World Meteorological Organization
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that serves as the international authority on the state and behavior of Earth's atmosphere, its interactions with oceans and land, and the provision of meteorological, climatological, hydrological, and geophysical services worldwide.[1][2] Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, it coordinates global data exchange, standardizes observational practices, and supports national meteorological services to enhance weather forecasting, climate monitoring, and disaster risk reduction.[3][4] Originating from the non-governmental International Meteorological Organization founded in 1873 to facilitate weather data sharing among nations, the WMO was established in 1950 through the World Meteorological Convention and integrated as a UN specialized agency in 1951, now encompassing 193 Member States and Territories.[5] Its core mandate emphasizes empirical observation and scientific cooperation, enabling advancements such as improved tropical cyclone tracking since 1971 and the annual State of the Global Climate reports that compile verified data on atmospheric and oceanic conditions.[6][7] Among its notable achievements, the WMO has driven the development of international standards for weather observations and forecasts, underpinning the Global Telecommunication System for real-time data dissemination and initiatives like Early Warnings for All to mitigate hydrometeorological hazards.[8][9] However, the organization's alignment with UN frameworks on climate has sparked criticisms, including concerns over selective emphasis on human-induced factors in reports that may amplify short-term weather extremes as evidence of crisis, potentially at the expense of fuller accounting for natural cycles and data transparency issues in proprietary models.[10][11]History
Origins in the International Meteorological Organization
The need for international meteorological coordination emerged in the mid-19th century amid maritime disasters and military imperatives, exemplified by the severe storm during the Crimean War in November 1854, which prompted analyses at the Paris Observatory advocating for systematic weather warnings.[12] This culminated in the first International Meteorological Conference in Brussels in August 1853, where delegates from several European nations discussed uniform observation protocols to enhance marine safety and data sharing via emerging telegraph networks.[12] Building on this, the inaugural International Meteorological Congress convened in Vienna from September 1 to 4, 1873, establishing the framework for the International Meteorological Organization (IMO) as a non-governmental body dedicated to fostering global cooperation in meteorology.[13][12] The 1873 Vienna Congress created a Permanent International Meteorological Committee to oversee coordination among national services, emphasizing standardized instruments, observation times, and rapid telegraphic exchange of weather reports to improve forecasting accuracy.[13] The IMO's primary activities included compiling and disseminating international weather bulletins, developing codes for data transmission, and organizing periodic congresses to refine practices, thereby enabling rudimentary global weather maps and storm warnings.[12] Formal statutes were adopted at the Second Congress in Rome in 1879, institutionalizing the International Meteorological Committee as the executive organ and marking a more structured phase of operations, though participation remained voluntary and reliant on goodwill among member states.[13] Despite achievements in standardizing practices across continents, the IMO's non-binding status limited enforcement, funding, and resilience, with activities suspended during both World Wars due to geopolitical disruptions.[12] Post-World War II, amid expanded aviation demands and recognition of meteorology's strategic value, the IMO's Conference of Directors in Washington in October 1947 unanimously approved the World Meteorological Convention to transform it into an intergovernmental entity with legal authority.[13] The convention entered into force on March 23, 1950, following ratification by 30 states including Iraq as the 30th adherent, paving the way for the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) to assume operations in 1951 as the IMO's direct successor and a United Nations specialized agency.[13][12] This transition addressed the IMO's inherent frailties by embedding meteorological cooperation within a treaty-based framework capable of binding commitments and resource allocation.[12]Establishment and Early Years
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) came into existence on 23 March 1950, when the Convention of the World Meteorological Organization entered into force following the deposit of the thirtieth instrument of ratification or accession.[14] [13] The convention, adopted on 11 October 1947 at an international conference in Washington, D.C., succeeded the International Meteorological Organization (IMO) by establishing WMO as an intergovernmental entity rather than a non-governmental association, with provisions for standardized meteorological observations, data exchange, and cooperation in atmospheric sciences.[15] This shift addressed post-World War II needs for coordinated global weather services, particularly in aviation and maritime domains, amid advancing telecommunications and forecasting technologies.[5] The inaugural WMO Congress assembled in Paris from 19 March to 7 April 1951, attended by representatives from 44 states, to formalize the organization's governance and operational framework.