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Welfare capitalism

Welfare capitalism denotes the strategy employed by private enterprises to deliver social welfare provisions—such as housing, healthcare, education, and recreational amenities—directly to employees, with the primary aims of cultivating workforce loyalty, minimizing turnover costs, and countering the appeal of labor unions and radical ideologies within a competitive market framework.^[1] This approach emerged in the late 19th century during rapid industrialization, particularly in Britain and the United States, as firm owners recognized that high labor instability eroded profits and sought alternatives to state intervention or collectivization.^[1] Prominent historical implementations include the Cadbury family's development of the Bournville model village near Birmingham, providing affordable housing and community facilities to Quaker-owned chocolate factory workers starting in 1893, and Lever Brothers' Port Sunlight estate in 1888, which integrated sanitation, gardens, and cultural institutes to sustain a stable labor pool for soap production.^[2] In the United States, Henry Ford's 1914 introduction of the $5 workday—double prevailing wages—coupled with mandatory "sociological" oversight of workers' private lives, drastically cut annual turnover from over 370 percent to around 16 percent, demonstrating short-term efficacy in stabilizing operations amid skill shortages.^[2] Though empirically effective at select firms in boosting retention and output by addressing causal drivers of unrest like poverty and monotony, welfare capitalism faced critiques for its paternalistic surveillance and ultimate inability to halt broader union gains or the expansion of public welfare systems post-Great Depression, as economic downturns exposed limits to private provision.^[3] Distinct from social democratic welfare states reliant on universal taxation and redistribution, this model emphasized employer discretion and market incentives over government mandates, influencing modern corporate perks while underscoring tensions between profit motives and social stability.^[1]

Definition and Conceptual Framework

Core Principles and Definition

Welfare capitalism denotes an economic approach in which private employers furnish employees and their families with benefits extending beyond monetary compensation, such as housing, medical care, educational opportunities, and recreational amenities, primarily to cultivate worker loyalty, diminish turnover, and mitigate industrial conflict without reliance on state mandates.^[4] This practice emerged as a voluntary strategy by business leaders to align the interests of capital and labor, positing that enhanced worker welfare directly bolsters productivity and sustains capitalist enterprise.^[5] Historian Stuart Brandes characterized it as encompassing "any service provided for the comfort or improvement, direct or indirect, of employees, or their dependents, by employers in addition to wages or salaries," underscoring its roots in corporate discretion rather than public policy.^[4]^[6] At its core, welfare capitalism adheres to the principle of private initiative in social provision, rejecting coercive government intervention or collectivized labor solutions in favor of employer-driven incentives that foster mutual dependence between firms and workers.^[1] Proponents viewed it as a mechanism for preempting unionization and socialist agitation by demonstrating that capitalism could internally address socioeconomic grievances, thereby preserving managerial authority while promoting efficiency—evidenced, for instance, by reduced absenteeism and higher output in implementing firms during the early 20th century.^[7] This paternalistic framework emphasized long-term employment stability, profit-sharing schemes, and non-wage perks as tools for humanizing industry, with the underlying rationale that satisfied workers pose less threat to property rights and operational control.^[8] Distinguishing it from broader welfare state models, welfare capitalism prioritizes firm-specific, conditional benefits tied to employment loyalty over universal entitlements, aiming to embed social security within market dynamics rather than supplant them.^[5] Empirical assessments, such as those from the 1920s U.S. industrial surveys, indicate it temporarily curbed strike activity—for example, major firms reported labor dispute rates below 1% annually in benefit-heavy operations—though critics, including labor economists like Irving Bernstein, argued it masked power imbalances by substituting corporate benevolence for genuine bargaining rights.^[7]^[9] The approach's viability hinged on prosperous economic conditions, as downturns eroded capacity for sustained provisions, revealing its dependence on capitalist profitability.^[5]

Distinctions from Welfare State, Corporate Paternalism, and Socialism

Welfare capitalism differs from the welfare state primarily in its reliance on voluntary, employer-initiated provisions rather than compulsory, government-mandated universal entitlements funded by taxation. In welfare capitalism, benefits such as housing, healthcare, and recreation are extended by private firms directly to their employees to foster loyalty and productivity, remaining contingent on employment and firm-specific strategies.^[1] By contrast, the welfare state, as exemplified in post-World War II European models like Sweden's social democratic system established in the 1930s, delivers decommodified social services to all citizens irrespective of job status, often through redistributive policies that expand state intervention in the economy.^[10] This distinction underscores welfare capitalism's alignment with market incentives, avoiding the fiscal burdens and bureaucratic expansion associated with state welfare regimes that can reach 25-30% of GDP in comprehensive systems by the 1970s.^[11] Corporate paternalism, a precursor often linked to 19th-century industrialists creating self-contained company towns, emphasizes a top-down, quasi-familial benevolence where owners like George Cadbury in Bournville, England (established 1879), provided amenities to instill moral discipline and dependency, blending social control with welfare.^[12] Welfare capitalism, peaking in the 1920s, professionalizes this approach through systematic human resource policies in large corporations, such as Henry Ford's 1914 $5 workday tied to sobriety checks, prioritizing measurable gains in efficiency and union avoidance over personal oversight.^[1] While overlapping—both aim to mitigate class tensions within capitalism—paternalism's paternalistic ethos risks inefficiency from owner idiosyncrasies, whereas welfare capitalism's data-driven incentives, as in Kodak's employee stock plans yielding 20-30% lower turnover rates, reflect a managerial shift toward sustainable profitability.^[13] In opposition to socialism, which entails collective or state ownership of productive assets to eliminate exploitation, as theorized by Karl Marx in Das Kapital (1867) and implemented in the Soviet Union's 1920s nationalizations, welfare capitalism preserves private property and profit motives, deploying welfare as a stabilizing mechanism within competitive markets.^[14] Firms under welfare capitalism, like General Electric's 1920s recreation programs serving 50,000 employees, use benefits to align worker interests with capital accumulation, contrasting socialism's abolition of wage labor hierarchies in favor of planned economies that historically achieved 5-10% annual growth in the USSR until inefficiencies emerged by the 1970s.^[1] This approach critiques socialist centralization for stifling innovation, as evidenced by welfare capitalist firms' adaptability during the Great Depression, where benefit retention helped rebound faster than state-directed systems.^[15]

