signal with these filters and subsampling by a factor of 2 at each level, producing a pyramid of coefficient arrays that capture multiscale features. Reconstruction is achieved by upsampling and convolving with the synthesis filters, ensuring invertibility. For orthogonal DWTs, such as those based on Daubechies wavelets, the filter banks satisfy perfect reconstruction conditions, allowing lossless recovery of the original signal from the coefficients via the inverse transform.^[16] This orthogonality implies that the wavelet basis functions are orthonormal, minimizing redundancy and enabling energy-preserving decompositions. Undecimated versions of the DWT, also known as the stationary wavelet transform or à trous algorithm, omit the downsampling step to maintain translation invariance, resulting in oversampled coefficients that are useful for applications requiring shift robustness, such as denoising. These variants compute coefficients at full resolution across scales by inserting zeros into the filters at each level, bridging the Mallat pyramid with non-decimated approaches.

Multiresolution Analysis

Multiresolution analysis (MRA) is a foundational framework in wavelet theory that organizes the Hilbert space L^2(\mathbb{R}) into a sequence of nested closed subspaces \{V_j\}_{j \in \mathbb{Z}}, enabling the construction of wavelet bases through hierarchical approximations at dyadic scales. This structure captures signal details at multiple resolutions, where V_j represents approximations of functions in L^2(\mathbb{R}) at scale $2^j.^[16] The subspaces satisfy the inclusion relation V_j \subset V_{j+1} for all j \in \mathbb{Z}, ensuring coarser approximations are contained within finer ones. The union \bigcup_{j \in \mathbb{Z}} V_j is dense in L^2(\mathbb{R}), allowing arbitrary functions to be approximated arbitrarily well at sufficiently fine scales, while the intersection \bigcap_{j \in \mathbb{Z}} V_j = \{0\}, meaning only the zero function is common to all scales. The framework exhibits dilatation invariance: a function f \in V_j if and only if the dilated version f(2 \cdot) \in V_{j+1}.^[16] Translation invariance holds such that shifts by integers preserve membership in V_j, and the integer translates of a scaling function \phi form a Riesz basis for V_0. The scaling function \phi \in V_0 generates the entire MRA, with the family \{\phi_{j,k}(x) = 2^{j/2} \phi(2^j x - k) \mid k \in \mathbb{Z}\} forming a Riesz basis for V_j. This basis satisfies Riesz bounds, ensuring stable reconstructions without redundancy, and extends the approximation properties across scales. Complementing the approximation spaces, the wavelet spaces are defined as W_j = V_{j+1} \ominus V_j, the orthogonal complement of V_j in V_{j+1}, capturing high-frequency details at scale $2^j.^[16] These spaces satisfy W_j \perp V_j and W_j \perp W_m for j \neq m, with \bigoplus_{j \in \mathbb{Z}} W_j \perp \overline{\bigcup_{j \in \mathbb{Z}} V_j}, leading to the orthogonal direct sum decomposition L^2(\mathbb{R}) = \overline{\bigcup_{j \in \mathbb{Z}} V_j} \oplus \bigoplus_{j \in \mathbb{Z}} W_j. Each W_j admits a Riesz basis generated by dilations and translations of a mother wavelet \psi. This structure allows any f \in L^2(\mathbb{R}) to be uniquely represented in the wavelet basis as

f = \sum_{j,k \in \mathbb{Z}} \langle f, \phi_{j,k} \rangle \phi_{j,k} + \sum_{m,n \in \mathbb{Z}} \langle f, \psi_{m,n} \rangle \psi_{m,n},

where the first sum projects onto the approximation spaces and the second onto the detail spaces, with orthogonality ensuring Parseval's identity \|f\|^2 = \sum_{j,k} |\langle f, \phi_{j,k} \rangle|^2 + \sum_{m,n} |\langle f, \psi_{m,n} \rangle|^2.^[16] The orthogonality conditions arise from the complementary nature of the spaces, guaranteeing that inner products between basis functions from different V_j and W_m vanish when appropriate.

Advanced Topics

Time-Causal Wavelets

Time-causal wavelets are mathematical functions with support confined to the non-negative real line, [0, ∞), enabling forward-only analysis that depends solely on past and present data without accessing future information. This design is essential for real-time signal processing applications where causality constraints must be respected, such as in online monitoring systems or live data streams. Unlike traditional wavelets with symmetric or bidirectional support, time-causal variants ensure that the transform output at any time instant is computable instantaneously upon signal arrival. Key properties of time-causal wavelets include progressive multiresolution analysis, which prevents the creation of new temporal structures as scale increases from finer to coarser levels, and adherence to scale-space axioms adapted for causality. These axioms enforce variation-diminishing properties through convolutions with one-sided kernels, ensuring that the representation remains stable and non-expansive over time-recursive scales. Additionally, temporal scale covariance holds under discrete scaling factors S_t = c^j (where c > 1 is a constant and j \in \mathbb{Z}), preserving the signal's structure when time is dilated by S_t and scale by S_t^2. This framework adapts standard multiresolution analysis principles to enforce time-directionality, supporting efficient computation via cascades of first-order recursive filters.^[25] Early developments in time-causal wavelets trace to the causal analytical wavelet transform introduced by Szu, Telfer, and Lohmann in 1992,^[26] which employs exponentially decaying, nonsinusoidal wideband transient bases of compact support to achieve completeness while maintaining causality. The mother wavelet h(t) in this approach is strictly zero for t < 0 and analytical for t \geq 0, with daughter wavelets generated as h_{a,b}(t) = \sqrt{a} \, h\left( \frac{t - b}{a} \right) for scale a > 0 and translation b. More recent advancements by Lindeberg in 2025 extended this to time-recursive filters, deriving time-causal wavelets as temporal derivatives of a limit kernel \Psi(t; \tau, c) = \sum_{k=1}^{\infty} \frac{A_k}{\mu_k} e^{-t / \mu_k} for t \geq 0, where \mu_k = c^{-k} \sqrt{c^2 - 1} \sqrt{\tau} ensures one-sided support. The n-th order mother wavelet is then normalized as \chi(t; c) = \frac{\partial_t^n \Psi(t; 1, c)}{\| \partial_t^n \Psi(t; 1, c) \|_p}, enabling progressive multiresolution with minimal buffering for real-time use.^[25]

