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Wind speed

Wind speed is the magnitude of the horizontal velocity of air relative to the Earth's surface, defined as the ratio of the distance covered by the air to the time taken to cover it.^[1] In meteorology, it specifically refers to the rate of air motion, excluding vertical components, and is a key indicator of atmospheric circulation driven by pressure gradients.^[2] Typically measured at a standard height of 10 meters above ground or sea level to ensure consistency across observations, wind speed influences weather patterns, such as storm development and precipitation distribution.^[3] Wind speed is commonly quantified using instruments like cup anemometers, which consist of three or four hemispherical cups mounted on a vertical axis to capture rotational speed proportional to air flow.^[4] Measurements are often averaged over a 10-minute period for sustained wind, while gusts represent the maximum three-second average during that interval.^[5] Common units include meters per second (m/s) in the International System, miles per hour (mph) in the United States, kilometers per hour (km/h) internationally, and knots (nautical miles per hour) in aviation and maritime contexts.^[4] The Beaufort scale, developed in 1805 and refined over time, provides a standardized method to estimate wind speed based on observable effects on land or sea, ranging from force 0 (calm, <1 knot) to force 12 (hurricane, >64 knots).^[6] Accurate wind speed data is essential for aviation safety, as variations can affect takeoff, landing, and en-route stability, potentially leading to hazards like wind shear.^[7] In renewable energy, wind speed determines turbine efficiency and site viability, with optimal generation typically occurring between 3 and 25 m/s.^[8]

Definition and Classification

Definition

Wind speed is defined as the rate of horizontal air movement relative to the Earth's surface, representing the magnitude of the vector quantity known as wind, which also includes direction.^[2] It is typically expressed in units such as meters per second (m/s) or miles per hour (mph).^[9] Meteorologists distinguish between sustained wind speed, which is the average speed over a period of 1 to 10 minutes (with the World Meteorological Organization standard being 10 minutes), and gust speed, defined as the maximum average speed over a 3-second interval.^[10] Wind speed is typically measured at a standard height of 10 meters above the surface to ensure consistency. Physical principles underlying wind speed involve the pressure gradient force, which drives air from high to low pressure regions, balanced in the free atmosphere by the Coriolis effect and modified near the surface by friction.^[2] The geostrophic wind speed, an approximation for large-scale flow above the boundary layer, is given by

v_g = \frac{1}{f \rho} \frac{\partial p}{\partial n}

where v_g is the geostrophic wind speed, f = 2 \Omega \sin \phi is the Coriolis parameter (\Omega is Earth's angular velocity and \phi is latitude), \rho is air density, and \frac{\partial p}{\partial n} is the pressure gradient perpendicular to the isobars.^[11] Wind speed exhibits variability due to turbulence, which causes random fluctuations in velocity, and shear, which refers to changes in speed across space, particularly with height.^[12] In the planetary boundary layer, wind speed typically increases with height as surface friction diminishes, following a logarithmic profile in neutral conditions.^[13]

Classification Scales

Wind speed classification scales have evolved from early qualitative assessments based on visual observations to more precise quantitative frameworks that incorporate measured speeds and environmental impacts. Initially developed for maritime navigation in the early 19th century, these scales provided descriptive categories to standardize reporting without relying on instruments. Over time, revisions incorporated land-based effects and extended ranges for severe weather.^[6] The Beaufort scale, devised by Irish hydrographer Sir Francis Beaufort in 1805, was originally intended for naval officers to estimate wind force at sea through observable effects on sails and waves, without anemometers. It was formally adopted by the British Admiralty in 1838 and extended to land observations in 1916 by the International Meteorological Committee. A uniform set of equivalents was accepted in 1926 and revised slightly in 1946, extending the scale to include higher categories for extreme conditions. The scale comprises 13 levels (0–12), each defined by characteristic sea states or land phenomena, with corresponding wind speed ranges calibrated for 10-minute averages at 10 meters above the surface. These speeds are expressed in knots (international nautical miles per hour), miles per hour (mph), and kilometers per hour (km/h), as standardized by the U.S. National Weather Service. Below is a summary table of the Beaufort scale:

Beaufort Number	Description (Sea/Land Effects)	Wind Speed (knots)	Wind Speed (mph)	Wind Speed (km/h)
0	Calm: Sea like a mirror; smoke rises vertically	<1	<1	<1
1	Light air: Ripples without crests; smoke shows wind direction	1–3	1–3	1–5
2	Light breeze: Small wavelets; leaves rustle	4–6	4–7	6–11
3	Gentle breeze: Large wavelets; flags extend	7–10	8–12	12–19
4	Moderate breeze: Small waves 1–4 ft; dust raised	11–16	13–18	20–28
5	Fresh breeze: Moderate waves 4–8 ft; small trees sway	17–21	19–24	29–38
6	Strong breeze: Large waves 8–13 ft; whistling in wires	22–27	25–31	39–49
7	Near gale: Sea heaps up; moderate tumbling	28–33	32–38	50–61
8	Gale: Moderately high waves; branches break	34–40	39–46	62–74
9	Strong gale: High waves; slight structural damage	41–47	47–54	75–88
10	Storm: Very high waves; widespread damage	48–55	55–63	89–102
11	Violent storm: Exceptionally high waves; devastation	56–63	64–72	103–117
12	Hurricane: Air filled with foam; total destruction	≥64	≥74	≥118

For tornadoes, the Fujita scale (F-scale), developed by meteorologist Tetsuya Theodore Fujita in 1971, estimates maximum 3-second gust wind speeds indirectly through damage assessments to structures and vegetation. It was enhanced in 2007 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Wind Science and Engineering Center into the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale, refining wind speed ranges and incorporating 28 damage indicators for greater accuracy. The EF scale rates tornadoes from EF0 to EF5 based on observed destruction, with wind speeds in mph for 3-second gusts at 10 meters height:

EF0 (weak): 65–85 mph, minor damage to chimneys and branches.
EF1 (weak): 86–110 mph, broken windows and roof damage.
EF2 (significant): 111–135 mph, roofs torn off frame houses.
EF3 (severe): 136–165 mph, trains overturned, walls collapsed.
EF4 (devastating): 166–200 mph, well-constructed houses leveled.
EF5 (incredible): >200 mph, homes swept away, debarking of trees.^[15]^[16]

