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Water level

Water level, in the context of hydrology and hydrogeology, refers to the elevation of the upper surface of a body of water relative to a fixed reference point known as a datum, such as land surface or mean sea level.^[1] For surface water bodies like rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, it is commonly termed stage or gage height, representing the height of the water surface above the datum, which is distinct from water depth.^[1] In groundwater systems, water level denotes the height to which water rises in a well, approximating the water table—the upper boundary of the saturated zone where soil or rock pores are fully filled with water—or, in confined aquifers, the potentiometric surface, an imaginary level to which water would rise under artesian pressure.^[2]^[3] Accurate measurement and monitoring of water levels are fundamental to water resource management, enabling the prediction of floods, assessment of drought conditions, evaluation of water availability for ecosystems and human use, and tracking of long-term trends such as aquifer depletion due to over-pumping.^[4] In surface water, streamgages equipped with sensors, such as pressure transducers or ultrasonic devices, continuously record stage data, which is then used to compute streamflow via established rating curves relating stage to discharge.^[4] For groundwater, periodic or continuous measurements in monitoring wells provide insights into recharge, discharge, and storage dynamics, helping to model flow systems and inform sustainable extraction policies.^[5]^[3] Variations in water levels are influenced by natural factors like precipitation, evaporation, and seasonal cycles, as well as human activities including dam operations, irrigation, and urbanization, which can alter hydrologic balances and lead to issues such as subsidence or saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers.^[6]^[7] Long-term datasets from networks like the USGS National Water Information System reveal trends, such as declining levels in overexploited aquifers, underscoring the need for integrated monitoring to support climate adaptation and environmental protection.^[4]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Concept

Water level refers to the elevation of the water surface in natural or artificial bodies of water relative to a fixed reference point, or datum, such as mean sea level or a local benchmark.^[8] This measurement captures the vertical position of the interface between water and air (or another medium) under given conditions.^[1] Common units for expressing water level include meters or feet above the datum, though relative scales like stage—defined as the height above an arbitrary zero point, often near the bottom of the water body—are also widely used.^[9] These units facilitate consistent comparisons across different locations and contexts in hydrological studies.^[10] Key concepts distinguishing water levels include static and dynamic states, where static levels represent equilibrium conditions without flow, governed primarily by gravity and hydrostatic pressure balancing the water's volume, while dynamic levels fluctuate due to external influences like inflow, outflow, or atmospheric changes.^[8] For instance, the water level in a stationary glass of water exemplifies a static case, remaining constant as long as no volume is added or removed, whereas a fluctuating river stage illustrates dynamic behavior responsive to precipitation and discharge variations. These principles underpin the behavior of water surfaces across scales, from small containers to large reservoirs. In hydrology, the term "water level" refers to the elevation of the water surface relative to a specified reference point, applicable to various water bodies such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and wells.^[11] It differs from the "water table," which specifically denotes the uppermost surface of the saturated zone in an aquifer where soil or rock pores are fully filled with water, marking the boundary between the unsaturated and saturated subsurface layers.^[6] While water level can describe surface or subsurface conditions broadly, the water table is a groundwater-specific concept tied to the natural equilibrium of subsurface water pressure and gravity. Another related term is "stage," which is a specialized measurement of water level in streams, rivers, and lakes, defined as the height of the water surface above an arbitrary datum, typically set near the streambed or lake bottom for gauging purposes.^[9] Unlike the general water level, stage is calibrated against specific gauge zeros and is crucial for flood monitoring, but for oceans, terms like sea level or tide height are more commonly used. In contrast, "hydraulic head" (or simply "head") represents the total mechanical energy potential of water per unit weight, comprising elevation head (the height above a datum), pressure head (from fluid pressure), and negligible velocity head; it drives groundwater flow according to Darcy's law rather than merely indicating surface elevation.^[12] The term "water level" originated in mid-16th-century English surveying practices, with its earliest recorded use around 1560 by mathematician Leonard Digges, who adapted water-filled leveling devices to establish horizontal references for land measurement.^[13] By the 17th century, this evolved into hydrological usage for denoting equilibrium water surfaces, distinct from specialized readings like those from tide gauges, which measure coastal water elevations against fixed benchmarks to account for tidal variations. A common misconception is that water level directly equates to flow rate (discharge) or total water volume; in reality, stage—a form of water level—requires conversion via site-specific rating curves to estimate discharge, as the relationship is nonlinear and influenced by channel geometry.^[14] Similarly, water level provides no inherent information on stored volume without additional bathymetric or volumetric data.

Measurement Methods

Traditional Techniques

Traditional techniques for measuring water levels relied on manual, direct observation methods that predated electronic instrumentation, primarily using simple mechanical tools to gauge depth or height relative to a reference point. These approaches were essential for monitoring rivers, wells, and small water bodies in various hydrological contexts, ensuring accurate assessments through human intervention.^[15] One common method for rivers and streams involved staff gauges, which consist of vertically mounted poles or plates marked with graduated scales, often placed in stable locations along the bank or in a stilling well to minimize wave interference. The water surface intersects the markings, allowing observers to read the stage height directly; for instance, readings are taken at eye level to prevent parallax errors, where misalignment of the observer's line of sight could skew the measurement. Calibration of staff gauges requires establishing a fixed datum, such as a benchmark tied to a national geodetic survey, to ensure consistency across observations, with scales typically marked in feet or meters from this reference. Daily manual logs were standard, capturing variations in water level to track seasonal changes or flood events.^[15]^[16] For wells and boreholes, the dipstick or sounding rod method was widely employed, involving a weighted tape, rod, or line lowered into the well until it touched the water surface, often detected by a chalk-coated tip that wets upon contact or by feel with a sounding weight. This technique measures the depth to water from the wellhead, subtracted from the total well depth to determine the water level relative to ground surface; procedures emphasize using a non-stretch material like steel tape for accuracy in deeper wells, with readings repeated to account for minor fluctuations. Calibration ties measurements to a local datum, such as the land surface elevation, and observations were typically conducted periodically, such as weekly or monthly, depending on usage.^[17]^[18] Historically, these techniques underpinned critical water management; in ancient Egypt around 3000 BCE, nilometers—graduated stone markers or steps along the Nile River—measured flood levels to predict inundation for agriculture, with structures like those at Elephantine Island recording rises essential for crop planning. In the 19th century, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers deployed early river gauges during navigation improvements, such as staff gauges on major waterways like the Mississippi, to monitor stages for flood control and transport, predating systematic USGS efforts that began with the first permanent streamgage in 1889.^[19]^[20]^[21] Despite their reliability in controlled settings, traditional methods were prone to limitations, including human error from subjective readings, dependency on favorable weather conditions that could obscure visibility or access sites, and the lack of real-time data, necessitating frequent manual visits that were labor-intensive and impractical for remote or dynamic environments.^[15]