Generalized Wavelet Transforms

Generalized wavelet transforms extend the foundational continuous and discrete wavelet frameworks by incorporating additional parameters, such as fractional orders or canonical transformations, to better capture non-stationary and multidimensional signal behaviors. These extensions address limitations in standard transforms, particularly for signals with varying frequency modulations or anisotropic features, enabling more flexible time-frequency representations.^[27] The fractional wavelet transform (FrWT) introduces a fractional order parameter α ∈ [0,1] into the dilation operation, generalizing the classical wavelet transform to analyze signals in a fractional time-frequency domain. Defined as

W^\alpha f(a,b) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(t) \overline{\psi_\alpha \left( \frac{t-b}{a} \right)} \frac{dt}{\sqrt{a}},

where ψ_α is a fractional mother wavelet derived via the fractional Fourier transform of a standard wavelet, the FrWT preserves admissibility conditions while allowing interpolation between time and frequency domains. This leads to improved resolution for chirp-like non-stationary signals, such as those in radar and sonar applications, where traditional wavelets struggle with rapid frequency changes. For instance, FrWT enhances the detection of linear frequency-modulated chirps by adjusting α to match the signal's chirp rate, achieving lower mean square error in reconstruction compared to standard methods.^[28]^[29]^[30] Complex wavelets extend real-valued wavelets by producing analytic coefficients with phase information, mitigating the shift-variance and poor directionality of discrete wavelet transforms. The dual-tree complex wavelet transform (DTCWT), a prominent implementation, uses two parallel wavelet trees to generate real and imaginary parts, yielding nearly shift-invariant representations with six directional subbands in 2D. This structure improves sparsity for edge detection in images, as the phase provides orientation cues absent in real wavelets. Complex wavelets are particularly effective in denoising non-stationary signals, where magnitude thresholding preserves directional features.^[31] Shearlets generalize wavelets to higher dimensions by incorporating shear matrices alongside dilations and translations, providing anisotropic support that captures directional singularities like curves and edges more efficiently than isotropic wavelets. In n dimensions, the continuous shearlet transform is formulated as

SH_f(a,s,\mathbf{x}) = \int_{\mathbb{R}^n} f(\mathbf{y}) \overline{\psi_{a,s}(\mathbf{y} - \mathbf{x})} d\mathbf{y},

with ψ_{a,s} generated by anisotropic dilations and shears, offering O(N^{-2}) approximation rates for cartoon-like images—optimal up to a logarithmic factor. This enhanced directionality and sparsity make shearlets superior for multidimensional data, such as volumetric medical imaging, where standard wavelets fail to sparsely represent hyperbolic or curvilinear features. Complex shearlets further refine this by introducing Hilbert-like analyticity, boosting phase-based analysis for texture discrimination.^[32]^[33] Ridgelet-wavelet frame hybrids combine ridgelets, which excel at representing line singularities via Radon transforms, with wavelet frames to handle both point and linear discontinuities in images. In these systems, ridgelets process directional components after wavelet decomposition of isotropic parts, achieving sparser approximations for natural images with edges—up to 20% fewer coefficients than pure wavelets for the same distortion level. This hybrid approach enhances compression and feature extraction in 2D signals, balancing the multiscale locality of wavelets with ridgelets' linearity sensitivity.^[34]^[35] Recent developments in linear canonical wavelet transforms (LCWT) integrate the linear canonical transform (LCT), a chirp-modulated generalization of the Fourier transform, to handle signals under affine deformations. The LCWT is defined with LCT-parameterized dilations, preserving inversion and reproducing kernel properties while adapting to non-stationary chirps in optics and communications. In 2025, extensions like the polar LCWT and offset LCWT have emerged, incorporating polar coordinates or multidimensional offsets for rotation-invariant analysis of radial signals, with applications in image encryption showing improved security via fractional chirp multiplexing. These variants demonstrate bounded L^2 norms and Plancherel-type theorems, facilitating sparse representations in deformed domains.^[36]^[37]^[38]

History

Key Contributors and Early Development

The foundations of wavelet theory trace back to early 20th-century developments in harmonic analysis, particularly the Littlewood-Paley decompositions introduced in the 1930s by mathematicians John E. Littlewood and Raymond C. Paley. These decompositions provided a method for breaking down functions into dyadic frequency bands, enabling the analysis of localized frequency content in a manner that foreshadowed wavelet techniques for multiscale signal decomposition. Similarly, the work on Calderón-Zygmund operators, developed by Alberto P. Calderón and Antoni Zygmund in the mid-20th century but rooted in 1930s singular integral theory, established frameworks for boundedness and decomposition operators that later underpinned wavelet constructions in harmonic analysis. A pivotal early contribution came from Hungarian mathematician Alfréd Haar in 1909, who constructed the first known example of an orthonormal basis for the space of square-integrable functions on the real line, now recognized as the Haar wavelet system. Haar's orthogonal functions, defined piecewise as constants and step functions, provided a simple yet foundational tool for representing functions hierarchically, influencing subsequent wavelet designs despite their limited smoothness. The modern inception of wavelet theory occurred in the 1980s, driven by geophysicist Jean Morlet's practical needs for analyzing seismic signals with localized time-frequency resolution. In 1984, Morlet collaborated with physicist Alex Grossmann to formalize the continuous wavelet transform (CWT), introducing a mathematical framework that decomposed signals using scalable, translatable wavelets of constant shape, as detailed in their seminal paper. This work bridged applied signal processing with theoretical harmonic analysis, establishing the CWT as a cornerstone for non-stationary data analysis. Key advancements in discrete wavelet theory followed soon after, with Ingrid Daubechies constructing the first family of compactly supported orthogonal wavelets in 1988. These Daubechies wavelets, also known as DbN wavelets, achieved arbitrary regularity while maintaining finite support, enabling efficient computational implementations for signal compression and multiresolution analysis without the infinite extent issues of earlier continuous wavelets.^[15] Parallel to these developments, French mathematician Yves Meyer advanced the continuous wavelet framework through his contributions to harmonic analysis, including the Meyer wavelet, which is infinitely differentiable and band-limited in frequency. Meyer's work in the 1980s and 1990s synthesized wavelet theory with Calderón-Zygmund operator techniques, providing rigorous proofs of invertibility and characterization of function spaces, as elaborated in his influential texts and earning him the 2017 Abel Prize for foundational impacts on wavelet applications.