The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, introduced in 1971 by structural engineer Herbert Saffir and meteorologist Robert Simpson, categorizes tropical cyclones from Category 1 to 5 using 1-minute sustained wind speeds at 10 meters height, measured in mph. Originally including central pressure and storm surge estimates, the scale was revised in 2010 by the National Hurricane Center (NHC) to focus solely on wind speed for simplicity, though pressure and surge remain important for forecasting impacts. Categories indicate potential damage levels:

Measurement

Units

Wind speed is quantified using various units depending on regional conventions and applications, with the International System of Units (SI) standard being meters per second (m/s). This unit is recommended by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) for meteorological reporting to ensure global consistency. Other prevalent units include kilometers per hour (km/h), commonly used in continental Europe and Canada; miles per hour (mph), standard in the United States; and knots (kt), equivalent to nautical miles per hour and favored in aviation and maritime sectors worldwide.^[19]^[20] Conversions between these units follow fixed factors derived from their definitions, allowing seamless translation across systems. For instance, 1 m/s equals exactly 3.6 km/h, approximately 2.237 mph, and about 1.944 knots. These factors are essential for international data exchange and engineering applications. The table below summarizes key conversions from m/s, including the historical unit of feet per second (ft/s) for completeness.

Unit	Abbreviation	Conversion from 1 m/s
Meters per second	m/s	1
Kilometers per hour	km/h	3.6
Miles per hour	mph	2.237
Knots	kt	1.944
Feet per second	ft/s	3.281

Historically, before widespread adoption of SI units, wind speeds in the United States and United Kingdom were often reported in feet per second, particularly in early 20th-century records from the U.S. Weather Bureau. The Beaufort scale, developed in 1805 and extended in the 19th century, provided an alternative by assigning force numbers (0–12) based on observable effects rather than direct measurement, with later equivalents calibrated in mph or ft/s for quantitative use.^[21]^[22] The WMO establishes international standards for wind speed reporting, specifying 10-minute averages in m/s to capture sustained winds reliably, as detailed in its Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8). This convention supports uniform data in global weather services, though regional forecasts may display converted values like mph in the U.S. National Weather Service reports or km/h in European meteorological agencies. The U.S. National Weather Service reports sustained winds as 2-minute averages for standard observations and 1-minute averages for tropical cyclone reports, while gusts are the maximum 3-second average.^[23]

Instruments and Methods

The measurement of wind speed has evolved significantly since the mid-19th century, beginning with mechanical devices that directly interacted with airflow and progressing to advanced electronic and remote sensing technologies. One of the earliest modern milestones was the invention of the cup anemometer in 1846 by Irish astronomer John Thomas Romney Robinson at Armagh Observatory, which featured four hemispherical cups mounted on horizontal arms attached to a vertical shaft; the rotation speed of the cups, driven by wind, provided a direct indication of wind velocity through mechanical gearing.^[24]^[25] Prior to this, pressure plate anemometers, dating back to designs around 1450 and refined in the 19th century, operated by exposing a flat plate to wind force, which compressed a spring; the deflection of the plate was calibrated to measure dynamic pressure and thus infer wind speed, though these were less accurate for varying wind directions.^[26] Contemporary instruments have largely shifted to non-mechanical designs to enhance durability and precision, particularly in harsh environments. Ultrasonic anemometers, introduced in the late 20th century, eliminate moving parts by emitting high-frequency sound pulses between pairs of transducers; wind speed is calculated from the time-of-flight differences of upstream and downstream pulses, as the wind alters the speed of sound propagation through the air, allowing for rapid, three-dimensional measurements with response times under 0.1 seconds.^[27]^[28] Similarly, sonic anemometers, a variant often used for turbulence studies, employ acoustic ranging along multiple axes to resolve wind vectors at high frequencies (up to 50 Hz or more), capturing fluctuations essential for eddy covariance flux calculations in atmospheric research.^[29]^[30] For remote profiling, LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) systems use pulsed laser beams to detect Doppler shifts in backscattered light from atmospheric aerosols, enabling non-contact measurements of wind speed and direction up to several hundred meters above the surface, which is particularly valuable for wind energy site assessments.^[31] Wind speed measurements are conducted via in-situ methods, which involve direct sensors at fixed locations such as surface weather stations or instrumented towers, providing high temporal resolution data from heights typically standardized at 10 meters above ground level to minimize surface interference.^[32] In contrast, remote sensing techniques like LIDAR or SODAR (Sonic Detection and Ranging) allow profiling over vertical extents without physical masts, using acoustic or optical signals to infer wind fields remotely, though they may require corrections for signal attenuation in varying atmospheric conditions.^[33] To ensure consistency, raw data are processed with defined averaging periods; international practices often use 10-minute means for sustained winds and 3-second peaks for gusts, while the U.S. National Weather Service uses 2-minute averages for standard sustained winds, 1-minute for tropical cyclones, and 3-second peaks for gusts.^[23] Calibration follows rigorous standards, such as ISO 16622, which specifies acceptance tests for sonic anemometers including mean wind measurements and turbulence response, typically conducted in wind tunnels traceable to national metrology institutes.^[34] Despite these advancements, challenges persist in achieving accurate readings, particularly exposure errors arising from non-ideal site conditions; measurements at the 10-meter reference height can underestimate true open-terrain winds by up to 20% in urban or vegetated areas due to friction and flow distortion, necessitating correction models based on surface roughness and topography.^[35] Urban effects further complicate in-situ deployments by introducing turbulence from buildings, while remote methods like LIDAR face issues with aerosol density variations in clear air, requiring hybrid approaches for robust data validation across environments.^[32]