Historical Development

Early Precursors in Cooperatives and Model Villages (19th Century)

One of the earliest implementations of employer-provided welfare measures within a capitalist framework occurred at the New Lanark textile mills in Scotland, managed by Robert Owen from 1800 onward. Owen, a mill owner and social reformer, introduced programs including free education for workers' children via the world's first infant school in 1816, reduced working hours, non-alcoholic company stores with goods at cost, and communal savings initiatives to improve family welfare and moral character.^[16] These efforts, applied to a profitable industrial operation employing over 2,000 people, aimed to demonstrate that humane treatment enhanced productivity and loyalty, countering the era's harsh factory conditions while yielding dividends for partners that exceeded industry averages by up to 50 percent under Owen's tenure.^[17] Building on such precedents, mid-19th-century British industrialists developed model villages as comprehensive worker communities tied to their factories. In 1851, Titus Salt began constructing Saltaire near Bradford, England, around his new alpaca wool mill, which opened in 1853 and employed up to 4,000 workers by the 1870s. The village featured 800+ stone-built cottages with indoor plumbing and gardens, a hospital, schools, library, and recreation institute, all designed to promote hygiene, temperance, and family stability amid urban squalor, with Salt personally funding amenities to minimize absenteeism and labor unrest.^[18] Similarly, Quaker chocolate manufacturers George and Richard Cadbury relocated their Birmingham factory to Bournville in 1879, developing over 300 acres of low-density housing by the 1890s, complete with parks, allotments, and a village institute but no alcohol outlets, to foster healthier, more productive employees in line with their religious principles of social responsibility.^[19] These initiatives culminated in further examples like William Lever's Port Sunlight, initiated in 1888 near Liverpool for his soap factory workers. Covering 130 acres, the village included 900+ semi-detached homes with electricity and baths by 1914, a natatorium, schools, and the Sunlight Institute for lectures and sports, accommodating 3,000 residents and emphasizing aesthetic architecture to elevate worker morale and efficiency.^[20] Such paternalistic model villages, often inspired by Owen's experiments, represented voluntary corporate investments in housing, education, and recreation—totaling millions in private capital—intended to bind labor to the firm, avert socialist agitation, and sustain profitability without state intervention or union concessions, laying groundwork for systematic welfare capitalism.^[21]

Emergence as Industrial Strategy in Europe (Late 19th-Early 20th Century)

In the late 19th century, European industrialists increasingly implemented welfare measures as a deliberate strategy to enhance worker productivity, reduce labor turnover, and mitigate the appeal of socialist movements amid rapid urbanization and poor working conditions. This approach, distinct from state-led initiatives, involved private provision of housing, health services, and recreational facilities to foster employee loyalty and stability. By the 1880s, such practices gained traction in Britain and Germany, where firms like Cadbury and Krupp viewed welfare investments as economically rational, yielding returns through lower absenteeism and higher output.^[22] In Britain, the Cadbury brothers established Bournville in 1879 as a model village adjacent to their Birmingham chocolate factory, featuring affordable housing, open spaces, and community amenities designed to improve workers' living standards and moral well-being. George Cadbury, influenced by Quaker principles, allocated significant resources to welfare, with 30% of capital expenditure directed toward employee benefits by 1902, including education and health provisions that predated broader statutory reforms. Similarly, William Lever founded Port Sunlight in 1888 near Liverpool for his soap manufacturing operations, constructing over 700 homes by 1909 in a garden village style, complete with schools, a hospital, and leisure facilities to promote hygiene, family life, and firm allegiance. These initiatives exemplified industrial paternalism, where benefits were tied to employment to discourage unionization and maintain managerial control.^[23]^[24]^[25] In Germany, Alfred Krupp advanced corporate welfare at his Essen steelworks, initiating social programs as early as the 1860s but expanding them significantly in the late 19th century to address labor shortages and social unrest. By 1863, Krupp had built the Alt-Westend housing colony for workers, followed by further developments including parks, schools, and accident insurance schemes that exceeded emerging state requirements. Krupp's model, which included pensions from 1855 and cooperative health efforts with local authorities, aimed to create a dependent yet productive workforce, positioning the firm as a quasi-paternal authority in an era of Bismarck's state social insurance laws starting in 1883. These European efforts laid the groundwork for welfare capitalism's strategic use in countering radical labor politics while aligning with capitalist incentives for efficiency.^[26]^[27]

Peak Implementation and Global Spread

United States in the 1920s

In the United States during the 1920s, welfare capitalism emerged as a dominant industrial strategy, with large corporations offering extensive employee benefits to promote loyalty, minimize turnover, and undermine independent labor unions amid postwar economic prosperity and anti-union sentiment.^[28] Firms emphasized "high-wage" policies alongside profit-sharing, stock ownership plans, and personnel departments to manage grievances internally, viewing these as tools for stabilizing the workforce without external interference.^[28] This approach aligned with broader business opposition to organized labor, as evidenced by the decline in union membership from about 5 million workers in 1920 to roughly 3.5 million by the decade's end.^[29] Key implementations included company-provided pensions, medical care, recreational programs, vocational training, and housing subsidies, often bundled with "employee representation plans"—internal committees that served as alternatives to independent unions but lacked genuine bargaining power.^[28] Ford Motor Company exemplified this by extending its 1914 $5-per-day wage (equivalent to about $150 in 2023 dollars, far exceeding industry norms) and, in 1922, shortening the workweek from six to five days for many employees, aiming to foster long-term attachment and reduce absenteeism.^[28] Similarly, DuPont, Eastman Kodak, General Motors, Bethlehem Steel, and U.S. Steel adopted multifaceted programs, including health clinics and suggestion systems, to link worker welfare directly to firm performance and loyalty.^[3] A notable case was John Morrell & Company, a meatpacking firm in Ottumwa, Iowa, which between 1922 and 1925 introduced profit-sharing bonuses, life insurance, paid vacations, and low-cost housing after defeating a local union affiliated with the Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America.^[30] These measures, funded by company profits during the era's industrial boom, were credited with improving morale and productivity; for instance, Morrell's absenteeism dropped significantly post-implementation.^[30] However, such plans often prioritized stable, skilled workers while excluding or marginalizing seasonal or immigrant labor, reflecting a selective paternalism designed to maintain managerial control.^[28] Overall, welfare capitalism's prevalence in the 1920s correlated with low strike activity and economic growth, though its sustainability was tested by the impending Great Depression.^[29]