Timeline of Milestones

The development of wavelet theory spans over a century, marked by key mathematical and computational advancements that have progressively enhanced signal analysis and representation techniques.

Applications

Signal Representation and Compression

Wavelets enable efficient signal representation by transforming signals into a domain where most energy is concentrated in a few large coefficients, while the majority of coefficients are small and can be discarded or quantized for compression. This sparsity arises from the localized nature of wavelet bases, which align well with the discontinuities and smooth variations typical in natural signals. Thresholding techniques set coefficients below a certain magnitude to zero, yielding a sparse approximation that retains essential signal features with minimal loss. The energy compaction property ensures that a small number of coefficients capture a large portion of the signal's total energy, facilitating high compression ratios without significant perceptual degradation. For instance, the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) decomposes a signal into approximation and detail coefficients across multiple scales, concentrating energy in the lowest-frequency subbands. A key mathematical foundation for this sparsity is the rapid decay of wavelet coefficients for smooth signals. For a function f with smoothness index s (i.e., f \in C^s) and a wavelet \psi with at least s vanishing moments, the wavelet coefficients d_{j,k} = \langle f, \psi_{j,k} \rangle at scale j (where finer scales have larger j) satisfy

|d_{j,k}| \leq C \, 2^{-j(s + 1/2)},

for some constant C > 0 independent of j and k. This exponential decay implies that higher-scale (finer) coefficients become negligible, allowing effective truncation and quantization in the wavelet domain. Such decay rates underpin the superiority of wavelet representations over Fourier-based methods for signals with localized features. In image compression, wavelets form the core of the JPEG 2000 standard, which employs the Cohen-Daubechies-Feauveau (CDF) 9/7 biorthogonal wavelet for lossy compression and the 5/3 variant for lossless modes. These Daubechies-derived filters provide near-optimal energy compaction and smoothness, enabling compression ratios up to 200:1 for typical images while supporting scalable bitstreams. The standard builds on embedded coding algorithms like Embedded Zerotree Wavelet (EZW), introduced by Shapiro in 1993, which exploits inter-scale dependencies in wavelet coefficients to form zerotrees for progressive bit-rate control, and the Set Partitioning in Hierarchical Trees (SPIHT) algorithm by Said and Pearlman in 1996, which refines EZW for better efficiency through sorted significance maps. Daubechies wavelets' compact support and orthogonality contribute to their adoption in these standards, ensuring invertible transforms with minimal boundary artifacts. The multiresolution framework of wavelets also supports progressive transmission, where a coarse signal approximation is sent first, followed by detail refinements, allowing users to view low-resolution versions immediately while downloading higher fidelity. This is particularly useful in bandwidth-constrained environments, as the pyramid structure of DWT coefficients enables layered encoding. A notable application is the FBI's Wavelet Scalar Quantization (WSQ) standard for fingerprint compression, which uses a symmetric biorthogonal wavelet (CDF 5/3-like) to achieve 15:1 compression ratios on 500 ppi grayscale images, reducing storage needs for vast databases while preserving ridge details critical for identification. WSQ quantizes subband coefficients post-DWT, leveraging the sparsity for efficient Huffman coding.^[44]

Denoising and Noise Reduction

Wavelet denoising leverages the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) to decompose a noisy signal into wavelet coefficients, where noise tends to concentrate in smaller coefficients, allowing selective suppression while retaining significant features of the original signal.^[45] This approach exploits the sparsity of wavelet representations for clean signals, as established in early foundational work on thresholding estimators.^[45] A primary technique involves hard thresholding, which sets coefficients below a threshold λ to zero and retains others unchanged, and soft thresholding, which subtracts λ from the absolute value of coefficients exceeding λ and preserves the sign. Soft thresholding is preferred for its continuity and bias reduction properties, minimizing mean squared error (MSE) under Gaussian noise assumptions.^[45] The thresholding rule for soft shrinkage is given by:

\hat{d}_{j,k} = \operatorname{sign}(d_{j,k}) \left( |d_{j,k}| - \lambda \right)_+

where d_{j,k} are the noisy coefficients, \hat{d}_{j,k} are the denoised coefficients, and (x)_+ = \max(0, x).^[45] To estimate the noise standard deviation σ, a robust median absolute deviation method is applied to the finest-scale detail coefficients: \hat{\sigma} = \operatorname{median}(|d_{J,k}|) / 0.6745.^[46] The Donoho-Johnstone universal threshold, λ = σ √(2 log N), provides a data-driven global value that ensures asymptotic near-optimality in MSE for white Gaussian noise, where N is the signal length, effectively vanishing the risk as N increases.^[45] This threshold balances over-smoothing and under-denoising, with theoretical guarantees that the MSE approaches the ideal oracle risk.^[45] Nonlinear shrinkage via thresholding preserves sharp signal transitions, such as edges, unlike linear filters that blur features.^[45] To address the translation variance of the standard DWT, which can cause artifacts like Gibbs phenomena in denoised signals, the undecimated (or stationary) wavelet transform is employed, computing coefficients without downsampling for shift-invariance.^[47] This translation-invariant approach, often implemented via cycle-spinning—averaging denoised versions over circular shifts—yields smoother reconstructions with reduced artifacts, at the cost of higher computational complexity O(N log N).^[47] For adaptive thresholding, the BayesShrink method estimates subband-specific thresholds assuming wavelet coefficients follow a generalized Gaussian distribution, deriving λ_j = σ_j / σ_{s,j} to minimize Bayesian MSE risk, where σ_j is the noise level and σ_{s,j} the signal standard deviation in subband j.^[46] This spatially adaptive technique outperforms universal thresholding in experiments, achieving MSE reductions of up to 5% on standard test images compared to soft-thresholding benchmarks.^[46] In biomedical applications, wavelet denoising effectively cleans electrocardiogram (ECG) signals by suppressing baseline wander and muscle artifacts while preserving QRS complexes, as demonstrated in studies using Daubechies wavelets with soft thresholding.^[48] Similarly, for electroencephalogram (EEG) signals, it removes ocular and electromyographic noise, enhancing event-related potential detection with minimal distortion to brainwave morphologies.^[49] These methods have been validated to improve signal-to-noise ratios by 10-20 dB in clinical datasets.^[50]