Factors Affecting Wind Speed

Atmospheric Factors

Wind speeds in the atmosphere are fundamentally driven by horizontal pressure gradients, which create the pressure gradient force that initiates air motion from regions of high pressure to low pressure. The strength of this force, proportional to the rate of pressure change over distance, determines wind intensity; steeper gradients, indicated by closely spaced isobars on weather maps, result in stronger winds.^[2] In geostrophic balance, applicable to large-scale straight-line flow above the frictional boundary layer, wind speed is given by the geostrophic wind approximation: v_g = \frac{1}{f \rho} \left| \frac{\partial p}{\partial n} \right|, where f is the Coriolis parameter, \rho is air density, and \frac{\partial p}{\partial n} is the pressure gradient perpendicular to the flow. For curved flows around high- or low-pressure centers, the gradient wind equation accounts for centrifugal effects, yielding a quadratic relation: \frac{v^2}{R} + f v = \frac{1}{\rho} \frac{\partial p}{\partial n} for anticyclonic flow (with the sign of f v reversed for cyclonic flow), where R is the radius of curvature; solving this provides wind speeds adjusted for system geometry.^[36] Jet streams represent extreme manifestations of pressure gradient-driven winds at upper levels, forming narrow bands of high-speed flow due to sharp temperature contrasts between air masses. The polar jet stream, located around 60° latitude at altitudes of approximately 30,000 feet (9 km), and the subtropical jet stream near 30° latitude at similar heights, can reach speeds exceeding 200 miles per hour (320 km/h), with the thermal wind relation explaining their vertical shear: changes in geostrophic wind with height are proportional to horizontal temperature gradients via \vec{V_T} = \frac{R_d}{f p} \hat{k} \times \nabla_p T, where R_d is the gas constant for dry air and T is temperature. These jets arise from the thermal wind effect, where equator-to-pole temperature differences enhance upper-level wind speeds, influencing global weather patterns.^[37]^[38] In cyclonic systems, such as extratropical lows and tropical cyclones, pressure gradients are intensified around low-pressure centers, leading to enhanced wind speeds through convergent inflow and rotational dynamics. Hurricanes, for instance, exhibit sustained winds exceeding 200 miles per hour (322 km/h) in their core regions due to the tight radial pressure gradients maintaining gradient wind balance.^[39] Anticyclonic systems, or high-pressure areas, feature diverging outflow with generally weaker winds, though trade winds—steady easterlies driven by subtropical high-pressure belts—persist at 10-15 miles per hour (16-24 km/h) across equatorial regions. Monsoons, seasonal shifts in wind direction tied to continental-oceanic pressure contrasts, similarly amplify speeds during summer reversals, reaching 20-30 miles per hour (32-48 km/h) in the Bay of Bengal.^[40] Temperature and density variations further modulate wind speeds by altering pressure gradients and buoyancy. Horizontal temperature gradients drive thermal winds, contributing to vertical wind shear where warmer air to the south of a jet increases speed with height. Air density, influenced by temperature and humidity, inversely affects the pressure gradient force; denser cold air amplifies force for a given gradient, strengthening winds. Diurnal variations in the planetary boundary layer, driven by solar heating, cause daily cycles in near-surface winds: daytime convection mixes momentum downward, increasing speeds, while nighttime stability reduces them by 20-50% in clear conditions over land. These effects are most pronounced in the lowest 1-2 km of the atmosphere, where frictional influences interact with synoptic-scale gradients.^[41]^[42]

Geographical Factors

Geographical factors significantly modify wind speeds at the Earth's surface through interactions with terrain, urban structures, and oceanic features, primarily via friction and flow channeling. Surface friction arises from the drag exerted by landforms and vegetation on the atmospheric boundary layer, reducing wind speeds near the ground, while topographic features like hills can accelerate flows through compression and deflection. These local modifications contrast with broader atmospheric dynamics by emphasizing surface-induced variations in the planetary boundary layer. Terrain profoundly affects wind speeds by altering airflow through elevation changes and surface roughness. Over hills and mountains, winds accelerate on the windward side due to air compression and flow convergence, with speed-up factors reaching up to 2 times the incident wind speed for moderate slopes, as observed in wind tunnel simulations and field studies of complex topography.^[43] Conversely, friction from rough surfaces substantially reduces wind speeds; for instance, dense forests with high roughness lengths impede airflow more than open water or flat grasslands, leading to shear and turbulence that diminish near-surface velocities by 20-50% compared to smoother terrains.^[44]^[45] In urban environments, buildings and infrastructure increase surface roughness, resulting in lower average wind speeds than in rural areas—often 20-40% reduced due to enhanced drag—while promoting gustier conditions from channeling between structures and urban heat islands that induce local thermal circulations.^[46]^[47] Coastal regions experience sea breezes, diurnal winds driven by land-sea temperature contrasts, typically reaching sustained speeds of 20-30 mph along shorelines, which transport cooler maritime air inland and modulate local wind profiles.^[48] Over oceans, geographical influences minimize friction, allowing trade winds to maintain higher speeds—up to 20-30% stronger than over land—due to the smooth water surface, fostering persistent easterly flows in subtropical highs.^[49] Channeling in oceanic straits amplifies gap winds through Venturi effects, where topographic constriction accelerates flows; notable examples include the Santa Ana winds in Southern California, which can gust to 80 mph as dry katabatic outflows funnel through mountain passes and coastal gaps.^[50]^[51] These variations are quantitatively described by the logarithmic wind profile in neutral atmospheric conditions, which models the mean wind speed v(z) as a function of height z above the surface:

v(z) = \frac{u_*}{\kappa} \ln \left( \frac{z}{z_0} \right)

Here, u_* is the friction velocity representing shear stress at the surface, \kappa \approx 0.4 is the von Kármán constant, and z_0 is the aerodynamic roughness length, which varies with terrain (e.g., 0.01 m over water, 1-2 m in urban areas). This profile captures how roughness z_0 decelerates winds near rough surfaces while allowing logarithmic increase with height.^[52]