[16] [17] Delegates approved the establishment of the Executive Council as the primary supervisory body between congresses, along with six technical commissions covering areas such as atmospheric sciences, aeronautical meteorology, and instruments and methods of observation.[13] Regional associations were also initiated to tailor programs to continental needs, such as those for Africa, Asia, and the Americas, reflecting the organization's emphasis on equitable data sharing despite varying national capacities. The congress further endorsed the continuation of IMO's legacy in meteorological codes and telegraphic weather bulletins, adapting them for broader intergovernmental use.[5] On 20 December 1951, the United Nations General Assembly approved a relationship agreement, designating WMO as a specialized agency responsible for meteorology, hydrology, and related geophysical fields within the UN system.[18] Early priorities included expanding the global observing network, with initial efforts focused on harmonizing upper-air soundings and surface observations to improve forecast accuracy. By the mid-1950s, WMO had grown to over 100 members, facilitating joint programs like tropical cyclone warnings and laying groundwork for later initiatives in climate monitoring, though constrained by Cold War-era data restrictions from some nations.[5] Headquarters were provisionally set in Geneva, Switzerland, leveraging its neutrality and existing League of Nations infrastructure for meteorological coordination.[19]Evolution Through the Cold War and Beyond
During the Cold War, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) exemplified international scientific cooperation amid geopolitical rivalries, as meteorology's practical benefits transcended ideological divides, enabling data exchanges that improved global forecasting despite U.S.-Soviet tensions.[18] In 1963, WMO launched the World Weather Watch (WWW), a cornerstone program that integrated the Global Observing System for surface and upper-air measurements, the Global Telecommunication System for real-time data transmission, and supporting data processing and forecasting initiatives, marking a pivotal advancement in transcending national barriers during the era's height.[20] This effort built on earlier collaborations, such as the 1957–1958 International Geophysical Year, where U.S. and Soviet meteorological services shared space-based observations to enhance disaster warnings.[10] A key milestone was the 1964 establishment of a direct meteorological data link between Moscow and Greenbelt, Maryland, dubbed the "Cold Line," which facilitated routine exchange of weather observations between the superpowers, underscoring meteorology's role as a rare domain of détente.[21] WMO also extended technical assistance to newly independent nations, particularly in Africa and Asia during the 1950s and 1960s decolonization wave, dispatching experts to build national weather services and ensure uninterrupted global data flows essential for aviation safety and agriculture.[10] In 1967, WMO partnered with the International Council of Scientific Unions to initiate the Global Atmospheric Research Programme (GARP), which conducted large-scale experiments like the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment to refine tropical weather prediction models.[18] As the Cold War waned, WMO shifted toward climatology, convening the First World Climate Conference in Geneva in 1979, which mobilized scientific consensus on climate variability and spurred the 1980 launch of the World Climate Programme to coordinate research, data management, and applications.[22] Post-1991, the organization expanded its remit to hydrology and atmospheric chemistry, formalizing data policies like Resolution 40 at the 1995 World Meteorological Congress, which affirmed free exchange of basic meteorological data while allowing restrictions on commercial value-added products.[23] These developments integrated WMO into broader UN frameworks, enhancing responses to environmental challenges through regional associations and technical commissions, though data-sharing frictions persisted with emerging private sector influences.[20]Mandate and Objectives
Core Functions in Meteorology, Climatology, and Hydrology
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) executes its core functions in meteorology, climatology, and hydrology by facilitating international cooperation among 193 Member States and Territories to establish networks for observations, standardize methodologies, and promote data exchange, as stipulated in Article 2 of the WMO Convention. These functions encompass the design and delivery of meteorological services, rapid dissemination of observational data, and integration of meteorological inputs into hydrological practices to support sectors such as aviation, agriculture, and disaster risk reduction. WMO emphasizes an Earth system approach, linking atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial observations to enhance prediction accuracy and societal resilience.[2][1] In meteorology, WMO coordinates the World Weather Watch program, which includes the Global Observing System for systematic collection of real-time weather data via surface, upper-air, and satellite platforms, enabling global numerical weather prediction models. It establishes technical regulations for observational standards, data codes, and forecasting practices to ensure interoperability across national services, thereby improving short-term weather forecasts and severe event warnings. WMO also fosters research into atmospheric processes and training for meteorological personnel to advance operational capabilities.