Applications in Other Regions (Asia, Latin America)

In East Asia, welfare capitalism adapted to developmental state contexts, emphasizing firm-level provisions to support rapid industrialization and labor stability. In Japan, postwar large enterprises institutionalized lifetime employment, seniority-based wages, and comprehensive corporate welfare from the 1950s onward, including company-subsidized housing, health clinics, and family allowances offered by firms such as Toyota and Mitsubishi. These measures, which covered approximately 30% of the workforce in core industries by the 1960s, aimed to minimize turnover—reducing it to under 5% annually in large firms—and align employee loyalty with productivity gains, contributing to annual GDP growth averaging 9.3% between 1956 and 1973.^[31]^[32] This system drew on prewar precedents but expanded under Ministry of International Trade and Industry guidance, distinguishing it from state welfare by tying benefits directly to firm tenure and performance.^[33] South Korea and Taiwan exhibited similar productivist variants during their export-led booms from the 1960s to 1980s, where chaebol conglomerates like Samsung and Hyundai provided housing estates, on-site medical care, and education subsidies to workers, often covering 20-30% of employees in key sectors. In South Korea, these practices supported labor discipline amid authoritarian rule, with firm welfare expenditures rising to offset limited public social spending, which remained below 5% of GDP until the 1990s.^[34]^[35] Singapore integrated corporate elements through employer-mandated contributions to the Central Provident Fund, established in 1955, which by 1980 directed 20% of wages toward retirement, housing, and health savings, fostering a hybrid where firms competed on benefit packages to attract skilled labor.^[36] These Asian models prioritized economic growth over decommodification, with social protections conditional on employment contribution, contrasting Esping-Andersen's liberal or social-democratic regimes.^[37] In Latin America, welfare capitalism applications were marginal and often subsumed under state corporatism or informal paternalism, lacking the systematic firm-led scale seen in Asia or the North. Sporadic examples emerged in mid-20th-century industrialization, such as Brazilian automotive firms in São Paulo during the 1950s-1960s providing subsidized housing and cooperatives to workers, mirroring early model villages but tied to import-substitution policies rather than pure market incentives.^[38] These efforts, however, covered fewer than 10% of industrial workers and eroded with urban migration and expanding public welfare post-1970s, as governments like Brazil's assumed primary social roles via programs reaching millions by the 1988 Constitution.^[39] In Mexico, hierarchical family firms occasionally offered in-kind benefits like company stores and health services during the PRI era (1929-2000), but these were clientelist tools amid union-state alliances, not anti-union productivity strategies, with formal welfare capitalism overshadowed by redistributive state expansions.^[40] Overall, regional political instability and reliance on commodity exports limited corporate welfare's diffusion, yielding hybrid regimes where employer provisions supplemented rather than supplanted public systems.^[41]

Operational Features

Employee Benefits and Services Provided

![Houses on Greendale Avenue, Port Sunlight.jpg][float-right] In welfare capitalism, employers extended a range of non-wage benefits and services to workers, including housing assistance, medical care, educational programs, and recreational facilities, designed to improve living standards, reduce absenteeism, and cultivate company loyalty.^[42] These provisions formed part of broader welfare initiatives that supplemented cash wages with targeted support for employee well-being.^[43] Key benefits encompassed pensions for retirement security, sick pay and disability coverage to address health-related income loss, and stock purchase plans enabling worker investment in the firm.^[43] Recreational and educational opportunities, such as company-sponsored classes and leisure activities, aimed to enhance skills and morale, while safety measures in workplaces mitigated injury risks.^[43] Health services were a prominent feature, with early 20th-century firms establishing on-site medical departments as components of comprehensive welfare strategies that also included housing and social assistance.^[44] For example, meatpacker John Morrell & Company rolled out extensive employee welfare programs between 1922 and 1925, following a successful anti-union campaign, which incorporated services for comfort and improvement beyond legal requirements.^[30] In Europe, industrialist Werner von Siemens implemented profit-sharing, annual bonuses, a pension fund, shortened work hours, and social gatherings at his firm starting in the late 19th century to promote productivity and avert labor unrest.^[45] Such measures exemplified how welfare capitalism integrated leisure, health, and financial incentives to align worker interests with corporate goals, often under a paternalistic framework.^[8]

Productivity and Loyalty Incentives

In welfare capitalism, productivity incentives centered on mechanisms that aligned worker effort with firm output, such as efficiency wages exceeding market rates to curb shirking and high turnover, alongside non-monetary perks like recreational facilities that improved health and reduced absenteeism. Henry Ford implemented the $5 daily wage in January 1914—doubling the industry average of $2.34—explicitly to address annual turnover rates surpassing 370% at his Highland Park plant, where assembly-line demands required skilled, consistent labor.^[46] ^[47] This policy, conditional on good behavior and sobriety verified by home visits, not only plummeted turnover to under 20% within a year but also boosted profits from $2.3 million in 1913 to over $26 million by 1916, as retained workers honed expertise and minimized training costs.^[48] Loyalty incentives emphasized long-term attachment through vested benefits, including company housing, pensions accruing over tenure, and community amenities that created dependency on the employer. British firms like Cadbury Brothers at Bournville, starting in 1879, built model villages with affordable cottages, parks, and adult education classes, reasoning that hygienic living and leisure access would cultivate healthier, more committed workers less prone to migration or unrest.^[2] George Cadbury's approach yielded low voluntary quits and high suggestion-scheme participation, enhancing process efficiencies as employees invested intellectually in firm success.^[49] Similarly, Lever Brothers' Port Sunlight village from 1888 provided comparable housing and cultural institutes, tying families to the soapworks and reducing poaching by competitors.^[2] These strategies rested on causal links where reduced mobility lowered hiring expenses—estimated at $0.16 daily per worker pre-Ford reforms—and where loyalty fostered discretionary effort beyond baseline wages.^[47] Profit-sharing and stock plans, as in early U.S. implementations, further reinforced this by distributing gains from collective productivity, though efficacy varied by enforcement of behavioral conditions to prevent moral hazard.^[3] Overall, such incentives demonstrably stabilized workforces in non-union settings, prioritizing firm-specific human capital over market fluidity.