Extreme Wind Speeds

Non-Tornadic Winds

Non-tornadic winds represent the most intense surface-level gusts not associated with rotational vortices like tornadoes, primarily driven by tropical cyclones, extratropical storms, and downslope wind events. These extreme speeds are verified through anemometer measurements at standard heights, distinguishing them from radar-based estimates that may capture higher altitudes or unverified peaks. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the World Weather and Climate Extremes Archive maintain official records, ensuring data integrity through rigorous evaluation of instrumentation and environmental conditions. The current world record for the highest non-tornadic wind gust is 253 mph (408 km/h or 113.3 m/s), recorded on April 10, 1996, at Barrow Island, Australia, during Tropical Cyclone Olivia. This gust was captured by an automated Dines Seacraft anemometer at 10 meters above ground level, surpassing previous benchmarks after WMO verification in 2010. Prior to this, the record stood at 231 mph (372 km/h or 103.3 m/s), measured on April 12, 1934, at the Mount Washington Observatory in New Hampshire, USA, during an extratropical storm; this reading, taken by a heated anemometer, held for 62 years until Olivia's event. Another notable measurement is 211 mph (340 km/h or 94.4 m/s), recorded on August 30, 2008, at Paso Real de San Diego in Pinar del Río Province, Cuba, during Hurricane Gustav, confirmed through post-event analysis by Cuban meteorological authorities and reviewed by international panels.^[53]^[54]^[55] In tropical cyclones, such as category 5 hurricanes or typhoons, sustained winds typically reach 157–200 mph (252–322 km/h), but gusts can exceed these due to turbulent boundary layers, as seen in Olivia and Gustav. Extratropical storms, often over landmasses like North America, produce high gusts through pressure gradients and frontal systems, exemplified by the Mount Washington event. Mountain downslope winds, including foehn or Chinook winds in the Rockies, accelerate air through compression and reduced friction, with gusts commonly up to 100 mph (161 km/h) and exceptional peaks reaching 140 mph (225 km/h), such as during a 1982 event in Colorado. These records underscore the role of surface anemometry in validating extremes, excluding radar-derived values that may overestimate ground-level impacts.^[56]

Tornadic Winds

Tornadic winds represent some of the most extreme atmospheric phenomena on Earth, characterized by intense rotational velocities within narrow funnel clouds formed by mesocyclones in supercell thunderstorms. The highest reliably measured tornadic wind speeds have been obtained through mobile Doppler radar systems, which detect rotational velocities via the Doppler effect on scatterers like raindrops or debris. In the 1999 Bridge Creek-Moore tornado in Oklahoma, Doppler on Wheels (DOW) radar initially recorded winds of 318 mph (511 km/h) near Bridge Creek, though subsequent analysis revised this to 135 ± 5 m s⁻¹ (approximately 302 ± 11 mph or 486 ± 18 km/h) at about 32 m above ground level, and a further reanalysis in 2021 using improved techniques revised it upward to 321 mph (517 km/h).^[57]^[58]^[59] This event, which later intensified and struck Oklahoma City with estimated winds around 321 mph (517 km/h), remains one of the benchmark records for tornadic intensity.^[59] More recent observations continue to confirm the potential for winds exceeding 300 mph in violent tornadoes. During the May 21, 2024, tornado that devastated Greenfield, Iowa, DOW radar from the University of Illinois measured winds of 309–318 mph (497–512 km/h) at heights of 100–160 feet (30–49 m) above the ground, marking only the third instance of such extreme speeds recorded globally.^[60] In 2025, the June 20 Enderlin, North Dakota, EF5 tornado, the first confirmed EF5 in the United States since 2013, produced damage indicating winds exceeding 210 mph (338 km/h), including the derailment of a loaded grain train.^[61] These measurements highlight the capability of modern mobile radars to capture peak rotational speeds in the tornado's core, often 1–2 km from the radar platform, using techniques like delta-velocity analysis to isolate tangential winds from translational motion.^[58] Post-event assessments of tornadic winds frequently rely on the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale, which infers speeds from damage to structures and vegetation rather than direct measurement. For instance, EF5 ratings, indicating winds greater than 200 mph (322 km/h), are assigned based on indicators like complete debarking of trees or total destruction of well-constructed homes, as seen in the 1999 Bridge Creek-Moore event.^[15] This damage-indicator approach provides crucial context for unmeasured tornadoes but typically underestimates peak speeds compared to radar data, especially for EF4 and EF5 events where radar has revealed winds well above the scale's thresholds.^[62] Tornadic winds exhibit unique characteristics, including short-duration gusts lasting seconds within the funnel's multiple subvortices, where velocities can surge rapidly due to intense pressure gradients. Surface-level measurements are particularly challenging, as heavy debris and lack of suitable anemometers often prevent direct recordings; instead, radar samples occur aloft, where winds may be slightly lower than at ground level but still representative of structural impacts.^[62] These factors underscore the rotational, three-dimensional nature of tornadic flows, distinct from linear gusts in non-tornadic storms.

Winds on Other Planets

Winds on other planets in the Solar System vary dramatically due to differences in atmospheric composition, rotation rates, and distance from the Sun, often resulting in speeds far exceeding those on Earth. Neptune hosts some of the fastest winds in the Solar System, with equatorial jets reaching up to 1,500 miles per hour (2,400 kilometers per hour) in a retrograde direction opposite to the planet's rotation, as observed by the Voyager 2 spacecraft during its 1989 flyby.^[63] These extreme velocities drive dynamic storm systems, including the Great Dark Spot, where cloud features move at similar intensities.^[64] Jupiter's atmosphere features powerful zonal jets, particularly around the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm where winds exceed 400 miles per hour (644 kilometers per hour), as measured by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope over multiple observations from 2009 to 2020.^[65] These high-speed flows, circling the storm counterclockwise, highlight Jupiter's turbulent weather patterns sustained by internal heat and rapid rotation. On Mars, dust storms propel winds up to 60 miles per hour (100 kilometers per hour), recorded by the Viking landers in the 1970s, which can engulf the planet and lift fine particles despite the thin atmosphere that makes such speeds relatively impactful on surface features. The low density of Mars's carbon dioxide atmosphere amplifies the erosive effects of these gusts compared to denser planetary environments.^[66] Venus exhibits super-rotation, where its atmosphere rotates much faster than the planet itself, with zonal winds at the cloud tops attaining speeds of up to 220 miles per hour (360 kilometers per hour), derived from cloud-tracking data collected by the Pioneer Venus probes in the late 1970s.^[67] This phenomenon, peaking at about 100 meters per second in the equatorial jet, completes a full circuit of the planet in four to five Earth days, driven by solar heating and wave interactions in the thick carbon dioxide envelope.^[68] Beyond the Solar System, exoplanets known as hot Jupiters—gas giants orbiting very close to their stars—experience intense winds exceeding 1,000 miles per hour (1,600 kilometers per hour) due to tidal locking, which creates extreme temperature contrasts between the dayside and nightside, fueling rapid atmospheric circulation. Theoretical models predict these supersonic flows, with speeds reaching several kilometers per second in some cases, to transport heat and chemicals across the planet. Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope and James Webb Space Telescope have confirmed such dynamics, for instance, detecting equatorial winds around 5,000 miles per hour (8,000 kilometers per hour) on WASP-43b through phase-curve spectroscopy that maps shifting emission patterns.^[69]