Machine Learning and AI Integration

Wavelet scattering networks, introduced by Stéphane Mallat in 2012, represent a key integration of wavelet transforms into machine learning frameworks, providing translation-invariant feature representations that are stable to deformations while preserving high-frequency information for classification tasks.^[51] These networks compute features through a cascade of wavelet convolutions and modulus nonlinearities, enabling effective handling of signals without requiring extensive training data. The simplified scattering transform can be expressed as:

W(x) = |x * \psi_\lambda| * \psi_\mu

where x is the input signal, \psi_\lambda and \psi_\mu are wavelet filters at scales \lambda and \mu, * denotes convolution, and |\cdot| applies the modulus operation.^[51] In the 2020s, wavelet scattering networks have been extended for diverse AI applications, including retinal abnormality classification from optical coherence tomography images, achieving robust diagnosis by overcoming limitations in translation invariance.^[52] These developments leverage the networks' stability for unsupervised feature extraction in medical imaging and time-series analysis, with implementations showing improved performance in low-data regimes compared to traditional convolutional neural networks.^[53] Wavelet kernels have been incorporated into support vector machines (SVMs) to enhance nonlinear classification of signals, where the kernel function, derived from multidimensional wavelets, approximates arbitrary functions while promoting sparsity in the feature space.^[54] This approach, formalized in early 2000s work, continues to influence hybrid models, such as wavelet kernel SVMs for hourly water level forecasting, demonstrating superior generalization over standard RBF kernels in time-series data.^[55] A 2023 systematic review of 112 studies from 2013 to 2023 highlights the widespread adoption of wavelet-AI integrations in healthcare, particularly for ECG classification, where wavelet decompositions preprocess signals to extract multiscale features for arrhythmia detection with accuracies often exceeding 95%.^[41] For instance, wavelet-based preprocessing in ECG analysis enables AI models to identify subtle morphological patterns, improving diagnostic reliability in clinical settings.^[41] Wavelet convolutional neural networks (CNNs) further advance feature extraction by embedding wavelet transforms directly into CNN architectures, allowing multiresolution analysis that captures both local and global signal characteristics for tasks like ECG signal classification. These models decompose inputs into frequency subbands before convolution, reducing computational overhead while enhancing invariance to shifts, as demonstrated in hybrid wavelet-CNN frameworks achieving high accuracy in biomedical signal processing.^[56] Hybrid wavelet models for time-series forecasting combine wavelet decomposition with deep learning components, such as LSTM or XGBoost, to handle non-stationarity by isolating trends and noise across scales, yielding improved prediction metrics like reduced RMSE in financial and environmental data.^[57] For example, wavelet-LSTM hybrids preprocess series via multiresolution analysis, boosting forecasting accuracy by up to 26% in monthly streamflow predictions compared to standalone neural networks.^[58] Wavelets promote sparsity in deep learning by providing sparse representations that align with the compressive nature of neural activations, facilitating efficient training and inference in inverse problems where traditional methods falter.^[59] This synergy has led to wavelet-enhanced deep networks that outperform dense models in resource-constrained scenarios, such as unsupervised monitoring of high-frequency signals, by enforcing structured sparsity through learnable wavelet bases.^[60]

Environmental and Climate Analysis

Wavelet transforms have been widely applied in environmental and climate analysis for detecting trends in non-stationary time series, such as temperature and precipitation records, by decomposing signals into time-frequency components that reveal localized changes over multiple scales.^[61] This approach outperforms traditional methods like the Mann-Kendall test by isolating low-frequency trends from high-frequency noise, enabling the identification of abrupt shifts in climate variables, as demonstrated in analyses of long-term surface air temperature data from 1950 to 2020.^[62] For instance, discrete wavelet transform (DWT) has been used to detect increasing precipitation trends in hydrological records spanning decades, providing robust estimates of climate variability in regions like Iran.^[63] In multiscale network analyses, wavelets facilitate the examination of correlations across spatial and temporal scales in climate data, with extensions from 2017 to 2025 incorporating dynamic wavelet local multiple correlation to uncover evolving relationships in multivariate time series.^[64] These networks model teleconnections, such as those linking large-scale climate modes to regional droughts, using wavelet variants to quantify multifractal properties and intermittency in extreme events.^[65] Wavelet coherence, a key tool in this domain, has been employed for forecasting air and water pollutants by assessing time-varying correlations between pollutant concentrations and meteorological factors; for example, it reveals strong coherence between PM2.5 levels and wind speed at intra-annual scales, improving prediction accuracy in urban environments.^[66] Recent 2025 studies further apply wavelet analysis to extract diel fluctuations in streamflow records induced by evapotranspiration, isolating 24-hour cycles to quantify groundwater-surface water interactions in humid catchments.^[67] Hybrid wavelet models integrate decomposition techniques with machine learning for enhanced pollution prediction, such as combining DWT with long short-term memory networks to forecast NO2 concentrations in Beijing, achieving up to 20% lower mean absolute errors than standalone models.^[68] These developments extend to El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) teleconnections, where wavelet coherence identifies phase-locked relationships between ENSO indices and precipitation anomalies, revealing strengthened influences during extreme events from 1981 to 2016.^[69] For quantifying phase differences in such correlations, the wavelet cross-spectrum is defined as

W_{XY}(s, \tau) = W_X(s, \tau) W_Y^*(s, \tau),

where W_X and W_Y are the continuous wavelet transforms of signals X and Y, s is the scale, \tau is time, and ^* denotes complex conjugate; the phase difference \phi_{XY}(s, \tau) = \arg(W_{XY}(s, \tau)) indicates lead-lag dynamics, as applied in analyses of ENSO impacts on flood-drought indices.^[70] This metric has proven essential in post-2020 studies of climate teleconnections, highlighting evolving phase alignments under global warming scenarios.^[71]