Modern Instrumentation

Modern instrumentation for water level measurement has advanced significantly, enabling automated, high-precision monitoring through electronic sensors and remote technologies that surpass the limitations of manual methods used historically. These tools facilitate continuous data collection, often integrated with digital logging and transmission systems, allowing for real-time analysis in various aquatic environments. Key technologies include pressure-based, acoustic, and electromagnetic sensors, each suited to specific conditions such as submerged or non-contact applications. Pressure transducers represent a foundational modern approach, operating on the principle of hydrostatic pressure to determine water depth. These submersible devices measure the pressure exerted by a water column, converting it into an electrical signal for depth calculation. The relationship derives from Pascal's law, which states that pressure in a fluid at rest is transmitted equally in all directions, leading to the hydrostatic pressure equation P = \rho g h, where P is the gauge pressure at depth, \rho is the fluid density, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the depth from the surface. Rearranging for depth yields h = \frac{P}{\rho g}. For fresh water at standard conditions (\rho = 1000 \, \text{kg/m}^3, g = 9.81 \, \text{m/s}^2), a pressure of 9.81 kPa corresponds to h = 1 m. In practice, transducers compensate for atmospheric pressure via a vented cable or absolute sensing, achieving accuracies of ±0.1% full scale in depths up to hundreds of meters.^[22]^[23] Ultrasonic sensors provide a non-contact alternative, emitting high-frequency sound waves (typically 20–200 kHz) that reflect off the water surface, with depth calculated via time-of-flight measurement. The distance d is determined by d = \frac{c t}{2}, where c is the speed of sound in air (approximately 343 m/s at 20°C) and t is the round-trip echo time; water level is then referenced to the sensor height. These sensors are ideal for open channels or tanks, offering ranges up to 30 m with resolutions of 1 mm, though performance can degrade in turbulent or vapor-laden conditions due to signal attenuation.^[24]^[11] Radar and LiDAR technologies enable remote, non-contact sensing using electromagnetic waves, with radar employing microwave pulses (e.g., 26 GHz or 80 GHz frequencies) for time-of-flight similar to ultrasonics but unaffected by air density variations, achieving accuracies of ±2 mm over distances up to 100 m. LiDAR variants use laser pulses (near-infrared) for high-resolution surface profiling, particularly in clear conditions, with precisions down to 1 cm. Radar is robust in harsh environments like fog or dust, while LiDAR excels in precise topographic integration. Both outperform ultrasonic in reliability for long-range applications.^[24]^[25] Integration of these sensors with telemetry systems allows for automated data transmission, as seen in networks like the U.S. Geological Survey's (USGS) streamgaging stations, where satellite, radio, or cellular telemetry relays measurements every 15–60 minutes for near-real-time access. GPS, particularly Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) modes, provides absolute elevation referencing by tying local water levels to global geodetic datums, correcting for sensor installation offsets with centimeter-level vertical accuracy. This combination ensures standardized, location-specific height data without frequent manual surveys.^[15]^[26] Satellite altimetry marks a global-scale advancement, with the Jason series—beginning with TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992, followed by Jason-1 (2001), Jason-2 (2008), and Jason-3 (2016)—measuring ocean surface heights via radar pulses from orbit, yielding sea level data with radial accuracies of 2–4 cm. This series has transitioned to the Sentinel-6 mission (Jason Continuity of Service), with Sentinel-6A launched in 2020 and operational as of 2025, providing continued high-precision measurements, and Sentinel-6B scheduled for launch in late 2025 to ensure ongoing coverage. These missions track mean sea level variations to millimeter precision over annual trends, covering 66°N–66°S latitudes every 10 days, and have revolutionized remote oceanographic monitoring.^[27]^[28]^[29]

Hydrological Applications

Surface Water Monitoring

Surface water level monitoring involves the continuous or periodic measurement of water heights in rivers, lakes, and streams to support hydrological forecasting and resource management. This practice enables the prediction of flood events by identifying rising water levels that indicate potential inundation risks, thereby allowing for timely evacuations and infrastructure protections.^[30] Monitoring also ensures navigation safety by providing real-time data on channel depths, helping mariners avoid grounding in shallow areas during low-water periods.^[31] Additionally, it facilitates water supply estimation by tracking levels to assess available volumes for irrigation, municipal use, and ecosystem needs.^[32] A primary tool in this monitoring is the hydrograph, which plots water level variations over time to visualize responses to rainfall, snowmelt, or dry spells. These graphs reveal peak levels during storm events and baseflow conditions in dry periods, aiding in the analysis of flow regimes.^[33] To convert water levels to discharge rates, rating curves are developed, empirically relating stage (water level) to flow volume through the equation Q = a A^b, where Q is discharge, A is the cross-sectional area of the water flow (calculated from stage measurements and channel geometry), a and b are fitted coefficients, and b typically exceeds 1 to reflect nonlinear increases in velocity with depth.^[34] Calibration of rating curves requires multiple field measurements pairing observed stages with direct discharge estimates, often obtained via current meters, acoustic Doppler profilers, or tracer dilution during varied flow conditions; these data points are then plotted logarithmically to fit the power-law form, with periodic recalibration to account for channel shifts from erosion or sediment deposition.^[35] In the Mississippi River basin, extensive gauge networks played a critical role in flood control during the 1993 Great Flood, where record-high stages exceeding 15 meters (49 feet) at key sites like St. Louis triggered levee breaches and informed emergency diversions that mitigated further upstream damage across nine states.^[36] Similarly, water level monitoring in the Great Lakes supports commercial shipping by alerting operators to fluctuations that affect cargo capacities and route viability, as seen in periods of low levels reducing vessel drafts and necessitating lighter loads on the St. Lawrence Seaway.^[37] Global monitoring networks, such as those coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), integrate thousands of stations worldwide to support real-time data sharing for transboundary river management under initiatives like the WMO's Global Hydrological Status and Outlook.^[38] These networks capture seasonal variations in water levels, primarily driven by higher precipitation in wet seasons that elevate stages and increased evaporation in summer that lowers them, creating annual cycles essential for long-term planning.^[39]