Labor Relations and Controversies

Anti-Union Strategies and Motivations

Welfare capitalism served as a deliberate corporate strategy to undermine independent labor unions by cultivating direct worker loyalty to employers, thereby preempting the appeal of collective bargaining. Employers motivated by desires to retain managerial prerogative, minimize strike risks, and curb rising labor militancy—exemplified by post-World War I unrest—offered non-wage benefits such as pensions, health programs, and recreational facilities to foster dependency and satisfaction without third-party intervention.^[50] ^[51] This approach aligned with broader efforts to resist socialism and government regulation, positioning company-provided welfare as a superior alternative to union-negotiated gains.^[51] A core tactic involved elevating wages and perks to reduce turnover and bind workers economically to the firm, as seen in Henry Ford's implementation of the $5 daily wage on January 5, 1914, which halved the prior 370% annual turnover rate at Ford Motor Company by enabling workers to afford company products like the Model T, thus boosting demand while deterring union agitation.^[51] Ford's broader welfare initiatives, including profit-sharing and sociological departments monitoring employee behavior, aimed to instill self-discipline and moral conformity, explicitly to avoid external union influence and maintain production stability amid skill shortages.^[51] ^[3] Similar motivations drove firms like General Electric, which introduced pensions in 1912 and employee representation plans in 1918, slashing turnover from 50% in the 1910s to 26% for long-tenured workers by 1928 through implicit contracts emphasizing loyalty over adversarial bargaining.^[3] Employee representation plans (ERPs), or company unions, constituted another key anti-union mechanism, allowing workers to elect internal representatives for grievance arbitration under management oversight, thereby channeling dissent away from independent organizing.^[50] Pioneered by John D. Rockefeller Jr. at Colorado Fuel & Iron following the 1914 Ludlow Massacre and expanded via the Special Conference Committee in the 1920s, these plans proliferated at firms like U.S. Steel—where they covered over 90% of workers within a year of 1933 implementation—and Standard Oil of New Jersey under Walter Teagle, combining higher wages with controlled participation to delay industry-wide unionization.^[50] Companies such as DuPont, Procter & Gamble, and Kodak sustained non-union statuses into later decades by enforcing such implicit welfare contracts, with employee support for internal plans reaching 75-82% where benefits were reliably delivered.^[3] These strategies contributed to a decline in U.S. union membership from 5 million in 1919 to 3 million by 1933, as welfare programs covered 1.5 million production workers (15% of the total) across 400 establishments by 1929, temporarily stabilizing labor relations and reducing strikes in participating firms.^[50] ^[3] However, their efficacy hinged on economic prosperity; during the Great Depression, benefit cutbacks prompted repudiation of implicit contracts, facilitating union resurgence under the 1935 National Labor Relations Act, which deemed many ERPs unlawful.^[50] ^[3]

Paternalism, Dependency Risks, and Worker Autonomy

Paternalism characterized welfare capitalism through employers' extension of authority into employees' private spheres, providing housing, education, and recreation while imposing behavioral codes to promote sobriety and productivity. In William Lever's Port Sunlight village, established in 1888 near Liverpool, workers received subsidized homes and community facilities, but company publications like Progress defended these against criticisms of intrusive oversight, such as restrictions on personal conduct.^[27]^[52] This approach echoed George Pullman's 1880s company town in Illinois, where architecture and rules banned alcohol and gambling to "uplift" residents, yet prioritized firm control over worker input.^[53] Dependency risks emerged from workers' entanglement with firm-specific ecosystems, including company housing and stores, which heightened vulnerability to employer decisions; during the 1893 economic depression, Pullman's maintenance of elevated rents despite 25-40% wage reductions trapped families in debt, precipitating the 1894 strike involving 250,000 rail workers.^[54]^[55] A federal arbitration commission condemned Pullman's paternalism for fostering resentment rather than loyalty, noting evictions of 3,000 workers amid the conflict.^[54] Broader historical patterns in welfare capitalism showed similar exposures, as the Great Depression from 1929 dismantled many 1920s U.S. programs—reducing benefits at firms like General Electric—leaving dependent employees without alternatives when layoffs hit.^[56] Worker autonomy suffered under these regimes due to surveillance and prohibitions that supplanted self-determination with corporate moralism; in Pullman, mandatory church services and agent monitoring curtailed leisure choices, framing independence as a threat to order.^[57] Analyses of company towns indicate paternalism reinforced power imbalances, limiting mobility and union formation by tying welfare to compliance, unlike market-driven alternatives that preserved choice.^[58]^[59] While proponents argued benefits enhanced stability, evidence from strikes and program abandonments reveals curtailed agency often fueled backlash, undermining long-term efficacy.^[60]