List of Wavelets

Discrete Wavelets

The Haar wavelet represents the simplest orthogonal discrete wavelet family, introduced by Alfred Haar in his 1910 work on orthogonal function systems.^[72] It features a scaling function that is a characteristic function on [0,1) and a wavelet that is a step function differing by a sign change at the midpoint, providing a support length of 1 and no vanishing moments beyond the basic orthogonality.^[72] Due to its piecewise constant nature, the Haar wavelet exhibits low regularity (discontinuous) but excels in computational simplicity for applications requiring fast transforms.^[8] Daubechies wavelets, denoted as DbN where N indicates the number of vanishing moments, form a family of compactly supported orthogonal wavelets constructed by Ingrid Daubechies in 1988.^[15] These wavelets satisfy N vanishing moments for the wavelet function and N-1 for the scaling function, enabling exact representation of polynomials up to degree N-1, with support length of 2N-1 for the scaling function and 2N for the wavelet.^[15] Their regularity increases approximately linearly with N, belonging to the Hölder space C^{α_N} where α_2 ≈ 0.55 and α_{10} ≈ 1.09, making higher-order DbN suitable for smoother signal approximations.^[15] The construction relies on designing minimal-phase low-pass filters that maximize regularity under orthogonality constraints, often solved via spectral factorization.^[15] A specific example is the Db2 wavelet (4-tap filter), with low-pass scaling coefficients given by:

h_2(0) = \frac{1 + \sqrt{3}}{4\sqrt{2}}, \quad h_2(1) = \frac{3 + \sqrt{3}}{4\sqrt{2}}, \quad h_2(2) = \frac{3 - \sqrt{3}}{4\sqrt{2}}, \quad h_2(3) = \frac{1 - \sqrt{3}}{4\sqrt{2}}

or numerically as approximately 0.483, 0.837, 0.224, and -0.129, respectively.^[15] The corresponding high-pass coefficients are obtained via alternation: g_k(n) = (-1)^n h_k(1-n).^[15] Symlets, or symmetric Daubechies wavelets, are a modification of the Daubechies family proposed by Ingrid Daubechies to achieve near-symmetry while preserving orthogonality and compact support.^[73] Denoted as SymN, they maintain N vanishing moments and similar support lengths to DbN (2N-1 for scaling), but with adjusted filter coefficients that shift the wavelet's mass toward the center, improving symmetry without exact linear-phase properties.^[73] This design enhances phase linearity for applications sensitive to asymmetry, with regularity comparable to Daubechies wavelets of the same order.^[73] Coiflets, another orthogonal family developed by Ingrid Daubechies in 1992 at the request of Ronald Coifman, emphasize symmetry by imposing vanishing moments on both the wavelet (2N) and scaling function (N). Named CoifN, they feature support lengths of 6N-1 for both functions, achieving near-symmetry superior to Daubechies in some measures, with regularity increasing with N (e.g., Coif1 has support [0,5] and basic symmetry). This dual-moment property allows better approximation of smooth functions near singularities, constructed via relaxed orthogonality conditions on the scaling filter.^[74] Biorthogonal spline wavelets provide non-orthogonal bases using dual scaling functions, as introduced by Cohen, Daubechies, and Feauveau in 1992, often based on B-spline interpolators for exact reconstruction.^[75] Denoted as B-spline or CDF (Cohen-Daubechies-Feauveau) wavelets, such as the popular 9/7 filter (bior4.4 with 4 vanishing moments for analysis and 4 for synthesis), they offer compact support (e.g., length 9 for low-pass analysis) and higher regularity than orthogonal counterparts of similar length, at the cost of non-orthogonality.^[75] These splines enable symmetric filters with linear phase, ideal for perfect reconstruction in compression, constructed by choosing primal and dual filters satisfying biorthogonality conditions.^[75] Many discrete wavelet families, including Daubechies, Symlets, Coiflets, and biorthogonal splines, can be efficiently constructed and implemented using the lifting scheme, developed by Wim Sweldens in 1996, which factorizes the polyphase matrix into predict-update steps for in-place computation and custom designs on irregular domains.^[76] This scheme reduces computational complexity to O(N) per level while preserving perfect reconstruction.^[76]

Continuous Wavelets

Continuous wavelets are mother wavelets that generate families through continuous dilations and translations, providing a flexible basis for analyzing signals in theoretical frameworks and analog processing systems.^[77]

Real-Valued Continuous Wavelets

Real-valued continuous wavelets lack inherent phase information but are effective for detecting features like peaks or discontinuities in signals. The Mexican hat wavelet, equivalent to the second-order derivative of a Gaussian (DOG2), is defined in the time domain as

\psi(t) = (-1)^2 \frac{d^2}{dt^2} e^{-t^2/2} = (t^2 - 1) e^{-t^2/2},

normalized by $1 / \sqrt{\Gamma(5/2) \cdot 2^2} for unit energy.^[78] Its Fourier transform is

\hat{\psi}(\omega) = (i \omega)^2 e^{-\omega^2/2} / \sqrt{\Gamma(5/2) \cdot 2^2} = -\omega^2 e^{-\omega^2/2} / \sqrt{3 \cdot 4},

exhibiting quadratic growth near zero frequency followed by Gaussian decay, which ensures admissibility.^[78] Known as the Ricker wavelet in geophysics, it models zero-phase seismic responses and is used to generate synthetic seismograms due to its symmetric shape and band-pass characteristics. The real part of the Morlet wavelet serves as a real-valued approximation for oscillatory signal analysis, given by

\text{Re}[\psi(t)] = \pi^{-1/4} \cos(\omega_0 t) e^{-t^2/2},

with central frequency \omega_0 = 6 to approximate analyticity while satisfying admissibility.^[78] This form provides balanced time and frequency localization, similar to the full complex version but without phase extraction capabilities.