Applications

Structural Engineering

In structural engineering, wind speed data is essential for calculating loads that ensure the safety and stability of buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure, with design standards specifying basic wind speeds based on probabilistic exceedance risks. The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 7 standard, in its latest edition (ASCE 7-22), defines basic wind speeds as 3-second gust velocities at 10 meters above ground in Exposure C, varying by location and risk category to account for a 700-year return period for Risk Category II structures, such as typical buildings.^[70]^[71] For example, many inland U.S. areas have basic wind speeds around 115 mph for Risk Category II, while coastal hurricane-prone regions can exceed 150 mph.^[70] These speeds form the basis for deriving wind pressures using velocity pressure q_z = 0.00256 K_z K_{zt} K_d V^2 (in psf, with V in mph), where factors adjust for height, topography, directionality, and exposure.^[72] To account for turbulent gusts, the gust effect factor G modifies the mean wind load, particularly for flexible structures prone to dynamic response. ASCE 7-22 provides a detailed calculation for G in Section 26.11 for flexible structures, incorporating the peak factor g (typically 3.1), turbulence intensity I_z, resonant response, and site-specific factors such as topography (K_{zt}) and directionality (K_d); for rigid structures, a conservative G = 0.85 is used.^[73]^[74] This approach ensures designs resist both static and dynamic wind forces, preventing resonance amplification. Design considerations emphasize aerodynamic shaping and damping to mitigate high wind speeds, reducing vortex shedding and sway. For instance, the Burj Khalifa's tapered, Y-shaped profile with setbacks was iteratively refined through wind tunnel tests to withstand winds over 100 mph, distributing loads and minimizing overturning moments by disrupting airflow patterns.^[75]^[76] Complementing this, tuned mass dampers (TMDs)—mass-spring systems tuned to the structure's natural frequency—dissipate vibrational energy from wind gusts, as seen in skyscrapers where they reduce accelerations by up to 40% during storms.^[77]^[78] The 1940 collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge exemplifies the risks of aeroelastic flutter, where 42 mph winds induced torsional oscillations that matched the bridge's natural frequency, leading to catastrophic failure despite the structure being designed for higher steady winds.^[79]^[80] This event highlighted the need to evaluate dynamic wind-structure interactions, influencing modern codes like Eurocode 1 (EN 1991-1-4), which mandates consideration of turbulence, gusts, and aerodynamic stability in bridge and building designs to prevent similar aeroelastic instabilities.^[81]^[79] For complex or high-risk sites, site-specific analysis via wind tunnel testing and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulates extreme wind speeds, validating load predictions up to design limits like 200 mph in U.S. hurricane zones.^[82]^[83] Wind tunnel models scale structures to replicate boundary layer flows, while CFD solves Navier-Stokes equations for three-dimensional airflow, enabling precise adjustments to foundations and cladding in coastal areas.^[84]^[85] These methods ensure resilience against localized gusts amplified by terrain, as seen in non-tornadic extreme winds exceeding 150 mph.^[82]

Meteorology and Safety

In meteorology, wind speed forecasting relies on numerical weather prediction (NWP) models such as the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Integrated Forecasting System and the Global Forecast System (GFS) operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These models simulate atmospheric dynamics by solving simplified versions of the Navier-Stokes equations adapted for large-scale fluid motion in the atmosphere, incorporating variables like pressure, temperature, and terrain to predict wind speeds at various altitudes and locations.^[86]^[87] To account for uncertainties in initial conditions and model physics, ensemble forecasting methods generate multiple simulations by perturbing inputs, enabling probabilistic predictions of wind gusts that exceed mean speeds by 20-50% in convective scenarios.^[88]^[89] Warning systems for high winds are standardized by organizations like the National Weather Service (NWS) to alert the public and sectors in advance. Gale warnings are issued for sustained winds of 34 knots (39 mph) or higher but below 48 knots, not associated with tropical cyclones, while hurricane warnings activate for sustained winds of 74 mph (64 knots) or greater within 36 hours.^[90]^[91] These thresholds trigger NWS advisories, including high wind warnings for gusts over 58 mph inland, facilitating timely preparations across regions prone to severe weather.^[92] Public safety protocols integrate wind speed forecasts to mitigate risks in vulnerable activities. In aviation, crosswind limits typically range from 30 to 40 knots for commercial jets and general aviation aircraft, beyond which landings may be diverted to reduce runway excursion hazards.^[93] Maritime operations use the Beaufort scale, issuing small craft advisories for winds reaching Beaufort force 6 (22-27 knots) and prohibiting operations at force 8 (34-40 knots) or higher due to hazardous seas exceeding 9 meters.^[94] For hurricanes, evacuations are often mandatory starting at Category 3 (sustained winds 111-129 mph), as these major storms cause devastating structural damage and storm surges, prioritizing coastal populations.^[17]^[95] High wind events impose significant economic burdens and are influenced by climate trends. In the United States, annual damages from hurricane winds and related severe storms average over $50 billion, with tropical cyclones alone contributing $1.5 trillion in adjusted costs from 1980 to 2024.^[96]^[97] In 2024, the U.S. experienced a record 27 billion-dollar weather and climate disasters, with tropical cyclones playing a major role, totaling approximately $180 billion and underscoring the rising trend in costs.^[97] Climate change is projected to intensify extreme wind speeds in regions like the North Atlantic, where the proportion of major hurricanes has increased since the 1980s, and the Great Plains, potentially exacerbating future impacts through shifted storm tracks.^[98]^[99]