Groundwater Assessment

Groundwater assessment involves evaluating water levels within aquifers to ensure sustainable extraction and management, focusing on subsurface dynamics distinct from surface water systems. In unconfined aquifers, the water table represents the upper boundary of the saturated zone, where pore pressure equals atmospheric pressure, and its fluctuations are primarily driven by recharge from precipitation, evapotranspiration, and pumping withdrawals, leading to seasonal or annual variations that can range from centimeters to meters depending on climatic and anthropogenic factors.^[40] In confined aquifers, the potentiometric surface defines the pressure head, an imaginary level to which water would rise in a well penetrating the aquifer, often above the aquifer top due to overlying impermeable layers, and its changes reflect pressure adjustments rather than free-surface movements.^[41] To quantify water level drawdown during extraction, well logging techniques are applied, particularly in pumping tests where water levels are monitored in observation wells using manual sounding tapes, pressure transducers, or dataloggers to record the decline in hydraulic head over time and distance from the pumping well.^[42] These measurements enable the estimation of aquifer properties like transmissivity and storativity. A foundational method for analyzing transient flow in confined aquifers during such tests is the Theis equation, derived by analogy to heat conduction in solids. The derivation begins with Darcy's law for groundwater flow, q = -K \nabla h, where q is specific discharge, K is hydraulic conductivity, and h is hydraulic head, leading to the groundwater flow equation S \frac{\partial h}{\partial t} = T \nabla^2 h for two-dimensional radial flow, with S as storativity and T = K b as transmissivity (b aquifer thickness). For a continuous line sink representing constant pumping rate Q, the solution integrates the instantaneous source response, yielding the drawdown s(r, t) = \frac{Q}{4\pi T} \int_u^\infty \frac{e^{-y}}{y} dy, or s = \frac{Q}{4\pi T} W(u), where W(u) is the well function (exponential integral), u = \frac{r^2 S}{4 T t}, r is radial distance from the well, and t is time since pumping began. This equation assumes a homogeneous, isotropic, infinite aquifer with no storage in the well or aquitard leakage, and it is applied in pumping tests by plotting observed drawdown versus time on semi-log paper to linearize and solve for T from the slope and S from the intercept.^[43] Overexploitation of aquifers through excessive pumping can cause significant water level declines, leading to land subsidence as aquifer materials compact irreversibly, particularly in fine-grained sediments. In California's Central Valley, groundwater extraction since the 1920s for agriculture has resulted in subsidence of up to 9 meters in some areas due to aquifer-system compaction from declining water levels. Piezometers are essential for ongoing monitoring, as these instruments measure pore water pressure at specific depths in boreholes, providing precise data on hydraulic head changes in both confined and unconfined settings without allowing free flow. Globally, aquifer depletion rates highlight sustainability challenges; for instance, in Punjab, India, groundwater levels have declined at 1-2 meters per year due to intensive irrigation, underscoring the need for managed recharge and policy interventions.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Engineering and Infrastructure Uses

Hydraulic Systems

In hydraulic systems, water level plays a critical role in governing fluid dynamics within enclosed conduits such as pipes and channels, where it directly influences pressure, velocity, and flow rates. The fundamental principle underlying these interactions is Bernoulli's equation, which describes the conservation of energy along a streamline in an incompressible, inviscid fluid flow. For steady, horizontal pipe flow, the equation simplifies to express how variations in water level head (h) affect pressure (P) and velocity (v), assuming constant density (ρ) and gravitational acceleration (g).^[47]^[48] Bernoulli's equation is stated as:

P + \rho g h + \frac{1}{2} \rho v^2 = \constant

Here, the pressure term (P) represents static pressure, the potential energy term (ρ g h) accounts for the elevation head due to water level differences, and the kinetic energy term (\frac{1}{2} \rho v^2) captures dynamic effects from flow velocity. In pipe flow applications, such as pressurized water distribution lines, a decrease in water level head (e.g., from a reduced reservoir height) can increase velocity downstream, thereby lowering local pressure and risking cavitation if the head drops below the vapor pressure of water. Conversely, maintaining a consistent head ensures balanced flow; for instance, in a vertical pipe section, the head loss due to friction is incorporated via the extended form, but the core relation highlights how level control stabilizes system pressure to prevent inefficiencies or failures. This principle is essential for designing hydraulic circuits where water level directly modulates energy distribution, enabling predictable performance in engineered systems.^[49] Practical applications of water level in hydraulic systems include siphons and U-tube manometers for detection and control. A siphon utilizes gravitational potential from differential water levels to transfer fluid over a barrier, relying on atmospheric pressure to initiate flow once the inlet is submerged below the outlet level; the maximum siphon height is limited by vapor pressure to about 10 meters for water at standard conditions, preventing air ingress that could disrupt the vacuum. U-tube manometers, meanwhile, measure water level-induced pressure differences by observing the height disparity in a U-shaped tube filled with a manometric fluid, providing direct hydrostatic readings where the level difference (Δh) equates to pressure via P = ρ g Δh, commonly used in plumbing to verify line pressures without electronic sensors. In irrigation setups, automatic valves integrate float mechanisms to regulate inflow based on reservoir levels, opening when levels drop to sustain pressure and closing to avoid excess, thus optimizing water use in drip or sprinkler networks.^[50]^[51]^[52] Representative examples illustrate these principles in everyday and industrial contexts. In household water tanks, maintaining a specific level via gravity feed ensures consistent delivery pressure at outlets, approximately 9.8 kPa per meter of water head, with air cushions in the tank absorbing surges to protect downstream pipes.^[53] Industrial cooling systems, such as those in power plants, employ level sensors in recirculation basins to sustain optimal head for heat exchange, preventing pump cavitation by keeping levels above minimum thresholds and reducing energy losses from uneven flow.^[54] Safety considerations in hydraulic systems emphasize overflow prevention and level-related hazards. Float valves automatically modulate flow to halt filling at preset levels, averting overflows that could lead to structural flooding or pressure imbalances; these devices, often buoyant polymer or metal assemblies, provide a mechanical shutoff with minimal maintenance in closed loops. Mismanagement of water levels can induce water hammer—sudden pressure spikes from rapid valve closures tied to level fluctuations—resulting in pipe bursts; for example, transients in plumbing systems have caused failures with repair costs exceeding thousands per incident, underscoring the need for surge arrestors alongside level controls.^[55]^[56]^[57]

Reservoir and Dam Management

Reservoir and dam management involves precise control of water levels to balance multiple objectives, including flood mitigation, hydropower generation, irrigation supply, and water quality maintenance. Operators rely on established protocols for spillway releases, which are triggered when water levels exceed predefined thresholds to prevent overtopping and structural failure. For ungated spillways, releases occur automatically once the reservoir elevation surpasses the spillway crest, while gated spillways allow controlled outflows based on real-time level monitoring and downstream conditions.^[58]^[59] These thresholds are determined through hydrologic modeling to ensure releases do not exacerbate downstream flooding, as outlined in engineering guidelines from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.^[60] A critical aspect of management is the use of storage-volume curves to quantify available capacity at varying water levels. These curves are derived from the integral relationship between storage volume V and water height h, given by