[2][1] Climatology functions center on long-term monitoring and analysis, with WMO co-sponsoring the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) to maintain essential climate variables like temperature, precipitation, and sea level records from 1951 onward. This supports authoritative assessments of climate variability and change, informing policy under frameworks like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, while prioritizing unrestricted data exchange for research reproducibility.[24][1] In operational hydrology, WMO serves as the lead UN agency, promoting networks for measuring river discharge, groundwater, and soil moisture since its predecessor's inception over 70 years ago, with a focus on the full water cycle from data acquisition to forecasting floods and droughts. It integrates hydrological data with meteorological inputs for water resource management and hazard mitigation, as outlined in its Hydrology and Water Cycle strategy, aiming by 2030 to address extremes through enhanced global cooperation and standardized practices.[25][26][2]Strategic Priorities and Global Cooperation Goals
The WMO Strategic Plan 2024–2027 outlines the organization's vision of achieving, by 2030, a world in which all nations—particularly the most vulnerable—are resilient to the socioeconomic impacts of extreme weather, climate, water, and environmental events, while enabling sustainable development through authoritative and accessible Earth system services.[27] This plan builds on the WMO Convention's mission to facilitate international cooperation in the monitoring and prediction of weather, climate, water, and related environmental elements, emphasizing data exchange, standardization of observations and procedures, optimal application of research, and training.[27] Core values guiding these efforts include accountability for results and transparency, collaboration and partnership, and inclusiveness and diversity.[27] Overarching priorities in the plan center on enhancing preparedness for hydrometeorological extremes, supporting climate-smart decision-making, and strengthening the integrated global Earth observation system to deliver reliable services.[2] These priorities address long-term strategic objectives with a 2030 horizon, including advancing meteorological, climatological, hydrological, and environmental services through an Earth system approach that integrates weather, climate, and water cycles.[2] Specific focus areas encompass standardization of meteorological data and codes, promotion of research applications in sectors such as aviation, agriculture, and disaster risk reduction, and capacity-building for developing countries to improve national meteorological and hydrological services.[2] Global cooperation goals form the foundation of WMO's operations, as weather, climate, and water cycles transcend national boundaries, necessitating standardized international exchange of observations and forecasts.[2] The organization fosters rapid, real-time sharing of meteorological and hydrological data among its 193 Member States and territories to support early warnings, climate monitoring, and resource management, while coordinating technical commissions and regional associations to harmonize practices and build technical expertise.[2] These goals align with broader UN Sustainable Development Goals, particularly SDG 13 on climate action, by promoting partnerships for resilient infrastructure, data-driven policies, and equitable access to services that mitigate risks from extreme events.[28] WMO also emphasizes collaboration with other UN agencies, such as the World Health Organization on climate-health linkages, to integrate environmental intelligence into global decision-making frameworks.[29]Organizational Structure
Governing Bodies
The World Meteorological Congress constitutes the supreme governing body of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), comprising delegates appointed by its 193 Member States and Territories.[30] It convenes in ordinary session every four years to determine overarching policy, adopt strategic plans, approve the budget, and elect the President, three Vice-Presidents, and other Executive Council members.[30] Decisions require a two-thirds majority of members present and voting, focusing on advancing international cooperation in meteorology, operational hydrology, and related geophysical sciences. An extraordinary session occurred from 20 to 23 October 2025 in Geneva, Switzerland, to address urgent priorities such as expanding early warning systems amid escalating weather-related risks.[31] The Executive Council functions as the principal executive organ between Congress sessions, consisting of 37 members: the President, three Vice-Presidents (elected by Congress), the presidents of the six Regional Associations (ex officio), and 27 elected directors of national meteorological or hydrometeorological services representing diverse geographical areas.[32] It meets annually in Geneva to implement Congress directives, coordinate WMO programs, manage the financial budget, and review recommendations from Regional Associations and technical commissions.[32] The Council operates by two-thirds majority vote and addresses ad hoc issues in meteorology, such as standardizing observations and fostering data exchange; its most recent ordinary session, EC-79, convened from 16 to 20 June 2025.[33] Current President Abdulla Al Mandous of the United Arab Emirates presides over both the Council and Congress sessions.[34] These bodies ensure WMO's operations align with its foundational convention, emphasizing evidence-based standardization of meteorological practices over ideological influences, though implementation can vary due to differing national capacities and priorities among members. Regional Associations, numbering six and covering Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe, South-West Pacific, and Polar regions, support governance by coordinating regional activities and electing representatives to the Executive Council, but defer to Congress on global policy.[30] Technical commissions provide advisory input on specialized domains like atmospheric sciences and instrumentation, influencing but not directly governing decisions.[30]Secretariat and Leadership
The Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) functions as the organization's permanent administrative body, tasked with executing decisions from the Congress and Executive Council, managing daily operations, and facilitating coordination among member states on meteorological, climatological, and hydrological matters. Headquartered at 7bis Avenue de la Paix in Geneva, Switzerland, since the organization's founding in 1950, the Secretariat supports global technical standards, data exchange, and capacity-building initiatives.[35] It operates under the United Nations framework as a specialized agency, with staff adhering to UN administrative rules.[36] Leadership is headed by the Secretary-General, elected by the World Meteorological Congress for a four-year term, renewable once, to oversee strategic direction and represent the organization internationally.[30] Professor Celeste Saulo of Argentina assumed the role on 1 January 2024, becoming the first woman and South American to serve as Secretary-General; she was selected at the Extraordinary Congress in 2023 following a competitive process emphasizing expertise in meteorology and international cooperation.[37] Her predecessor, Petteri Taalas of Finland, held the position from 1 January 2016 to 31 December 2023, focusing on climate services expansion amid rising global weather-related demands.[38] The Deputy Secretary-General, appointed similarly by Congress, assists in operations and assumes duties in the Secretary-General's absence, ensuring continuity in leadership.[39] As of 2024, the Secretariat employs 349 staff across professional, general service, and extrabudgetary positions, with a low general-to-professional staff ratio reflecting a technical focus. A reorganization effective September 2025 restructured it into key units including the Office of the Secretary-General, Office of the Deputy Secretary-General, and departments for science, services, and partnerships, aimed at enhancing efficiency in addressing evolving challenges like extreme weather prediction.[40] The Secretariat maintains four regional offices and liaison presences to support decentralized implementation, though primary decision-making remains centralized in Geneva.[36] Staff selection prioritizes meteorological expertise, with directors at D-1 and D-2 levels managing scientific portfolios.[41]Technical Commissions
Technical commissions of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) are intergovernmental bodies composed of technical experts designated by member states to address specialized aspects of meteorology, climatology, hydrology, and related fields.[42] Established at each ordinary session of the WMO Congress, these commissions review scientific and technological advancements and formulate recommendations for international standards, as outlined in WMO Technical Regulations, Guides, and Manuals.[42] Their work ensures harmonization of observational, infrastructural, and service-delivery practices across members, supporting the organization's mandate for global cooperation in weather, climate, and water-related activities.[42] Following a structural reform approved by the eighteenth WMO Congress in June 2019, the previous array of eight specialized commissions—such as those for atmospheric sciences, instruments, and aeronautical meteorology—was consolidated into two primary technical commissions to streamline operations and align with evolving priorities in Earth system observation and service delivery.[42] This reorganization, effective from 2020, emphasized integrated approaches to infrastructure and applications, reducing administrative overlap while maintaining expert input from all WMO regions.[42] The Commission for Observation, Infrastructure and Information Systems (INFCOM), also known as the Infrastructure Commission, focuses on developing and implementing globally coordinated systems for Earth observations, data management, and predictions essential to WMO's core activities.[43] Established under the 2019 reform, INFCOM oversees standards for measurement instrumentation, network design, and information exchange, including compliance with regulations for global observing systems like the Global Basic Observing Network (GBON).[43] At its third session (INFCOM-3) in April 2024, the commission adopted a four-year work plan for space weather activities (2024–2027), aimed at enhancing members' capabilities in monitoring solar-terrestrial interactions and their impacts on infrastructure.[44] Subsidiary bodies, such as the Standing Committee on Measurements, Instrumentation and Traceability, conduct assessments of designated centers to ensure adherence to WMO measurement standards.