Complex-Valued Continuous Wavelets

Complex-valued continuous wavelets are analytic, with Fourier transforms supported only on positive frequencies (\hat{\psi}(\omega) = 0 for \omega < 0), enabling extraction of instantaneous amplitude and phase for applications like the Hilbert spectrum in non-stationary signal analysis.^[79] They satisfy the admissibility condition C_\psi = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \frac{|\hat{\psi}(\omega)|^2}{|\omega|} d\omega < \infty and exhibit rapid Fourier decay for high regularity.^[77] The Morlet wavelet, a complex plane wave modulated by a Gaussian, is defined as

\psi(t) = \pi^{-1/4} e^{i \omega_0 t} e^{-t^2/2},

with \omega_0 = 6 ensuring \hat{\psi}(0) = 0 and C_\psi \approx 0.781.^[78] Its Fourier transform is approximately

\hat{\psi}(\omega) = \pi^{-1/4} e^{-(\omega - \omega_0)^2 / 2} H(\omega),

where H(\omega) is the Heaviside function, providing excellent frequency resolution for oscillatory components.^[78] The Paul wavelet, designed for strong time localization, has time-domain form (for order m=4)

\psi(t) = \left( \frac{2^m m!}{\sqrt{\pi} (2m-1)!} \right)^{1/2} \frac{t^m}{(1 + i t)^{m+1}},

and Fourier transform

\hat{\psi}(\omega) = \sqrt{ \frac{2^m m!}{(2m)!} } (i \omega)^m e^{-\omega} H(\omega),

with C_\psi \approx 1.096 for m=4, offering faster decay than the Morlet in time domain.^[78] The Bump wavelet is an infinitely differentiable analytic function with compact frequency support, defined via its Fourier transform as

\hat{\psi}(\omega) = c \, g\left( \frac{\omega - \xi}{\xi} \right) H(\omega),

where g(u) = \exp\left( -\frac{|u|^2}{1 - |u|^2} \right) \mathbf{1}_{(-1,1)}(u) is a smooth bump window, \xi > 0 is the mean frequency (e.g., \xi = 0.85\pi), and c normalizes to unit energy; its time domain decays faster than any polynomial.^[80] This structure ensures infinite vanishing moments and sparsity in representing piecewise smooth signals.^[80]