V(h) = \int_0^h A(\eta) \, d\eta,

where A(\eta) represents the horizontal surface area of the reservoir at elevation \eta. This integration accounts for the changing geometry of the reservoir basin, typically obtained from bathymetric surveys or topographic data, and results in a graphical elevation-storage curve that operators use to predict storage availability and guide release decisions. For instance, during dry periods, maintaining levels above minimum thresholds maximizes usable volume for downstream needs, while flood seasons prioritize drawing down to create space for inflows.^[61]^[62] Real-time monitoring is essential for effective operations, with water level sensors—such as pressure transducers, ultrasonic gauges, or radar systems—integrated into Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems for continuous data acquisition and remote control. These systems enable automated alerts and adjustments, such as gate operations, to maintain optimal levels across large reservoirs; for example, Lake Mead behind Hoover Dam has a maximum capacity of approximately 35 billion cubic meters, allowing operators to track utilization against design limits.^[63]^[64] SCADA integration facilitates predictive analytics, reducing response times to anomalies and enhancing overall safety.^[65] Sedimentation poses a significant challenge by accumulating at the reservoir bottom, progressively reducing effective depth and storage volume, which can diminish operational flexibility and increase flood risks over time. In many reservoirs, annual sediment inflows lead to capacity losses of 0.1% to 1%, necessitating periodic dredging or watershed management to mitigate impacts. A prominent case is China's Three Gorges Dam, where initial impoundment in 2003 required careful level management to balance flood storage at lower elevations (around 145 meters) with hydropower optimization at higher levels (up to 175 meters), supporting its 22.5 gigawatt installed capacity while addressing sediment trapping from the Yangtze River basin.^[66] International regulations, such as those from the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), provide guidelines for establishing safe water level limits to prevent overtopping and ensure structural integrity. ICOLD recommends defining maximum reservoir levels based on probable maximum flood scenarios, with minimum freeboard requirements to account for wave action and seismic influences, often integrated into national dam safety programs. These standards emphasize periodic safety reviews and operational rules to adapt to changing conditions like sedimentation.^[67]^[68]

Environmental and Climate Implications

Sea Level Variations

Sea level variations refer to changes in the height of the ocean surface relative to a fixed reference, influenced by both short-term fluctuations and long-term trends driven by climate and geophysical processes. These variations are critical for understanding global environmental changes, as they affect coastal ecosystems, infrastructure, and human populations. Short-term variations occur over days to years due to tides, winds, and atmospheric pressure, while long-term changes span decades to centuries and are primarily linked to anthropogenic climate warming. The primary causes of long-term sea level rise are eustatic changes, which involve alterations in the total volume of ocean water, and isostatic adjustments, which affect the elevation of the Earth's crust relative to the sea. Eustatic rise results mainly from the melting of land-based ice sheets and glaciers, adding water to the oceans, as well as thermal expansion where warming seawater occupies more volume. Thermal expansion has contributed approximately 30% to the observed global sea level rise since the late 20th century, with the remainder largely from ice melt. In contrast, isostatic changes, such as glacial isostatic adjustment, cause land rebound in formerly glaciated regions like Scandinavia, leading to relative sea level fall there, while subsidence in sedimentary basins exacerbates rise elsewhere.^[69]^[70]^[71] Observed data indicate a global mean sea level rise of about 3.7 mm per year from 1993 to 2023, based on satellite altimetry measurements, marking an acceleration from earlier rates. This trend has continued, with record highs in 2023 and 2024, the latter seeing a 5.9 mm annual increase, and the rate reaching approximately 4.5 mm/year by 2023-2024.^[72] This trend is corroborated by tide gauge records, which provide long-term relative sea level data at coastal sites but are limited in global coverage compared to satellites. Satellite missions like TOPEX/Poseidon, launched in 1992, have enabled precise global monitoring by measuring the ocean surface height relative to the Earth's geoid—a reference equipotential surface approximating mean sea level—achieving accuracies of a few centimeters. Tide gauges, measuring water level against fixed benchmarks on land, complement satellites by capturing local effects but require corrections for vertical land motion to derive absolute changes. Together, these methods reveal that sea levels have risen about 10 cm globally over the satellite era, with regional deviations due to ocean currents and gravity anomalies.^[70]^[73] Projections from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimate a global mean sea level rise of 0.28 to 0.55 meters by 2100 under the low-emissions Shared Socioeconomic Pathway SSP1-2.6 scenario, which assumes significant mitigation to limit warming to about 1.8°C above pre-industrial levels. These projections incorporate eustatic contributions from continued ice melt and thermal expansion, with uncertainties arising from ice sheet dynamics, particularly in Antarctica. Regional variations amplify risks in vulnerable areas; for instance, subsidence in river deltas like the Mississippi or Ganges can add several millimeters per year to local rise, outpacing global averages and threatening low-lying communities. Such geospatial differences highlight the need for localized assessments beyond global means.^[74]^[75]^[76]

Flood and Drought Impacts

Floods occur when water levels in rivers, lakes, and other inland water bodies rise rapidly due to intense precipitation, rapid snowmelt, or upstream dam releases, often exceeding the natural bankfull stage—the elevation at which flow begins to overflow onto the floodplain.^[77] This overflow inundates surrounding areas, leading to erosion, sediment deposition, and structural damage to human settlements and infrastructure.^[78] Hydrologists analyze these peak events using extreme value theory, where statistical models such as the Gumbel distribution are applied to historical data to estimate recurrence intervals—the average time between floods of a given magnitude.^[79] For instance, the Gumbel distribution fits annual maximum flood series to predict the likelihood of rare events, aiding in risk assessment for regions prone to such extremes.^[80] In contrast, droughts result in persistently low water levels that contract aquatic habitats, reduce oxygen availability, and stress fish and invertebrate populations, often leading to biodiversity loss and disrupted food webs.^[81] A notable example is the 2012 drought along the Mississippi River, where gage heights dropped to record lows—such as -9.8 feet at Memphis, Tennessee—restricting barge navigation to single tows, closing sections of the river multiple times, and contributing to over $30 billion in agricultural losses across affected areas.^[82] These low levels not only hampered commodity transport but also exposed riverbeds, increasing risks of groundings and delaying shipments of grain and coal.^[83] Mitigation strategies for these water level extremes include structural measures like levees, which confine floodwaters by raising containment barriers above anticipated peak levels, and non-structural approaches such as early warning systems that monitor gage data to forecast rises or falls and enable evacuations or restrictions.^[84] Real-time water level telemetry supports these systems, allowing authorities to issue alerts hours or days in advance, potentially averting significant harm.^[85] Globally, flood damages impose economic costs exceeding $100 billion annually, with recent estimates for total natural disaster losses surpassing $250 billion per year as of 2025, and indirect losses amplifying the total impact on economies and livelihoods.^[86]^[87] Ecologically, natural water level fluctuations in wetlands foster biodiversity by creating mosaics of wet and dry zones that support diverse plant communities, migratory birds, and amphibians, preventing monocultures and promoting resilience.^[88] In the Florida Everglades, restoration projects like the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan replicate pre-drainage hydrologic regimes, including seasonal pulses, to revive habitats for endangered species such as the Cape Sable seaside sparrow and sawgrass prairies, thereby enhancing overall ecosystem function.^[89] These efforts demonstrate how managed fluctuations can counteract degradation from stabilized levels, sustaining wetland services like nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration.^[90]