Empirical Efficacy

In the United States, Henry Ford's implementation of the $5-a-day wage in 1914 exemplified welfare capitalism's capacity to enhance economic outcomes. Prior to this policy, Ford Motor Company's annual labor turnover exceeded 370%, incurring substantial training costs for new assembly line workers; following the wage increase—effectively doubling average industrial pay—and the introduction of an eight-hour workday, turnover plummeted to 16%, stabilizing the workforce and enabling sustained productivity gains through reduced disruptions and skill retention.^[61] This shift not only lowered overall labor expenses but also expanded the consumer base for automobiles, as higher disposable incomes among workers fueled demand for Ford's Model T, contributing to the company's rapid growth and the broader emergence of a middle class.^[46]^[62] European cases further demonstrate social and economic benefits. At Cadbury's Bournville village near Birmingham, established in 1893, the provision of affordable housing, recreational facilities, and profit-sharing pensions fostered worker loyalty and reduced absenteeism, with the company allocating up to 30% of capital expenditures to employee welfare, correlating with expanded production capacity and minimal labor unrest during the early 20th century.^[63] Similarly, Lever Brothers' Port Sunlight village, developed from 1888, integrated high-quality housing, education, and health services for soap factory employees, underpinning the firm's output surge from 450 tons of soap per week in 1888 to global dominance as Unilever, while promoting community stability and lower disease rates through sanitary conditions that enhanced long-term workforce health.^[64]^[20] These initiatives yielded measurable social successes, including improved family welfare and skill development. Ford's program included sociological oversight to encourage thrift and homeownership, resulting in elevated living standards and reduced reliance on public assistance among beneficiaries.^[65] In model villages like Bournville and Port Sunlight, amenities such as schools and parks led to higher literacy and physical well-being, with residents exhibiting greater community cohesion and lower poverty incidence compared to contemporaneous industrial slums, thereby sustaining intergenerational productivity.^[66] Overall, welfare capitalism's emphasis on private provision correlated with firm-level efficiencies and societal metrics like decreased infant mortality in beneficiary communities during the 1910s–1920s.^[63]

Criticisms, Limitations, and Failures

Critics of welfare capitalism have highlighted its inherent paternalism, whereby employers assumed quasi-parental roles in regulating workers' moral, social, and economic lives through surveillance, housing mandates, and recreational oversight, which eroded individual autonomy and cultivated dependency on firm-specific benevolence rather than market-driven self-reliance or collective bargaining.^[56] This structure incentivized loyalty but exposed workers to risks when managerial priorities shifted, as benefits lacked legal portability and could be withdrawn amid cost pressures, leaving employees vulnerable without alternative safety nets.^[67] A key limitation emerged in economic downturns, where the model's sustainability faltered under reduced revenues, prompting benefit cuts that ignited labor unrest despite prior investments in welfare. The 1894 Pullman Strike exemplifies this failure: George Pullman's paternalistic company town, featuring subsidized housing, schools, and churches to deter unions, collapsed when the Panic of 1893 forced wage reductions of 25-40% without corresponding rent relief in company-owned dwellings, triggering a strike by 4,000 local workers that escalated into a national boycott involving 250,000 railroad employees, federal troops, and 30 deaths.^[68] Similarly, during the Great Depression starting in 1929, widespread firm retrenchments—such as layoffs and program suspensions at welfare-oriented companies—undermined the approach, as unemployment reached 25% by 1933 and labor markets collapsed, rendering voluntary employer provisions insufficient against systemic shocks.^[67]^[69] Empirically, welfare capitalism delayed but did not prevent unionization, achieving lower organizing rates in participating firms during the 1920s—evidenced by union density falling to 3.2% in manufacturing by 1929—through anti-union incentives like profit-sharing and grievance committees, yet these proved inadequate against the 1935 Wagner Act, which spurred membership to 8.8 million by 1939.^[3] High administrative costs, estimated at 5-10% of payroll for programs like employee representation plans, further constrained scalability, limiting adoption to large, stable enterprises while smaller firms relied on wage competition, exacerbating labor market segmentation.^[70] Moreover, the model's emphasis on individual firm loyalty overlooked broader power imbalances, as workers in non-welfare settings faced exploitation without comparable protections, contributing to perceptions of it as an elitist stratagem rather than a universal solution.

Legacy and Contemporary Relevance

Long-Term Impacts on Labor Markets

Welfare capitalism, particularly in its 1920s American incarnation, contributed to the emergence of internal labor markets characterized by seniority-based promotions, firm-specific training, and reduced employee turnover, which stabilized employment relations in participating firms by incentivizing long-term loyalty over external job-hopping.^[3] ^[71] These structures enhanced labor productivity through high human capital investments and implicit long-term contracts, as evidenced by firms like Kodak and Procter & Gamble, where minimal program repudiation during the Great Depression preserved cooperative dynamics and internal enforcement mechanisms.^[3] In contrast, firms such as General Motors and Ford, which suspended up to 75% of welfare programs amid severe sales declines (e.g., Ford's 79% drop), shifted toward adversarial relations and explicit union contracts post-1935 Wagner Act, fostering industrial union growth in sectors with disrupted trust.^[3] Post-Depression, welfare capitalism's vestiges persisted in non-union "modern manors," where personnel management emphasized career jobs and fringe benefits, influencing a segmented U.S. labor market divided between unionized adversarial sectors and non-union cooperative ones with lower union density.^[72] ^[3] This duality delayed widespread unionization by offering private alternatives to collective bargaining—such as profit-sharing and pensions—reducing perceived needs for external representation, though empirical data from 14 major firms shows no uniform collapse, with survivors maintaining higher productivity via retained loyalty incentives.^[3] ^[51] By the post-World War II era, these practices normalized employer-sponsored benefits, covering segments of the workforce and contributing to internal labor market persistence into the late 20th century, albeit eroding with globalization and financialization that favored short-term contracts over lifetime employment.^[71] ^[73] Long-term, welfare capitalism's emphasis on paternalistic incentives shaped modern human resource strategies, embedding elements like health insurance and retirement plans into labor contracts, which supported wage compression within firms but potentially limited inter-firm mobility and bargaining power for non-covered workers.^[74] Historical analysis indicates it undermined union power in stable industries by cultivating dependency on firm benevolence, correlating with slower union density growth in welfare-oriented sectors compared to repudiating ones, though broader market shifts post-1970s diminished these internal structures amid rising precarity.^[3] ^[75] Empirical persistence is seen in non-union manufacturing, where deviations from spot-market wages remained significant through the 1990s, reflecting enduring impacts on labor allocation and skill development.^[73]