References

[1]
[PDF] An Introduction to Wavelets
ABSTRACT. Wavelets are mathematical functions that cut up data into different frequency com- ponents, and then study each component with a resolution ...
[2]
[PDF] Basics of Wavelets
Definition: The operator defined by. T. T0 œ TР@ @ С œ @. ¼ is the onto ... Dyadic wavelet transform: a variation on continuous wavelet transform. Now ...
[3]
[PDF] WAVELETS FOR KIDS
Large and noisy data sets can be easily and quickly transformed by the discrete wavelet transform (the counterpart of the discrete Fourier transform). The data ...
[4]
How Wavelets Let Researchers Transform and Understand Data
Oct 24, 2021 · Research on wavelets evolved quickly. The French mathematician Yves Meyer, a professor at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, was waiting ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[5]
Decomposition of Hardy Functions into Square Integrable Wavelets ...
Decomposition of Hardy Functions into Square Integrable Wavelets of Constant Shape. Authors: A. Grossmann and J. MorletAuthors Info & Affiliations. https ...
[6]
'Wavelet revolution' pioneer scoops top maths award - Nature
Mar 23, 2017 · Wavelets are an extension of the mathematical toolkit of Fourier analysis, named after Joseph Fourier, who initiated the field in the 1800s.
[7]
The Haar wavelet transform: its status and achievements
Haar functions have been used from 1910 when they were introduced by the Hungarian mathematician Alfred Haar [26]. The Haar transform is one of the earliest ...
[8]
Yves Meyer, Wavelet Expert, Wins Abel Prize - Quanta Magazine
Mar 21, 2017 · Meyer and a colleague later developed a theory that “allowed one to systematically create wavelet bases and wavelet transforms that were ...
[9]
THE FORM AND NATURE OF SEISMIC WAVES AND ... - SEG Library
Oct 1940. Norman Ricker, (1940), "THE FORM AND NATURE OF SEISMIC WAVES AND THE STRUCTURE OF SEISMOGRAMS," GEOPHYSICS 5: 348-366.
[10]
[PDF] Wavelets - Caltech Multi-Res Modeling Group
There we will show why the vanishing moment property of wavelets results in ... We begin with the definition of vanishing moments. A function is said ...
[11]
[PDF] 1 Basics of Wavelets
The regularity. (smoothness) of wavelets is connected with the rate of decay of scaling functions and ultimately with the number of vanishing moments of scaling ...Missing: mathematical integrability
[12]
[PDF] Wavelet theory demystified
It is responsible for a number of key wavelet properties such as order of approximation, vanishing moments, reproduction of polynomials, and smoothness of the.
[13]
[PDF] THE CONTINUOUS WAVELET TRANSFORM: A TOOL FOR SIGNAL ...
In this article, the continuous wavelet transform is introduced as a signal processing tool for investigating time-varying frequency spectrum ...
[14]
[PDF] Orthonormal bases of compactly supported wavelets
We construct orthonormal bases of compactly supported wavelets, with arbitrarily high regular- ity. The order of regularity increases linearly with the support ...
[15]
[PDF] A Theory for Multiresolution Signal Decomposition: The Wavelet ...
Depending upon choice of H( w), the scaling function 4(x) and the wavelet $(x) can have good localization both in the spatial and Fourier domains. Daubechies [9] ...
[16]
[PDF] Decomposition-of-Hardy-Functions-into-Square-Integrable-Wavelets ...
Re( ZUh) =ZU(Reh). 3. The e.transform: arbitrary admissible wavelet. 3.1. Admissible analyzing wavelet. ... T=euv. Page 10. 732. A. GROSSMAN AND 1. MORLET. 3.8.
[17]
[PDF] 9 Introduction to Wavelets
0 otherwise. The Haar mother wavelet function is defined as ψ(x) =... 1 if 0 ≤ x < 1. 2. −1 if 1. 2 ≤ x < 1. 0 otherwise. The Haar daughter ...
[18]
[PDF] A Wavelet Tour of Signal Processing
Oct 9, 2008 · 4 To avoid the time-frequency resolution limitations of a windowed Fourier transform, we want to adapt the window size to the signal content ...
[19]
[PDF] arXiv:1103.0409v2 [math.FA] 19 Nov 2015
Nov 19, 2015 · Abstract. The short-time Fourier transform (STFT) is a time- frequency representation widely used in applications, for example.
[20]
Uncertainty principles for the short-time Fourier transform on the lattice
Apr 12, 2022 · Also, we obtain the Heisenberg-type uncertainty inequality using the k-entropy of the short-time Fourier transform on \mathbb Z^n \times \mathbb ...
[21]
[PDF] Linear and quadratic time-frequency signal representations
We review two motivations for quadratic TFRs, based on energy densities and correlation functions, and com- ment on the occurrence of quadratic cross terms. ...
[22]
Discrete Wavelet Transform - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is defined as a transformation that calculates a subset of possible scales, typically dyadic values, and is executed ...
[23]
[PDF] Wavelet Transforms in theTMS320C55x - Texas Instruments
B.3 Wavelet and Perfect Reconstruction Filter Bank. Decomposition coefficients in a wavelet orthogonal basis are computed with a fast algorithm that cascades ...
[24]
[2510.05834] Time-causal and time-recursive wavelets - arXiv
Oct 7, 2025 · This paper describes how a time-causal wavelet analysis can be performed based on concepts developed in the area of temporal scale-space theory, ...Missing: filters 2023
[25]
[2102.04453] Certain properties of continuous fractional wavelet ...
Feb 6, 2021 · In this paper we define a new class of continuous fractional wavelet transform (CFrWT) and study its properties in Hardy space and Morrey space.
[26]
Novel fractional wavelet transform: Principles, MRA and application
Nonstationary signals are widely used in radar, communication, navigation and other fields, time-frequency (TF) analysis is a powerful tool for analyzing and ...
[27]
A novel fractional wavelet transform and its applications
The novel fractional wavelet transform (FRWT) rectifies limitations of WT and FRFT, offering signal representations in the time-fractional-frequency plane.
[28]
An optimization synchrosqueezed fractional wavelet transform for ...
To enhance the resolution of synchrosqueezing transform (SST) in non-stationary signal representation, an optimization synchrosqueezed fractional wavelet ...
[29]
[PDF] The Dual-Tree Complex Wavelet Transform
As with the Fourier transform, complex wavelets can be used to analyze and represent both real- valued signals (resulting in symmetries in the coefficients) and ...
[30]
[PDF] Introduction to Shearlets - Department of Mathematics
Shearlets are a framework for efficient multidimensional data representation, offering sparse representations, compactly supported functions, and fast ...
[31]
Compactly supported shearlets are optimally sparse - ScienceDirect
In this paper, we present the first complete proof of optimally sparse approximations of cartoon-like images by using a particular class of directional ...Missing: complex | Show results with:complex
[32]
A hybrid wavelet and ridgelet approach for efficient edge ...
Aug 6, 2025 · In this paper we propose a hybrid approach that combines both ridgelets and wavelets for a more efficient representation of 2D images with edges ...
[33]
Ridgelets: a key to higher-dimensional intermittency? - Journals
The paper reviews recent work on the continuous ridgelet transform (CRT), ridgelet frames, ridgelet orthonormal bases, ridgelets and edges and describes a new ...
[34]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224750802_A_hybrid_wavelet_and_ridgelet_approach_for_efficient_edge_representation_in_natural_images
[35]
Polar Linear Canonical Wavelet Transform: Theory and Its Application
The polar wavelet transform (PWT) has been proven to be a powerful mathematical tool for signal and image processing in recent years.
[36]
[PDF] Offset linear canonical wavelet transforms
Abstract. This study extends the one-dimensional offset linear canonical transform (OLCT) ton-dimensional. OLCT and establishes a significant connection ...
[37]
(PDF) The Haar wavelet transform: Its status and achievements
Aug 5, 2025 · Haar functions have been used from 1910 when they were introduced by the Hungarian. mathematician Alfred Haar [26]. The Haar transform is one ...
[38]
[PDF] Image Compression - the Mathematics of JPEG 2000 - Microsoft
We first present a historical overview of the development of JPEG 2000. In the early 1990s, a number of new image compression algorithms, such as CREW ( ...
[39]
[PDF] Curvelets, Multiresolution Representation, and Scaling Laws
Curvelets provide a new multiresolution representation with several features that set them apart from existing representations such as wavelets, multiwavelets, ...
[40]
Application of Wavelet Transformation and Artificial Intelligence ...
Mar 28, 2025 · Key findings indicate a shift from traditional machine learning to deep learning approaches after 2020, with emerging trends in hybrid ...