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○ The magnitude (or speed) of the geostrophic wind is. 1 g. V p f ρ. = ∇ . (9). ○ Properties of the geostrophic wind are: o The geostrophic wind blows ...
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Observations of Near-Surface Vertical Wind Profiles ... - AMS Journals
Oct 1, 2019 · This approach was adopted because vertical shear is the focus of this study, and the vertical shear of the mean speed can be up to a few percent ...
[12]
Observations of boundary layer wind and turbulence of a landfalling ...
The log layer height increases with the wind speed. The height of the constant flux layer reaches ~ 300 m for 10-m wind speeds less than 13 m s−1 while this ...
[13]
Beaufort Scale - National Weather Service
The Beaufort wind scale was developed by Britain's Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) in 1805 to help sailors estimate wind speeds via visual observations ...
[14]
The Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF Scale) - National Weather Service
The Enhanced Fujita Scale or EF Scale, which became operational on February 1, 2007, is used to assign a tornado a 'rating' based on estimated wind speeds ...
[15]
Enhanced Fujita Scale - National Weather Service
The Fujita (F) Scale was originally developed by Dr. Tetsuya Theodore Fujita to estimate tornado wind speeds based on damage left behind by a tornado.
[16]
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale - NHC - NOAA
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 rating based only on a hurricane's maximum sustained wind speed. This scale does not take into account ...
[17]
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale - National Weather Service
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 rating based on a hurricane's sustained wind speed. This scale estimates potential property damage.
[18]
Wind Speed Unit Convertor - National Weather Service
Enter a wind speed that you would like: ; mph (miles per hour), mph ; knots, knots ; m/s (meters per second), m/s ; ft/s (feet per second), ft/s ; km/h (kilometers ...
[19]
Wind - MeteoSwiss
For example, a westerly wind (270°) blows from west to east. The wind speed is given in kilometres per hour (km/h), in knots (kn) or in Beaufort (Bf). Wind ...
[20]
Historical and Contemporary Versions of the Beaufort Scale
In 1801, Colonel Capper, also of the Honourable East India Company, calibrated a list of he common terms in terms of miles per hour and feet per second.
[21]
The Beaufort Wind Scale | Royal Meteorological Society
The Beaufort Scale is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale.
[22]
Anemometer | National Museum of American History
This type of cup anemometer was introduced in 1846 by John Thomas Romney Robinson (1792-1882), a physicist who served for many years as director of the ...
[23]
History of the Anemometer Wind Vane - ThoughtCo
Apr 4, 2017 · The hemispherical cup anemometer (still used today) was invented in 1846 ... John Thomas Romney Robinson and consisted of four hemispherical cups.<|separator|>
[24]
Admiral Johan Henrik Kreüger and his Anemometer
Kreüger's anemometer, designed around 1850, used a pressure plate and was used in the first Swedish meteorological network, measuring wind pressure.
[25]
How Ultrasonic Wind Speed Anemometers Work - Turbit
Jul 27, 2023 · When the anemometer emits an ultrasonic pulse, this pulse travels through the air from one transducer to the other. The velocity of the sound ...
[26]
Working Principle and Features of Ultrasonic Wind Speed Sensor
Feb 20, 2020 · Ultrasonic wind speed sensor uses the ultrasonic time difference method to achieve wind speed measurement. The speed of sound in the air will be ...
[27]
CSAT3B: 3-D Sonic Anemometer with Integrated Electronics
The CSAT3B is a 3-D sonic anemometer for eddy-covariance measurements, measuring three wind components and sonic temperature, with integrated electronics and ...
[28]
Comparison of turbulence measurements by a CSAT3B sonic ... - AMT
Mar 2, 2020 · Sonic anemometers are widely used for these applications. However, these instruments are prone to probe-induced flow distortion effects, and the ...
[29]
Lidar applications in wind energy | Vaisala
Lidars measure wind speed in a different way than met mast anemometry. Lidar TI generally measures higher TI than cup measurements.
[30]
Evaluation of 10‐m Wind Speed From ISD Meteorological Stations ...
Oct 30, 2024 · There is disagreement in the 10-m wind speed values between measurements and model calculations. This leads to disagreement in models and ...
[31]
[PDF] Remote Sensing of Wind
SODAR (SOund Detection And Ranging) is a remote sensing methodology for measurements of the wind speed and direction aloft at various heights in the atmosphere.
[32]
An Examination of Wind Decay, Sustained Wind Speed Forecasts ...
Feb 1, 2015 · Abstract In this study, several analyses were conducted that were aimed at improving sustained wind speed and gust forecasts for tropical ...
[33]
ISO 16622:2002 - Meteorology — Sonic anemometers/thermometers
2–5 day deliveryISO 16622:2002 defines test methods of the performance of sonic anemometers/thermometers which employ the inverse time measurement for velocity of sound.Missing: turbine anemometer calibration
[34]
Investigation of exposure correction models for wind speed ...
Nov 21, 2022 · This study investigates the calculation of exposure correction factors ( ) by different theoretical and code-based models.
[35]
[PDF] Geostrophic Balance • Gradient Wind
The geostrophic wind balance assumes that the wind flow is straight. • A more general form of a balanced wind can be obtained if accelerations due to ...
[36]
The Jet Stream | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Dec 9, 2024 · As the difference in temperature increases between the two locations, the strength of the wind increases. Therefore, the regions around 30 ...
[37]
The Subtropical Jet Stream | METEO 3: Introductory Meteorology
The subtropical jet stream (STJ) is a channel of fast winds near 30-degrees latitude, formed by air circling the earth from the Hadley Cell.
[38]
[PDF] Chapter 24: Tropical Cyclones - UCI ESS
Hurricane: Hurricane status is gained when winds reach or exceed 120 km/hr (74 mph). Page 9. Stages of a Tropical Cyclone Lifecycle. Tropical Disturbance.
[39]
[PDF] Elementary Application of the Basic Equations
Using the gradient wind equation with the pressure gradient force expressed in terms of Vg allows us to derive an expression for the ratio of the geostrophic ...
[40]
Diurnal Cycles of Surface Winds and Temperatures as Simulated by ...