Modern Echoes in Corporate Benefits and Debates on Revival

In the technology sector, corporations have implemented extensive employee perks such as complimentary meals, on-site fitness centers, subsidized childcare, and wellness programs, mirroring historical welfare capitalism's emphasis on paternalistic provisions to foster loyalty and reduce turnover.^[76] These amenities, prevalent in Silicon Valley firms like Google and Meta through the 2010s, aimed to create self-contained "campuses" that minimized employees' need to leave work premises, thereby enhancing productivity.^[77] However, following mass layoffs and a shift toward artificial intelligence investments post-2022, many tech companies have curtailed such perks, with reports indicating a decline in splashy offerings like free laundry and gourmet cafeterias by late 2024.^[78] ^[79] Despite these reductions, core benefits like comprehensive health insurance, flexible scheduling, and professional development opportunities persist and correlate with improved employee retention in the tech industry. A 2024 survey of tech firms found that while financial scrutiny has led to some expense cuts, benefits packages remain stable, with employers prioritizing mental health support and remote work options to attract talent amid competition.^[80] Studies indicate that such retention-focused benefits, including equity offerings and paid sabbaticals, reduce voluntary turnover by signaling investment in employee well-being, though their impact is moderated by high industry-wide mobility driven by stock-based compensation.^[81] ^[82] Outside tech, retailers like Costco continue providing above-market wages and health coverage to frontline workers, echoing early 20th-century models by tying benefits to long-term employment stability.^[2] Debates on reviving welfare capitalism center on expanding employer-mandated benefits as an alternative to government-led welfare expansion, arguing that tying social supports to work incentivizes employment without fostering dependency. Proponents, such as those at the Niskanen Center and American Compass, advocate universalizing employer-provided health insurance, paid parental leave, and vacations through mandates and subsidies for small firms, citing public preference—69% satisfaction with employer-sponsored health plans per Gallup polls—for such systems over decoupled universal programs.^[83] ^[84] This approach, they contend, addresses coverage gaps, as the share of firms offering health benefits fell from 66% in 1999 to 57% in 2018, disproportionately affecting small businesses employing nearly half of private-sector workers.^[83] Critics, however, note that mandates could raise costs for low-wage employers, potentially accelerating automation or offshoring, and empirical evidence from the Affordable Care Act's employer mandate shows only modest uptake increases without broader structural shifts.^[83]