[41]
A time-causal and time-recursive scale-covariant scale-space ...
Jan 23, 2023 · This article presents an overview of a theory for performing temporal smoothing on temporal signals in such a way that:
[42]
A New Wavelet Transform and Its Localization Operators - MDPI
In the present paper we define and study a new wavelet transformation associated to the linear canonical Dunkl transform (LCDT), which has been widely used ...
[43]
[PDF] The FBI compression standard for digitized fingerprint images
The FBI standard uses a wavelet/scalar quantization method for lossy compression, achieving 15:1 compression ratios, and a universal decoder.
[44]
[PDF] DE-NOISING BY SOFT-THRESHOLDING - Stanford University
Soft-thresholding de-noising involves applying a soft threshold to wavelet coefficients, aiming to optimize mean-squared error while ensuring the ...
[45]
Adaptive wavelet thresholding for image denoising and compression
Experimental results show that the proposed method, called BayesShrink, is typically within 5% of the MSE of the best soft-thresholding benchmark with the image ...Missing: original | Show results with:original
[46]
[PDF] Translation-Invariant De-Noising
De-Noising with the traditional (orthogonal, maximally-decimated) wavelet transform sometimes exhibits visual artifacts; we attribute some of these – for ex ...Missing: DWT | Show results with:DWT
[47]
An efficient ECG signals denoising technique based on the ... - NIH
Feb 14, 2024 · This paper introduces a technique that combines particle swarm optimisation (PSO) with WT for ECG signal denoising.
[48]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10918013/
[49]
Denoising of EEG, ECG and PPG signals using wavelet transform
Aug 10, 2025 · In this manuscript a Multi-scale wavelet based noise removal algorithm is proposed for processing EEG, ECG and PPG signals. And it is shown that ...
[50]
[1203.1513] Invariant Scattering Convolution Networks - arXiv
Mar 5, 2012 · A wavelet scattering network computes a translation invariant image representation, which is stable to deformations and preserves high frequency information ...
[51]
Wavelet scattering transform application in classification of retinal ...
Nov 3, 2023 · In this paper, we implemented the wavelet scattering network to diagnose retinal abnormalities using OCT images. This transformation overcomes ...
[52]
Wavelet scattering networks for atomistic systems with extrapolation ...
The atomic orbital wavelet scattering transform preserves these symmetries by construction and has achieved great success as a featurization method for machine ...INTRODUCTION · Linear regression and model... · Atomic orbital wavelet scattering<|separator|>
[53]
https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jcp/article/153/8/084109/1061779/Wavelet-scattering-networks-for-atomistic-systems
[54]
Wavelet kernel support vector machines forecasting techniques
This paper presents a novel algorithm, wavelet support vector machines (wavelet SVMs), for forecasting the hourly water levels at gauging stations.
[55]
A novel wavelet decomposition and transformation convolutional ...
Apr 8, 2022 · For instance, the wavelet decomposition function has been used for image feature extraction in CNNs due to its strong compactness. Additionally, ...<|separator|>
[56]
Hybrid wavelet-neural network models for time series - ScienceDirect
The study bridges the gap between hybrid models using MRA and hybrid models with WNN. MRA improves the results of LSTM for financial time series.
[57]
Investigating the Accuracy of Hybrid Models with Wavelet Transform ...
Jun 5, 2023 · The results demonstrated that hybrid models with wavelet improved the ANN model's daily accuracy by 4% and its monthly accuracy by 26%.
[58]
Wavelets in the Deep Learning Era - IEEE Xplore
Sparsity based methods, such as wavelets, have been state-of-the-art for more than 20 years for inverse problems before being overtaken by neural networks.
[59]
Fully learnable deep wavelet transform for unsupervised monitoring ...
In this paper, we propose a fully unsupervised deep-learning framework that is able to extract a meaningful and sparse representation of raw HF signals. We ...
[60]
Climate Signal Detection Using Wavelet Transform: How to Make a ...
In this paper, the application of the wavelet transform (WT) to climate time series analyses is introduced.
[61]
Using wavelet transforms to estimate surface temperature trends ...
In this paper, the discrete wavelet transform (DWT), the Mann–Kendall (MK) trend test, and the sequential Mann–Kendall test are applied to temperature ...
[62]
Trend analysis using discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for long-term ...
Wavelet transform is a very useful tool for the decomposition of time series into a small number of elementary series that are based on both time and frequency.
[63]
Dynamic wavelet correlation analysis for multivariate climate time ...
Dec 4, 2020 · The wavelet local multiple correlation (WLMC) is introduced for the first time in the study of climate dynamics inferred from multivariate climate time series.
[64]
Multifractality of climate networks - NPG - Copernicus.org
May 15, 2025 · Multifractals have been developed to analyze and simulate intermittency across scales, while climate networks can detect and characterize extreme-event ...
[65]
Wavelet Transform-based Scaling Response of PM2.5 with ...
Oct 7, 2025 · Meanwhile, the coherence increased with an increasing number of meteorological factors. The other air pollutants had higher abilities to explain ...
[66]
Application of wavelet transform for extracting and analysing ...
Jun 5, 2025 · In this paper, the signal analysis technique of the wavelet transform is applied to the streamflow time series to extract and analyse diel fluctuations.
[67]
Air pollution concentration forecasting based on wavelet transform ...
In this paper, a combined weight forecasting model (CWFM) for NO 2 concentration in Beijing is constructed based on three single prediction models.
[68]
Wavelet coherence between ENSO indices and two precipitation ...
Wavelet coherence analysis is performed for monthly precipitation time series and ENSO indices from 1981-2016. Results show that ENSO events influence ...
[69]
Wavelets in the analysis of local time series of the Earth's surface air
Jan 15, 2024 · The detected phase information is a measure of the phase difference between the corresponding frequency components in each signal [27]. The ...
[70]
Multiscale variability of China's historical flood/drought index and ...
Jul 1, 2022 · Multiscale variability of China's historical flood/drought index and precipitation teleconnections with ENSO using wavelet analyses. Original ...
[71]
[PDF] Historical Development in Haar Wavelets and Their Application
First time the wavelets appeared in the thesis of Hungarian mathematician Alfred Haar [1] in 1909. The Haar wavelet is piecewise constant function and main ...
[72]
[PDF] Adjusted Haar Wavelet for Application in the Power Systems ... - arXiv
The wavelet method estimates the time-instants of the changes in the signal model parameters during the pre-fault condition, after initiation of fault, after ...
[73]
Ten Lectures on Wavelets | SIAM Publications Library
This monograph contains 10 lectures presented by Dr. Daubechies as the principal speaker at the 1990 CBMS-NSF Conference on Wavelets and Applications.
[74]
[PDF] Biorthogonal bases of compactly supported wavelets
In particular we can construct symmetric biorthogonal wavelet bases with arbitrarily high preassigned regularity; we also show how to construct symmetric ...
[75]
The Lifting Scheme: A Custom-Design Construction of Biorthogonal ...
We present the lifting scheme, a new idea for constructing compactly supported wavelets with compactly supported duals.
[76]
Continuous Wavelet Transform
The continuous wavelet transform uses a signal basis set, with a scale parameter (s) and a mother wavelet (f(t)), and is often displayed as a scalogram.
[77]
[PDF] A Practical Guide to Wavelet Analysis - NOAA
Wavelet analysis analyzes localized power variations in time series by decomposing them into time-frequency space, determining dominant modes of variability.
[78]
Hilbert Transform from Wavelet Analysis to Extract the Envelope of ...
It is used in the continuous wavelet transform providing complex coefficients, which allows us to obtain the Hilbert transform. The Morlet wavelet and its ...
[79]
[PDF] arXiv:1810.12136v2 [eess.SP] 29 Jun 2019
Jun 29, 2019 · Sections 3.1 and 3.2 review the properties of complex analytic wavelet transforms and introduce a new bump wavelet for numerical calculations.