Historical and Scientific Evolution

Early Observations

Nilometers in ancient Egypt, dating back to the Old Kingdom around 3000 BCE, were among the earliest known devices for systematically tracking water levels, used to measure the Nile River's annual flood heights and predict agricultural outcomes.^[91] These structures, often integrated into temples, consisted of graduated columns or wells connected to the river, allowing priests to record inundation levels critical for taxation and irrigation planning.^[92] In China during the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE), early flood control structures such as levees along the Yellow River enabled monitoring of seasonal rises and reinforcement against overflows, as evidenced by archaeological remains of levees and drainage systems from this era.^[93] Medieval Europe saw advancements in tidal observations, with tide tables emerging by the 13th century to forecast high and low waters for navigation along coasts like the Thames. These rudimentary charts, based on lunar cycles and local observations, marked a shift toward predictive recording of water fluctuations.^[94] In the United States, systematic river gauging began in the 1830s, with early records collected on streams in New York by surveyors like John B. Jervis, using staff gauges to document discharge and flood stages for infrastructure development.^[95] Scientific milestones in the 17th century included Athanasius Kircher's explorations of lake levels in his 1665 work Mundus Subterraneus, where he theorized subterranean water connections influencing surface elevations and tides through global hydrological cycles.^[96] Concurrently, barometric methods emerged for correcting water level measurements to account for elevation, as mercury barometers—pioneered by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643—allowed surveyors to adjust readings for atmospheric pressure variations in leveling surveys by the late 17th century.^[97] Water levels held profound cultural significance in ancient mythologies, often symbolizing divine judgment or renewal; for instance, the biblical flood narrative in Genesis describes waters rising to cover mountains by about 15 cubits (roughly 22 feet), submerging the earth as punishment before receding.^[98] These stories underscored humanity's vulnerability to water's power, influencing early observational practices across civilizations. This observational foundation paved the way for more precise instruments in later centuries.

Technological Advancements

Refinements to stilling wells in the early 20th century, such as the 1920 syphon-type tide gauge installation within a stilling well in Alicante, Spain, marked significant advancements in water level measurement by providing stable readings in turbulent environments. These devices, consisting of a chamber connected to the water body via small pipes, allowed water to equilibrate inside while damping external waves and currents, enabling precise float-based recordings. This innovation built on earlier manual techniques but introduced greater reliability for continuous observations in rivers and harbors.^[99]^[100] By the 1970s, acoustic Doppler technology revolutionized dynamic water level assessments, particularly in flowing or deep-water settings. The first commercial Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCPs) emerged mid-decade, initially adapted from speed logs to measure velocity profiles via Doppler-shifted sound waves, which could also infer water levels through bottom-tracking or discharge calculations. Conceived around 1975, ADCPs enabled non-intrusive, high-resolution profiling in challenging conditions like rivers and oceans, reducing the need for physical contact and improving data collection in real-time. This shift from static to acoustic methods expanded applications to velocity-integrated level monitoring.^[101]^[102] The launch of the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellites in 2002 represented a milestone in global-scale groundwater level mapping by detecting minute changes in Earth's gravity field caused by water mass variations. Orbiting in tandem, GRACE measured terrestrial water storage anomalies, including groundwater, with resolutions revealing depletions in major aquifers like the High Plains and California's Central Valley at rates up to several centimeters per year equivalent. Its successor, GRACE Follow-On (GRACE-FO), launched in 2018, has continued these measurements, revealing ongoing depletions as of 2025.^[103]^[104] This gravity-based approach complemented ground sensors by providing basin-wide insights without direct access, influencing water resource assessments worldwide. Concurrently, the Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS), formalized in its 1990 implementation plan, established a network of over 290 tide gauges for standardized sea level data, fostering international coordination since the late 1980s.^[105]^[106] The integration of Internet of Things (IoT) sensors in the 2010s further democratized water level monitoring through real-time, distributed networks, including crowd-sourced contributions via mobile apps. For example, platforms like CrowdWater enable citizen scientists to report stream levels using smartphone imagery, filling gaps in official datasets and supporting hydrological models. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) leverages similar IoT-enabled systems in its National Water Dashboard for automated sensor data, enhancing spatial coverage. Since the 2010s, artificial intelligence (AI) predictive models, particularly machine learning algorithms like long short-term memory networks, have analyzed historical level data alongside rainfall and evaporation to forecast fluctuations, achieving accuracies suitable for flood and drought early warning. Seminal applications include deep learning models trained on datasets from 2010 onward for reservoir and river predictions.^[107]^[108]^[109]^[110] These advancements have dramatically improved measurement precision, evolving from centimeter-scale accuracy in traditional stilling wells and tapes to millimeter-level resolutions with modern techniques like GNSS reflectometry and ultrasonic sensors. For instance, open-source image-based systems now achieve ±3 mm under controlled conditions, enabling finer detection of subtle changes critical for climate studies. Global networks like GLOSS have standardized mm-accuracy tide records, supporting sea level rise tracking at 3-4 mm per year globally.^[111]^[112]^[113] Looking ahead, blockchain technology is emerging to ensure data integrity in shared water monitoring networks by creating immutable ledgers for IoT sensor outputs, preventing tampering in multi-stakeholder environments like transboundary basins. AI integrations with climate models are also advancing, hybrid frameworks combining neural networks with physics-based simulations to predict water level responses to scenarios like sea level variations, improving long-term resource planning.^[114]^[115]^[116]^[117]