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Going beyond The three worlds of welfare capitalism: regime theory ...
It outlines The three worlds of welfare capitalism typology, and it presents the criticisms it received and an overview of alternative welfare state typologies.
[12]
[PDF] Paternalism and Corporate Welfarism in Large-Scale Enterprise
Stuart Brandes, American Wd•are Cn_•tal•m. 1880-1940. (•cago: University of •cago Press, 1976). 4. David Brody, "me Ri•e and Decline of Welfare Capitalism ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[13]
[PDF] Debating the Responsibility of Capitalism in ... - Harvard DASH
societal role for firms in the form of industrial paternalism and welfare capitalism. ... A major difference ... corporate paternalism discussed above, it would ...<|separator|>
[14]
Capitalism vs. Socialism: What's the Difference? - Investopedia
Capitalism promotes free market conditions, whereas socialism incorporates certain elements of centralized economic planning.What Is Capitalism? · How Capitalism Works · Socialism vs. Capitalism...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Socialism is Worse Than Capitalism—You Want a Welfare State
Jan 21, 2016 · What is the distinction between socialism and the modern welfare state? One way to think about it is in terms of market intervention vs.<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
Robert Owen | Biography, Beliefs, New Lanark, New Harmony, & Facts
His New Lanark mills in Lanarkshire, Scotland, with their social and industrial welfare programs, became a place of pilgrimage for political leaders, social ...
[17]
Robert Owen and New Lanark - The Open University
New Lanark was a large capitalist enterprise in a rapidly developing industry, whereas the European examples were essentially agricultural or urban workhouses.
[18]
The Foundation of Saltaire
Find out how Sir Titus Salt chose a site for a huge new textile mill and a radical model village, and started a 20 year building project.
[19]
Bournville's story
By the late 18th century, brothers George and Richard Cadbury had seen the chocolate business, started by their father John, flourish thanks to the quality ...
[20]
The story of William Lever - National Museums Liverpool
He built Port Sunlight to provide his workforce with good housing. He campaigned for better welfare and a shorter working day, and supported building, education ...
[21]
Company Towns: 1880s to 1935 - Social Welfare History Project
Nov 19, 2024 · Company towns developed out of a paternalistic effort to create a utopian worker's village. Churches, schools, libraries, and other amenities were constructed.Missing: precursors cooperatives
[22]
Capitalist Workingman's Paradises Revisited: Corporate Welfare ...
This research paper deals with welfare work in four at the time industrializing countries, Great Britain, the USA, Germany and France, in the half century of ...
[23]
Cadbury turns 200: 11 milestones in its history - BBC
Mar 3, 2024 · 1879: Bournville, the factory in a garden ... The Cadbury brothers, strict Quakers, wanted a different kind of industrial site, one where workers ...Missing: date welfare capitalism
[24]
Our Story - Cadbury.ie
In 1902, 30% of Cadbury's capital expenditure was spent on workers' welfare. ... In 1935, the Cadbury family founded the Cadbury Foundation, as a tribute to ...Missing: date capitalism
[25]
Discover | Stories | 90 Years of Doing Good - Unilever Archives
The Port Sunlight Village built exclusively for Lever Brothers' workers offered high-quality housing, services, and leisure facilities. Caring for their ...Missing: corporate | Show results with:corporate
[26]
The Krupp Welfare Program, 1860-1914 - jstor
In Essen, Alfred Krupp contributed extensively to various educational under- takings, aided the city in health matters, cooperated with it in fire ...
[27]
[PDF] the industrial paternalism of William Hesketh Lever at Port Sunlight ...
At Lever Brothers soap company in Port Sunlight, U.K.,. William Lever, between 1888-1925, instituted employee benefits that preceded the welfare state. Yet, in ...
[28]
The U.S. Economy in the 1920s – EH.net
The most common aspects of welfare capitalism included personnel management to handle employment issues and problems, the doctrine of “high wages,” company ...
[29]
Chapter 2: The 1920s and the Start of the Depression 1921-1933
Labor unions were declining as firms promoted company unions and provided increased benefits to workers under what was known as "welfare capitalism.
[30]
[PDF] The Welfare Capitalism of John Morrell and Company, 1922-1937
Morrell introduced most of these employee welfare plans from 1922 to 1925, after its victory over a local of the Amalgamated Meat Cutters and. Butcher Workmen ...
[31]
The Welfare State in Japan | SpringerLink
Sep 12, 2024 · ... Japan among the three worlds of welfare capitalism is difficult. ... lifetime employment, the seniority wage system, and firm-level labour unions.
[32]
A Society of Long-Term Commitments | Stock Market Capitalism
Book cover for Stock Market Capitalism: Welfare Capitalism: Japan and ... Lifetime employment has support in case law: employees' claims to unfair ...
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https://brill.com/display/book/9789004291485/B9789004291485-s002.pdf
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the politics of welfare state reform in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan
This review article provides an overview of the scholarship on the establishment and reform of East Asian welfare capitalism. The developmental welfare ...
[35]
Forgotten Concepts of Korea's Welfare State: Productivist Welfare ...
Oct 13, 2023 · Forgotten Concepts of Korea's Welfare State: Productivist Welfare Capitalism and Confucianism Revisited in Family Policy Change. Martin Gurín.
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[PDF] Productivist Welfare Capitalism: Social Policy in East Asia - Wasabi
In Singapore, then, social rights are very limited and something close to the developmental- particularist form of productivist welfare capitalism is found.
[37]
[PDF] institutional varieties of productivist welfare capitalism
Feb 25, 2013 · I conduct cluster analysis to test this presumed variation in PWC. INSTITUTIONAL VARIETIES OF PRODUCTIVIST WELFARE CAPITALISM. IN EAST ASIA.
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[PDF] Types of capitalism in Latin America - Free
In Mexico, for example, the so called ... Esping-Andersen, Gosta (1990), The three worlds of welfare capitalism, Princeton, New Jersey,. Princeton University ...
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The Welfare State in Latin America: reform, innovation and fatigue
For example, in Brazil, noncontributory pensions are legally set at the ... The three worlds of welfare capitalism. Princeton: Princeton University ...
[40]
Types of Capitalism in Latin America - OpenEdition Journals
In Mexico, for example, the ... Esping-Andersen, Gosta (1990), The three worlds of welfare capitalism, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press.
[41]
[PDF] The Political Economy of Welfare States in Latin America
The iconic examples, which we will discuss, are cash-based transfer ... The Three Worlds of. Welfare Capitalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton. University ...
[42]
Welfare Capitalism - Encyclopedia of Chicago
The peak of enthusiasm for welfare capitalism was in the 1920s, and in that era the Western Electric Company was widely respected as a model employer. Its ...Missing: United | Show results with:United
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Employee Welfare – The Human Relations Movement - Baker Library
Employee welfare included pensions, sick pay, disability benefits, stock purchase plans, recreational and educational programs, and safety measures like safety ...
[44]
Origins and Evolution of Employment-Based Health Benefits - NCBI
In the early part of this century, company medical services could be one component of "welfare capitalism," a range of housing, education, social assistance, ...
[45]
Wily welfare capitalist: Werner von Siemens and the pension plan
Aug 9, 2025 · Profit sharing, annual bonuses, a pension fund, a reduction in work hours, and an annual party were all means to ensure a productive, trouble- ...
[46]
Ford's Five-Dollar Day | The Henry Ford - Blog
Jan 3, 2014 · Many simply quit, and Ford found itself with a crippling labor turnover rate of 370 percent. The assembly line depended on a steady crew of ...Missing: data | Show results with:data
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[PDF] Did Henry Ford Pay Efficiency Wages?
We have noted that prior to the five-dollar day, turnover rates at. Ford had ... reduced turnover saved the firms about $0.16 per day. Even allowing for ...
[48]
Henry Ford Institutes the $5.00 a Day Minimum Wage - EBSCO
The strategy proved effective as the company experienced a considerable reduction in turnover rates and a doubling of profits within just two years. Ford's ...Missing: data | Show results with:data