These earlier studies related the diurnal wind changes to the atmospheric tidal var- iations in surface pressure and to differential solar heat- ing associated ...
[41]
Comparison between wind-tunnel and CFD mean speed-up profiles
We evaluate the accuracy of the speed-up provided in several wind-loading standards by comparison with wind-tunnel measurements and numerical predictions, ...
[42]
[PDF] A Siting Handbook for Small Wind Energy Conversion Systems - OSTI
The surface over which the wind flows affects wind speed near that surface. A rough surface. (such as trees and buildings) will produce more friction than a ...
[43]
[PDF] CEP92-93-RNM-DEN-GW-6 - Colorado State University
... speed at a given height is usually less for rough surface flows, the actual ... The roughened wind-tunnel model was relatively slightly rougher than the Bradley ...
[44]
[PDF] feasibility of small-scale urban wind energy generation
Jul 31, 2009 · While average wind speeds in urban environments are typically lower than wind speeds ... winds also have larger average speeds than winds ...
[45]
(PDF) Urban-rural wind velocity differences - Academia.edu
The increase is associated with accelerations produced by a well-developed urban heat island. Cyclonic turning of the flow along the streamflow line through the ...
[46]
Estimating Wind Speed - National Weather Service
4. Moderate Breeze, 13 to 18 mph, Wind moves small branches. Wind raises dust and loose paper from the ground and drives them along.
[47]
Geography 101 Online - University of Hawaii System
The PGF sets air in motion and determines wind speed. The higher the pressure gradient, the higher the wind speed as shown in the diagram below. In the ...
[48]
Santa Ana Winds Fuel Southern California Wildfires | NESDIS - NOAA
Dec 6, 2017 · Heavy brush and strong dry Santa Ana Winds have fueled the active blazes, with expectant wind speeds reaching 80 mph.Missing: maximum | Show results with:maximum
[49]
Why are gap winds important for Navy forecasters?
The most intense leeside acceleration events, known as downslope windstorms, can produce winds exceeding 100 kt, and can cause major damage, loss of life, and ...Missing: Ana | Show results with:Ana
[50]
[PDF] Lecture 5. The logarithmic sublayer and surface roughness
This has the same logarithmic form as the velocity profile, but the scalar roughness length za need not be (and usually isn't) the same as z0.
[51]
[PDF] Gustav - Tropical Cyclone Report - NHC - NOAA
This station. (elevation 10 m) reported a 1-minute wind of 135 kt at 2235 UTC 30 August with a peak gust of 184 kt. The World Meteorological Organization ...
[52]
Remembering the Big Wind - Mount Washington Observatory
Eighty-nine years ago today, Mount Washington Observatory, in its second year of existence, recorded a world-record wind speed of 231 miles per hour – a ...
[53]
A Record Nearly Lost in the Wind - The Front Page
Feb 4, 2010 · ... wind gust of 211 mph measured during 2008's Hurricane Gustav in Pinar del Rio, Cuba. The panel reviewed numerous exceptional wind gusts recorded ...
[54]
Weather History: Chinook Winds of Winter 1982 | News
Jan 31, 2018 · The strongest wind gust recorded was 140 mph at Wondervu, a record for that normally windy spot. Elsewhere, speeds reached 125 mph at ...
[55]
The Great Plains Tornado Outbreak of May 3-4, 1999
On May 3, 1999, multiple supercell thunderstorms produced many large and damaging tornadoes in central Oklahoma during the late afternoon and evening hours.Storm B · Storm D · Storm H · Storm I
[56]
[PDF] LOW-LEVEL WINDS IN TORNADOES AND POTENTIAL ...
TORNADOES. Tornadoes are among the most intense and destructive atmospheric phenomena. Winds can exceed 100 m s_1 over limited.
[57]
Was the Greenfield tornado the strongest tornado? See its wind ...
Jun 27, 2024 · Greenfield, Iowa tornado: The May 21, 2024 tornado has calculated speeds of 309-318 mph. Victoria Reyna-Rodriguez is a general assignment ...
[58]
Low-Level Winds in Tornadoes and Potential ... - AMS Journals
Winds up to 132 m s−1 can impact structures. A Chicago tornado could cause 4,500-45,000 deaths and destroy 239,000 homes. Winds over 102 m s−1 could cause ...
[59]
How mighty winds of Neptune, Uranus blow - NBC News
May 15, 2013 · The winds of Uranus can blow clouds up to 560 miles per hour (900 kilometers per hour), while Neptune's winds can reach up to 1,500 miles per ...
[60]
Neptune: Facts - NASA Science
These winds whip clouds of frozen methane across the planet at speeds of more than 1,200 miles per hour (2,000 kilometers per hour). Even Earth's most powerful ...
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Hubble Shows Winds in Jupiter's Great Red Spot Are Speeding Up
Sep 27, 2021 · The massive storm's crimson-colored clouds spin counterclockwise at speeds that exceed 400 miles per hour – and the vortex is bigger than Earth ...Missing: jet | Show results with:jet
[62]
Martian Dust Storms: Reviews and Perspective for the Tianwen-3 ...
Furthermore, dust storms are capable of driving the redistribution of dust across the Mars surface, and the strong winds (reaching speed of up to 100 km h−1) ...Martian Dust Storms: Reviews... · 2. Martian Dust Storms · 2.3. Impacts Of Dust Storms
[63]
Zonal Winds in the Middle Atmosphere of Venus from Pioneer ...
Wind speeds above ∼70 km generally decrease with height because of the warm pole at these levels. However, within the jet the speed is 100 m s−1 at 83 km. The ...
[64]
Venus cloud top winds from tracking UV features in ... - AGU Journals
Mar 17, 2009 · At low latitudes, zonal wind speed is 85–90 m/s and almost constant with latitude. ... wind speed profiles from VMC with previous observations ...
[65]
JWST measures 'Hot Jupiter,' a distant exoplanet hot enough to ...
May 1, 2024 · This fact implies that nearly 5,000 mph equatorial winds must routinely whip across WASP-43b, which are fast enough to prevent the chemical ...
[66]
ASCE 7 Risk Categories Explained - Engineering Express
Mar 27, 2025 · In current versions of ASCE 7, Risk Category is now determined by altering the wind velocity that goes into the wind velocity to pressure ...
[67]
[PDF] Changes in Wind Design - ASCE Branch Website Program
Updated Wind Speed Maps. Risk Category II. Building. Wind speeds correspond to approximately a 7% probability of exceedance in. 50 years (Annual Exceedance ...
[68]
Wind Load Calculation as per ASCE 7-22 - Little P.Eng. Engineering
Jan 30, 2025 · Risk Category: II · Basic Wind Speed (VV): 120 mph · Exposure Category: C · Structure Height (zz): 30 ft · Kzt=1.0Kzt=1.0, Kd=0.85Kd=0.85, Ke=1.0 ...
[69]
ASCE 7 Flexible Gust Factor | Article - Meca Enterprises