References

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Hydrology Terms and Definitions - Chicago - National Weather Service
Estimated rate of water moving past a given location. Also referred to as streamflow or discharge. Most runoff becomes streamflow in area streams. Graphic ...
[2]
What is groundwater? | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Groundwater is water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land surface. The upper surface of the saturated zone is called the water table.
[3]
[PDF] Ground-water-level monitoring and the importance of long-term ...
These water levels define an imaginary surface, referred to as the potentiometric surface, which represents the potential height to which water will rise in ...
[4]
Streamgaging Basics | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
A streamgage is a structure installed beside a stream or river that contains equipment that measures and records the water level (called gage height or stage) ...
[5]
General Facts and Concepts about Ground Water
Water in the saturated zone below the water table is referred to as ground water. Below the water table, the water pressure is high enough to allow water to ...
[6]
Concepts of ground water, water table, and flow systems
Water beneath the land surface occurs in two principal zones, the unsaturated zone and the saturated zone (Figure A-1).
[7]
Groundwater Decline and Depletion | U.S. Geological Survey
Groundwater depletion, a term often defined as long-term water-level declines caused by sustained groundwater pumping, is a key issue associated with ...
[8]
Hydraulic Head and Factors Causing Changes in Ground Water ...
Ground-water levels are controlled by the balance among recharge to, storage in, and discharge from an aquifer.
[9]
Water Q&A: What does the term "river stage" mean? - USGS.gov
Stage is the water level above some arbitrary point, usually with the zero height being near the river bed, in the river and is commonly measured in feet. For ...
[10]
[PDF] EXPLANATION OF GROUND-WATER-LEVEL RECORDS
Water-level data is from selected wells, measured in feet with reference to land-surface datum, reported every fifth day and end of month, and presented in ...
[11]
Measuring Depth to Groundwater in Irrigation Wells - OSU Extension
Static water level is defined as the level of water (from the land surface to the water in the well) under normal, undisturbed, no-pumping conditions.
[12]
https://books.gw-project.org/hydrogeologic-properties-of-earth-materials-and-principles-of-groundwater-flow/chapter/hydraulic-head/
[13]
4.2 Hydraulic Head - GW Books - The Groundwater Project
Hydraulic head is thought of as mechanical energy and is defined as the mechanical energy per unit weight of water.
[14]
water level, n. meanings, etymology and more
The earliest known use of the noun water level is in the mid 1500s. OED's earliest evidence for water level is from before 1560, in the writing of Leonard ...Missing: hydrology | Show results with:hydrology
[15]
Does "stage" tell you how much water is flowing in a stream?
The amount of water flowing in a stream might double when the stage rises from 1 to 2 feet of stage, but then it might quadruple when it goes from 3 to 4 feet.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[16]
[PDF] Stage Measurement at Gaging Stations
This document describes stage measurement at gaging stations, specifically chapter A7 of book 3, which deals with stage measurement at gaging stations.
[17]
[PDF] GAG Aquatic Staff Gauge Measurement Readings - NEON Data Portal
Apr 8, 2021 · Stage can be measured at a single point in time by reading the water level on a calibrated staff gauge mounted in the stream channel. Stage ...<|separator|>
[18]
[PDF] Methods of measuring water levels in deep wells
Methods studied include steel tape, electric cable, air line, surface recording devices, and bottom-hole recording devices.Missing: dipstick | Show results with:dipstick
[19]
[PDF] Measuring Water Levels in Wells
Feb 13, 2024 · Ⅰ Static water level is the depth of the water in the well when the pump is off long enough for the aquifer to return to its normal level. A ...Missing: hydrology | Show results with:hydrology
[20]
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-D103-PURL-gpo107528/pdf/GOVPUB-D103-PURL-gpo107528.pdf
[21]
Ancient Egypt Water Engineering
A nilometer was used to predict flood levels. This instrument was a method of marking the height of the Nile over the years. Nilometers were spaced along the ...
[22]
[PDF] history of the waterways - USACE Publications
Even before the Presque Isle assignment to plan harbor work, the Army Engineers had planned river improvements. Under military appropriations bills of 1819 and ...
[23]
Gages Through the Ages - Water Data Labs - USGS.gov
USGS streamgaging began in 1889 with the establishment of the first streamgage on the Rio Grande in Embudo, New Mexico, where the first team of hydrographers ...
[24]
Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Depth - The Engineering ToolBox
Hydrostatic pressure (p) is calculated by p = ρ g h, where h is the depth of the fluid. For example, at 1m depth in water, pressure is 9810 Pa.
[25]
Calculation of the liquid level using hydrostatic pressure - WIKA blog
Filling height is calculated using h = p / (ρ * g), where p is pressure, ρ is liquid density, and g is gravity. For water, 1 bar pressure equals 10m height.
[26]
A dozen ways to measure fluid level and how they work - ABB
Modern technologies ; 9. Magnetostrictive Level Transmitters ; 10. Ultrasonic Level Transmitters ; 11. Laser Level Transmitters ; 12. Radar Level Transmitters.
[27]
Level Measurement | Emerson US
Non-contacting radar level transmitters measure the continuous level of liquids or solids in small and large tanks, vessels and open-air applications across ...Continuous Level... · Differential Pressure Level... · About Non-Contacting Radar
[28]
Precise RTK GPS Water Levels - Hydro International
RTK GPS is increasingly being used for measuring water-level corrections during hydrographic survey, as for water levels in general.
[29]
Jason-3 Altimetry Mission - eoPortal
The objectives of the Jason-3 mission require a global sea surface height measurement to an accuracy of less than 4 cm every 10 days to determine ocean ...
[30]
National Water Prediction Service (NWPS) River Gauge ...
The National Weather Service's National Water Prediction Service (NWPS) provides river stage observations and forecasts and long-range river flood outlooks ...Missing: surface | Show results with:surface
[31]
Why Measure Water Levels? - NOAA Tides & Currents
National Ocean Service's modern water level measurement system allows for a variety of real-time, near real-time, and long-term applications.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[32]
Surface Water Supply | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
To help emergency managers and others protect life and property due to floods and other water-related hazards, the USGS delivers a continuous source of ...Missing: navigation | Show results with:navigation
[33]
Rollin' Down the River | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Procedure: A hydrograph is a graph that shows a property of water (in this case, discharge) with respect to time. In this lesson, you will use USGS streamgage ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[34]
Creating the Rating Curve | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Sep 23, 2020 · A rating curve relates river level and streamflow. It's created by recording stage and discharge pairs, then drawing a line through the points. ...
[35]
[PDF] TWRI 3-A10 - USGS Publications Warehouse
As an earlier discussion stated, a discharge rating is often a compound curve consisting of three segments-one for low flow (section con- trol), one for medium ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
Flood Discharges in the Upper Mississippi River Basin - 1993
Jan 11, 2013 · During spring and summer 1993, record flooding inundated much of the upper Mississippi River Basin. The magnitude of the damages-in terms of ...Missing: gauges control
[37]
Water level products aid boaters, maritime community - Great Lakes ...
Additional products will include a “Current Lake Conditions” section on GLIN, which, in addition to water level data, will highlight weather, water temperatures ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[38]
State of Global Water Resources 2024
Sep 18, 2025 · The report is based on data contributed by WMO Members, as well as information from global hydrological modelling systems and satellite ...Missing: stations | Show results with:stations
[39]
Changing seasons | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Seasonal changes in precipitation and temperature affect soil moisture, evaporation rates, river flows, lake levels, and snow cover. Leaves fall and plants ...
[40]
USGS GWRP: Techniques/Methods -Water-Table Fluctuation (WTF ...
Jan 3, 2017 · The water-table fluctuation (WTF) method provides an estimate of groundwater recharge by analysis of water-level fluctuations in observation wells.
[41]