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Cadbury: Reinventing Both Chocolate and the Workplace
Jun 11, 2017 · “No doubt efficiency at Bournville is assisted by the suggestion scheme, not only in the pecuniary value but also in the development of the ...
[50]
The Rise and Fall of Labor Unions in the U.S. - Who Rules America
... welfare-capitalism strategy to combat unions emphasized during the 1920s. In fact, the Welfare Department within the NCF played a large role in ...Missing: motivations | Show results with:motivations
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Welfare Capitalism in the 1920s and Its Long-Term Effects
Oct 12, 2025 · Welfare capitalism in the 1920s laid the groundwork for today's employee benefits such as pensions, health insurance, and paid leave. Though ...Missing: United | Show results with:United
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Corporate paternalism on the rocks: a historical analysis of power ...
Sep 17, 2021 · Corporate paternalism on the rocks: a historical analysis of ... welfare capitalism. A shifting use of paternalism enabled the state ...
[53]
The Pullman Story Part 2 - National Park Service
Mar 8, 2024 · Though public sentiment had been against the boycott, George Pullman was roundly criticized for the policies that led to the strike and his ...
[54]
The Strike of 1894 - Pullman National Historical Park (U.S. National ...
Though public sentiment had been against the boycott, George Pullman was roundly criticized for the policies that led to the strike and his refusal to enter ...
[55]
The Pullman Strike | NIUDL - NIU Digital Library
But widespread layoffs threatened both profits and the paternalism on which his town had been founded. In 1894, he began taking contracts at a loss— ...
[56]
[PDF] The Decline of Corporate Paternalism and Welfare Capitalism, A ...
Apr 26, 2017 · The neo-Marxists criticized the capitalist state, including its social and economic functions, because of the palpable class struggle that they.
[57]
Paternalism and the Pullman Strike - jstor
Desirous of avoiding labor dif- ficulties, Pullman believed that paternalism wisely administered would lull the restless yearnings of the laborer and give to ...
[58]
[PDF] Governing the Company Town - Stanford Law Review
WELFARE CAPITALISM, 1880-1940, at 18-19 (1976) (citing the Pullman strike as ... capitalism, Stuart Brandes describes how the growing “popularity of.
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Employee Benefits and Paternalistic Work Regimes - jstor
Oct 8, 2019 · This article examines the changing role of employee benefits in work regimes in light of the controversies associated with paternalism. We ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
Modern Manors - The New York Times
Thus they fashioned an alternative--welfare capitalism--whose main idea was that corporations would shield workers from the strains of industrialism.
[61]
The Story of Henry Ford's $5 a Day Wages: It's Not What You Think
Mar 4, 2012 · Ford's turnover rate was very high. ... So it wasn't $5 a day and it was done actually to reduce total labour costs by reducing labour turnover.
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Henry Ford's $5-a-Day Revolution
In 1914, Henry Ford started an industrial revolution by more than doubling wages to $5 a day—a move that helped build the U.S. middle class and the modern ...
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Victorian business owners that put wellbeing at the heart of their ...
Jun 3, 2024 · 30% of Cadbury's capital expenditure was spent on workers' wellbeing. ... employees are more productive, engaged, and loyal. Look at some of ...
[64]
[PDF] Port Sunlight Village - Unilever Archives
The following year, with his brother, James D`Arcy Lever, he acquired the company of Winser and Co. in Warrington to start the production of. Sunlight soap.
[65]
The Ford Five Dollar Day
The Ford Five Dollar Day · The term welfare capitalism refers to a benevolent employer setting up programs and organizations (e.g. sports teams, recreational ...
[66]
The History of Cadbury's Company Culture | Liberty Mind
Jul 15, 2022 · Cadbury wasn't just winning customers' hearts with their chocolates, it was also gaining workers' loyalty and trust. However, they ...
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Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism Since the New Deal – EH.net
Sears Roebuck, the Chicago company that began as a mail order house and emerged as the nation's largest retailer in the postwar era, produced a different style ...<|separator|>
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Pullman: In the Shops - Scalar
While nearly every observer agreed the town of Pullman represented an experiment in alleviating the conflicts of industrial life, not everyone agreed with ...<|separator|>
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Chapter 2: The 1920s and the Start of the Depression (1921-1933)
Labor unions were declining as firms promoted company unions and provided increased benefits to workers under what was known as "welfare capitalism.
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Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism since the New Deal - jstor
"Fringe" benefits, new forms of employee participation, and sophisticated anti-union policies are just some of the outgrowths of welfare capitalism that ...
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[PDF] Jacoby, Sanford M. Are career jobs headed for extinction?
Jacoby, Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism since the New Deal. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997). 5. In manufacturing, job loss rates in the ...
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[PDF] “Postmodern” Manors: Welfare Capitalism at the End of the Century
But it is wrong, in my view, to minimize or ignore the persistence of paternalism. It is also misleading to think of welfare capitalism as one monolithic ...
[73]
[PDF] The Rise and Decline of U.S. Internal Labor Markets
We find no evidence of a recent decline in the importance of internal labor markets in large firms, as measured by the magnitude or persistence of deviations in ...
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[PDF] Welfare Capitalism: A European and Comparative Perspective
Welfare capitalism was a good fit for a distinctive American environment ... based on internal labor markets. In France, large firms in steel ...
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[PDF] New Deal Labor Reforms and their Aftermath - Cornell eCommons
In that respect, it is justified to contend that modern welfare capitalism also contributed to the gradual postwar decline of unionism and the power of ...
[76]
Welfare Capitalism: How Employers Use Wellness & Perks to ...
Apr 2, 2021 · Companies offer all sorts of benefits and extras to attract the most favored workers, from health care and stock options to free food.
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[PDF] Employee Perks in Silicon Valley: Technology Companies Lead the â
The practice of providing “in-kind” perks to employees that go beyond the traditional benefits of health care coverage and retirement.Missing: welfare capitalism
[78]
What Happened to the Tech Industry's 'Perks Culture'?
Dec 16, 2024 · After mass layoffs and a pivot to A.I., the tech industry has been scaling back on the splashy and quirky benefits it had become known for.Missing: welfare capitalism
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Silicon Valley's Perks Culture is Largely Dead - Slashdot
Dec 13, 2024 · Major tech companies are scaling back workplace perks amid industry-wide layoffs and increased focus on AI development.
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[PDF] Tech Industry Perks and Benefits Survey Results
Despite ongoing financial scrutiny of corporate expenses, Alliant's 2024 survey data indicates that tech companies are not significantly reducing benefits.
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The Impact of Employer Benefits on Tech Employee Attraction and ...
In this post, we'll explore how employer benefits influence employee attraction and retention within the UK tech sector and discuss the most valued benefits ...
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10 Mind-Blowing Job Perks Companies Are Offering To Keep ...
Oct 20, 2024 · Companies are offering unprecedented perks from paid sabbaticals to student loan support to retain and attract top talent.
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Fringe With Benefits? The Case for Welfare Capitalism.
Jun 23, 2020 · In a system of welfare capitalism, benefits are provided by employers and come with the job. The employer-provided benefits can be paid for ...
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Rethinking Welfare Capitalism - American Compass
Jul 1, 2020 · In a new article in Tablet, I suggest that rather than replacing our legacy system of welfare capitalism with radically different socialist or ...