Jan 10, 2020 · The wind speed is one of the parameters used to calculate the flexible gust factor. The gust factor calculation is unchanged from ASCE 7-05 to ...
[70]
Gust Factor G for Wind Loads Per ASCE 7-16
Oct 17, 2020 · The interesting thing about this gust factor is that there are different computations depending on whether the structure is rigid or flexible.
[71]
[PDF] Title: The Wind Engineering of the Burj Dubai Tower Author - ctbuh
Aeroelastic model tests produced significantly lower overall wind loads and accelerations than force balance tests. This was partly due to Reynolds number ...
[72]
How Peter Irvin saved Burj Khalifa from the Wind - CIRIA
The end result of these aerodynamic improvements was an incredibly stable skyscraper. A unique shape which resists the vortex shedding. In fact, you could ...
[73]
[PDF] Effects of a Tuned Mass Damper on Wind-Induced Motions in Tall ...
This system, which consists of an auxiliary mass added to a structure, significantly reduces motions in high-rise buildings. However, the theory is often based ...
[74]
What are Tuned Mass Dampers? - Miyamoto International
Jan 10, 2025 · In construction and architecture, they're essential in tall buildings, bridges, and chimneys, effectively reducing wind-induced vibrations.
[75]
Tacoma Narrows Bridge history - Bridge - Lessons from failure
For over six decades, engineers have studied the collapse of the 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge. ... flutter at high wind speeds, like 100 mph. Because of Gertie's ...First investigations - Partial... · Blind spot" - Design lessons of... · End of an era
[76]
Aeroelastic Flutter & the Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge
In mild to moderate winds, each half of the bridge would rise and fall several feet every four or five seconds. This resulted in extreme rocking that ...
[77]
Wind Loading on Buildings: Eurocode and Experimental Approach
This chapter deals with the application of European wind loading code EN 1991-1-4 as well as experimental techniques to determine wind loads on buildings.
[78]
Wind Tunnel Testing for Building Design - Pennoni
Oct 12, 2020 · Wind tunnel testing concluded that under gusting hurricane force wind loads, occupants may feel slight movement due to acceleration of the ...
[79]
Wind Load Calculation & Analysis for Safe Structural Design
May 23, 2025 · For unconventional buildings with unique geometries, we utilize Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling and wind tunnel testing data.
[80]
CFD-Based Evaluation of Elevated Coastal Residential Buildings ...
Apr 28, 2021 · “Field measurement and wind tunnel simulation of hurricane wind loads on a single family dwelling.” Eng. Struct. 31 (10): 2265–2274. https ...Missing: zones | Show results with:zones
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Wind load evaluation on storm shelters using wind tunnel testing ...
Mar 1, 2022 · Wind tunnel was used to evaluate wind loads for structural system and cladding. Experimental results were compared to North American design ...
[82]
[PDF] Properties of the equations of motion - ECMWF
In operational weather forecast and climate models we have to solve the equations of fluid motion and thermody- namics, subject to boundary conditions at the ...Missing: GFS | Show results with:GFS
[83]
What Is Numerical Weather Prediction? | Meteomatics
Jun 10, 2024 · Numerical Weather Prediction (commonly known as NWP) is a method used by meteorologists to forecast the weather by solving mathematical equations.Global Weather Models · Local Weather Models · Do You Need Access To...Missing: Navier- Stokes<|separator|>
[84]
Machine Learning Methods for Postprocessing Ensemble Forecasts ...
Here, we provide a comprehensive review and systematic comparison of eight statistical and machine learning methods for probabilistic wind gust forecasting via ...
[85]
Improving predictions of convective storm wind gusts through ...
From the 21-member ensemble forecast, station-wise 10 m wind gust values—computed as hourly maximum of convective and turbulent components of wind gust—were ...
[86]
Watch/Warning/Advisory Definitions - National Weather Service
A Tropical Storm Warning is issued when sustained winds of 34 to 63 kt (39 to 73 mph) or higher associated with a tropical cyclone are expected in 36 hours or ...
[87]
Marine Definitions - National Weather Service
Gale Warning: A warning of sustained winds in the range 34 to 47 knots (KT) inclusive either predicted or occurring not associated with tropical cyclones.
[88]
Warning Criteria - National Weather Service
Gale Warning. A warning of sustained surface winds, or frequent gusts, in the range of 34 knots (39 mph) to 47 knots (54 mph) inclusive, either predicted or ...
[89]
How Maximum Demonstrated Crosswind Is Calculated - Boldmethod
If the wind is 30 degrees off the runway, your crosswind component is about 50% of the wind speed. If the wind is 45 degrees off the runway, the crosswind ...
[90]
Beaufort Scale - National Weather Service
The Beaufort Scale estimates wind speed and sea state using visual clues, from calm (0) to hurricane (12), with descriptions of wind, wave height, and visual ...Missing: craft advisory
[91]
Hurricane Categories 1 to 5 [Wind Speeds, Damage Levels + Tips]
Category 3, 4, and 5 storms are classified as major hurricanes. These storms pose serious risks to life and property and often result in mandatory evacuations ...
[92]
Expected Costs of Damage From Hurricane Winds and Storm ...
Apr 10, 2019 · Expected annual economic losses from most types of damage caused by hurricane winds and storm-related flooding total $54 billion—$34 billion ...
[93]
Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
The US sustained 403 weather and climate disasters from 1980–2024 where overall damages/costs reached or exceeded $1 billion (including CPI adjustment to 2024).Events · Summary Stats · Time Series · Disaster Mapping
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Chapter 11: Weather and Climate Extreme Events in a Changing ...
Future wind speed changes are expected to be small, although poleward shifts in the storm tracks could lead to substantial changes in extreme wind speeds in ...
[95]
Climate change is messing with global wind speeds, impacting ...
Oct 3, 2025 · Climate change is affecting global wind patterns in multiple ways, many of which have direct implications for human health.
[96]
Best Greenfield Windspeed Note 2024
Statement from the DOW/FARM Facility on wind speed measurements, including the 2021 reanalysis of the 1999 Bridge Creek-Moore tornado by Wurman et al., revising the peak wind speed to 321 mph.