6.3 Confined Aquifers - GW Books - The Groundwater Project
The surface to which the water rises in wells and piezometers penetrating a confined aquifer is referred to as the potentiometric surface (Figure 46). Water ...
[42]
The Importance of Measuring Drawdown - Solinst
Jun 3, 2019 · Drawdown can be measured using a pressure transducer with built-in datalogger that records water level fluctuations over time.
[43]
[PDF] TheIs 1935 - Water Resources Mission Area
To the extent that Darcy~s law governs the motion of ground water under natural conditions and under the artificial conditions set up by pumping, an analogy ...
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Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley | U.S. Geological Survey
Beginning around the 1920's, farmers relied upon groundwater for water supply. Over time, overpumping caused groundwater-level declines and associated aquifer ...Missing: overexploitation | Show results with:overexploitation
[45]
Piezometers: A guide - RST Instruments Ltd
A piezometer measures static water pressure, usually in one of two contexts: measuring the pressure of groundwater contained in the surrounding rock and soil.
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Solving groundwater depletion in India while achieving food security
Jun 13, 2022 · The value of sustaining the groundwater resource in the state and reversing the 1–2 m/year rate of depletion would need to offset this financial ...
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Bernoulli's Equation | Engineering Library
So the Bernoulli equation indicates that a decrease in flow velocity in a horizontal pipe will result in an increase in pressure.
[48]
Bernoulli's equation (article) | Fluid flow - Khan Academy
The point of bernoulli's equation is to account for changes in the gauge pressure due to changes in energy elsewhere such as the speed of the liquid or a change ...
[49]
[PDF] Chapter 5: Bernoulli's Equation - eCommons
Nov 4, 2022 · If we assume no shear within the 12” water main, that is, if we assume no head losses then we can apply Bernoulli's Equation to this system.
[50]
52.5: The Siphon - Physics LibreTexts
Aug 7, 2024 · A siphon (or syphon, from the Greek σ ⁢ ι ⁢ φ ⁢ ω ⁢ v ) is a tube that transfers liquid from a reservoir at higher elevation to a reservoir at ...
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Siphons and the Siphon Effect: That Sucking Sound
I define a "true" siphon as a tube or pipe through which a liquid can be moved from a higher to a lower level by atmospheric pressure forcing it up the shorter ...
[52]
U-Tube Differential Pressure Manometers - The Engineering ToolBox
Inclined and vertical u-tube manometers used to measure differential pressure in flow meters like pitot tubes, orifices and nozzles.
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https://www.sensorsone.com/mh2o-to-kpa-conversion-table/
[54]
A Beginner's Guide to Well Pressure Tanks
Well pressure tanks maintain consistent water supply and protect pumps. They store water and regulate pressure using a pressure switch to control the pump.How Do Well Pressure Tanks... · The Role Of The Pressure... · Sizing Well Pressure Tanks<|separator|>
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Best Management Practice #10: Cooling Tower Management
Best practices include controlling blowdown, maximizing cycles of concentration, and monitoring conductivity to maintain water efficiency in cooling tower ...
[56]
Float Valve | Automatic Control Valves From Flomatic
A modulating level control Valve closes at high water levels to prevent overflow of a ground storage tank, basin or reservoir and opens to refill when the ...
[57]
Altitude Valve - BERMAD
Altitude valves automatically manage tank water levels without external power, ensuring reliable supply and preventing overflow. Perfect for water utilities and ...
[58]
[PDF] Transient and Surge Related Pipe Bursts, Water Loss and Damage ...
Pipe bursts from transients/surges, caused by rapid velocity changes, result in high repair costs, water loss, and service interruptions. These surges are ...
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[PDF] CHAPTER 2 SELECTING AND ACCOMMODATING INFLOW ...
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Spillway Control Structures - ASDSO Dam Safety Toolbox
A control device limits or prevents outflows below fixed reservoir levels and regulates releases when the reservoir rises above that level.
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[PDF] Hydrologic Engineering Requirements for Reservoirs
Sep 24, 2018 · Operating rules for spillway gates must be based on careful study to avoid releasing discharges that would be greater than would occur under ...
[62]
[PDF] Reservoir routing - John Fenton Homepage
A = 1000 h" for typical operating levels. Integration gives the storage volume as a function of height: S = 667 h". In a typical practical problem, contour.
[63]
Constructing Reservoir Area–Volume–Elevation Curve from ... - NIH
Area–volume–elevation (AVE) curves are critical for reservoir operation rules. However, such curves are not publicly available for most global reservoirs.Missing: dh | Show results with:dh
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SCADA / ADAS - ASDSO Dam Safety Toolbox
SCADA and Automated Data Acquisition Systems (ADAS) are automated methods by which dam owners can obtain information and control various processes at the ...
[65]
[PDF] Hoover Dam - NPS History
Its capacity, including dead storage, is 28,537,000 acre-feet or. 35,200,000,000 cubic meters. Maximum depth. 500 feet or 152 meters. Covers. 157,900 acres or ...
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SCADALink Remote Water Level Monitoring and Control Solutions
Bentek Systems SCADALink RIO900 and SatSCADA provides flexible solutions for Water Level Monitoring and Control as shown in the following diagram.
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Strategies for managing reservoir sedimentation - ScienceDirect.com
A wide range of sedimentation related problems occur upstream from dams as a result of sediment trapping. Because of storage loss the functions of the reservoir ...
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[PDF] GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND FRAMEWORK FOR DAM SAFETY
Feb 14, 2020 · ICOLD supports the dam engineering profession worldwide in setting standards and guidelines with the objective of ensuring that dams are built ...
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Icold Dam Safety Guidelines English Pages Assorted | PDF - Scribd
Maximum reservoir level : Maximum allowable elevation of water surface in the reservoir determined by the approved minimum freeboard. Normal reservoir level ...
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What causes sea-level rise?
Most of the observed sea-level rise (about 3 mm per year) is coming from the meltwater of land-based ice sheets and mountain glaciers.
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Climate Change: Global Sea Level
Between 1993 and 2023 mean sea level has risen across most of the world ocean (blue colors). In some ocean basins, sea level has risen 6-8 inches (15-20 ...Missing: AR6 | Show results with:AR6
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NASA-led study reveals the causes of sea level rise since 1900
Aug 21, 2020 · We know the factors that play a role in sea level rise: Melting glaciers and ice sheets add water to the seas, and warmer temperatures cause water to expand.
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Which are more accurate in measuring sea-level rise: tide gauges or ...
Both tide gauges and satellites are accurate, but satellites offer global coverage and more thorough recording of trends, while tide gauges provide direct ...Missing: TOPEX/ Poseidon geoid reference
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[PDF] Summary for Policymakers
The five scenarios are SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5. Panel (a) Annual anthropogenic (human-caused) emissions over the 2015–2100 period.
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https://sealevel.nasa.gov/ipcc-ar6-sea-level-projection-tool
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Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change
2.6 Projections Beyond 2100. The SROCC assessed the median and likely range of Antarctic SLE contributions at 2300 as 0.16 (0.07–0.37) m under RCP2.6 and ...
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[PDF] Determination of Channel-Morphology Characteristics, Bankfull ...
The bankfull stage was readily identified at most sites by topographic features (bankfull indicators), such as a change from a vertical bank to a horizontal ...
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Flood Inundation Mapping Science | U.S. Geological Survey
A flood inundation map library is the full set of maps showing flood inundation from near-bankfull river levels to record flooding levels. Once the map ...
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[PDF] Flood-Frequency Analyses - USGS Publications Warehouse
Gumbel (1941) presented a paper on the return period of flood- flows ... the mean annual flood, for a straight-line distribution on a Gumbel.
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Plotting the Flood Frequency Curve using Gumbel Distribution
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Effects of biodiversity on functional stability of freshwater wetlands
This paper reviews the environmental drivers of habitat function stability in freshwater wetlands, explores the effects of plant diversity and microbial ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Drought and Low Water in the Lower Mississippi River
Low water levels on the Mississippi River can impact outdoor recreation and tourism activities—such as fishing, hunting, and river cruises—leading to economic ...
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Low Water on the Mississippi Causes Barge Backup
Aug 22, 2012 · The drought of 2012 reduced traffic to one towboat at a time; groundings closed parts of the river for hours to days.Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
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[PDF] Managing Flood Risks - World Bank Documents & Reports
The Value of Hydro-Meteorological Data and Early Warning Systems. 91. BOX 5.3. Managing the Legal Risks of the Publication of Flood Maps around the World. 92.<|separator|>
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[PDF] Economic Value of Flood Forecasts and Early Warning Systems
Aug 12, 2024 · The results from more than 100 mitigation simulations demonstrated millions of dollars in potentially prevented damages at the community level.
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Damages from Extreme Weather Mount As Climate Warms
Nov 18, 2013 · Economic losses are rising – from $50 billion each year in the 1980s, to just under $200 billion each year in the last decade. And about three ...<|separator|>
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2 ECOLOGY OF WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS
Water level fluctuates daily in coastal marshes and seasonally in almost all wetlands ... Maintenance of biodiversity, water quality, and natural ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] The Science of Restoring the Everglades
THE BASIC PREMISE of the Restoration Plan is that restoring the historical water flow patterns to the remaining wetlands will reverse declines in many native ...Missing: fluctuations biodiversity
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CIR 1452/UW199: The Role of Flow in the Everglades Landscape
Changes in water levels and water quality also can have adverse effects on ridge and slough landscape. Each vegetation species has optimum ranges of water ...Missing: biodiversity | Show results with:biodiversity
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Ancient Device for Determining Taxes Discovered in Egypt
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Humans have been changing Chinese environment for 3,000 years
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The Revolution in Tidal Science | The Journal of Navigation
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[PDF] Compilation of Records of Surface Waters of the United States ...
The first known streamflow records to be systematically collected in the United States are those for Eaton and Madison Brooks in Madison County, N. Y., by John ...
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https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-navigation/article/revolution-in-tidal-science/BCA4B539618ACD7A69FDFB9404C487EA
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Barometers | Whipple Museum - University of Cambridge
Barometers measure air pressure, and until around 1675 they were primarily used to calculate height above sea level.Missing: corrections | Show results with:corrections
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The Search for Noah's Flood - Biblical Archaeology Society
Sep 4, 2025 · Up to fifteen cubits [about 22 feet [6.5 m]] the waters overwhelmed them and the mountains became covered.”—Genesis 7:17-20. Some may wonder if ...
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Historical tide gauge sea-level observations in Alicante and ...
Nov 30, 2020 · In 1920, a secondary Mier syphon-type tide gauge was also installed in the same stilling well and referred to the same benchmark. A syphon-type ...
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Stilling wells have been used historically to measure river stage.
Stilling wells measure river stage by allowing water to enter and leave through pipes, matching the river's surface level. The stage is then measured inside ...
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[PDF] Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler Principles of Operation A Practical ...
The first commercial ADCP, produced in the mid-1970's, was an adaptation of a commercial speed log (Rowe and Young, 1979). The speed log was redesigned to ...
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https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/stilling-wells-have-been-used-historically-measure-river-stage
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Groundwater | Applications - GRACE Tellus - NASA
The GRACE twin satellites, launched 17 March 2002, are making detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field changes & revolutionizing investigations about ...
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GLOSS Implementation Plan - Global Sea Level Observing System
1990. Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) implementation plan. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, Technical Series, No. 35, 90pp.<|separator|>
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Global Sea-level Observing System (GLOSS) Implementation plan
The first GLOSS Implementation Plan (GIP) in 1990 established the GLOSS Core Network (GCN) of ~300 tide gauges distributed around the world, technical standards ...
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Testing the Waters: Mobile Apps for Crowdsourced Streamflow Data
Apr 12, 2018 · Citizen scientists can use either of two free smartphone apps, CrowdWater and Stream Tracker, to collect streamflow data and other hydrological information.Missing: USGS IoT
[105]
National Water Dashboard (NWD) | U.S. Geological Survey
The National Water Dashboard (NWD) is a mobile, interactive tool that provides real-time information on water levels, weather, and flood forecasts.Missing: IoT sensors crowd- apps
[106]
Development of Water Level Prediction Models Using Machine ...
This study developed a water level prediction model using various machine learning models such as artificial neural network (ANN), decision tree (DT), random ...2. Materials And Methods · 2.2. Data Used · 3. Results
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Deep Learning Models for Water Stage Predictions in South Florida
Jun 28, 2023 · The dataset is from January 1, 2010, to December 31, 2020, downloaded from the DBHYDRO database of the South Florida Water Management District ( ...
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Technical Note: Open‐Source Software for Water‐Level ...
Jul 11, 2022 · In this study, measurements of water stage were reported to an accuracy of ±3 mm under tightly controlled laboratory conditions with a ...
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Millimeter to centimeter scale precision water-level monitoring using ...
This study showed that GNSS-R could achieve high precision, high sampling, increased service, and lower cost, thereby representing a crucial progress.
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Visual Measurement of Water Level under Complex Illumination ...
The resolution and accuracy of water-level measurement are 1 mm and 1 cm, respectively. In particular, the MMD value is efficient at identifying extremely ...Missing: advancements | Show results with:advancements
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A Framework of Blockchain Technology in Intelligent Water ...
The smart water system and blockchain technology are combined to monitor and encrypt the water use data in real time. Asymmetric encryption is used to ensure ...
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Blockchain-Enabled Water Quality Monitoring: A Comprehensive ...
Jul 22, 2025 · When applied to water quality monitoring, blockchain facilitates real-time data acquisition, enhances data integrity, and enables smart ...
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AI Improves the Accuracy, Reliability, and Economic Value of ...
Jun 19, 2025 · Here we present a novel hybrid framework that integrates AI-based machinery termed Errorcastnet (ECN) with the National Water Model (NWM)2 Methods · 2.3 Deep Learning Network · 4 Results<|control11|><|separator|>
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AI methods enhance rainfall and ocean forecasting in climate model
Both studies show that AI can enhance our ability to understand and predict complex weather and ocean patterns by uncovering hidden connections in climate data.