[45] The Commission for Weather, Climate, Hydrological, Marine and Related Environmental Services and Applications (SERCOM) promotes the development and delivery of harmonized services across sectors including agriculture, aviation, disaster risk reduction, energy, and marine operations.[46] Also formed by the 2019 Congress, SERCOM implements elements of the WMO Strategic Plan through its 2024–2027 Work Programme, adopted at SERCOM-3 in March 2024, which includes updates to guidelines on hazardous weather events and early warnings to improve capacity development and partner engagement.[46] It coordinates standing committees for specific domains, such as aviation (SC-AVI) and agriculture (SC-AGR), alongside expert teams for emerging needs like renewable energy services (SG-RENE).[46] SERCOM's efforts emphasize tailored meteorological and hydrological products to support societal resilience, with recent measures enhancing climate service provisions for sectors vulnerable to environmental variability.[47] In addition to these core commissions, WMO collaborates on joint bodies like the Joint WMO/IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM), which provides intergovernmental coordination for marine meteorological and oceanographic observations, though it operates under dual auspices with the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO.[48] Technical commissions interface with the WMO Technical Coordination Committee to align recommendations with the Executive Council, ensuring that standards remain responsive to technological progress and member needs without introducing unsubstantiated priorities.[49]Membership
Member States and Territories
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) consists of 187 Member States and 6 Member Territories, for a total of 193 members as of 2023. These entities maintain independent national meteorological and hydrological services and collaborate on global standards for observation, forecasting, and data exchange.[4] Membership criteria are outlined in Article 3 of the WMO Convention, adopted on October 11, 1947, and entering into force on March 23, 1950. Sovereign states qualify as members if they are United Nations members, belong to a UN specialized agency, or are invited by the WMO Congress upon recommendation. Non-sovereign territories or groups of territories may join if they operate their own meteorological services and gain approval from the Congress or Executive Council, enabling participation without full sovereign status.[15][50] The Member Territories represent overseas or dependent areas with dedicated meteorological infrastructure, separate from their administering powers, including examples such as French Polynesia and New Caledonia. This structure allows smaller or non-independent regions to contribute to and benefit from WMO's international frameworks, despite comprising a minority of total membership.[4]Regional Associations
The World Meteorological Organization divides its activities into six regional associations, designated RA-I through RA-VI, to coordinate meteorological, hydrological, climatological, and related geophysical efforts tailored to specific geographic and developmental contexts.[51] These associations, established by the first WMO Congress in 1951, identify regional priorities, promote implementation of global standards, and foster cooperation among members to enhance weather forecasting, disaster risk reduction, and climate resilience.[52][53] Each association convenes periodic sessions to elect a president and vice-presidents, with the president holding ex officio membership on the WMO Executive Council; they operate through working groups and subsidiary bodies supported by the Secretariat's Regional and Representative Offices, which provide technical assistance, particularly to developing countries, least developed countries, and small island developing states.[51][53] RA-I (Africa) covers the African continent with 53 members, encompassing diverse climatic zones from deserts to rainforests, and focuses on capacity building for national meteorological and hydrological services amid challenges like variable weather patterns and limited infrastructure.[54] RA-II (Asia) includes 35 members across Asia, coordinating responses to monsoons, typhoons, and arid conditions while advancing data exchange and early warning systems in a region prone to extreme weather events.[55] RA-III (South America) serves South American territories, emphasizing coordination for tropical cyclones, flooding, and Andean high-altitude meteorology to support agricultural and water resource management.[51] RA-IV (North and Central America and the Caribbean) comprises 27 members from the Arctic to the equator, addressing hurricanes, droughts, and polar influences through enhanced observation networks and forecasting capabilities.[56][57] RA-V (South-West Pacific) oversees the South-West Pacific, including vulnerable island nations susceptible to cyclones and sea-level rise, prioritizing resilient infrastructure and regional data sharing.[58] RA-VI (Europe) facilitates activities across Europe, integrating advanced technologies for air quality monitoring, severe storms, and transboundary pollution while harmonizing standards among developed members.[59]Key Activities and Programs
Global Observing and Forecasting Systems
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) coordinates global observing and forecasting systems through the World Weather Watch (WWW) programme, established in 1963 to enhance worldwide meteorological observation, data exchange, and prediction capabilities.[60] The WWW integrates three core elements: the Global Observing System (GOS) for data collection, a global telecommunication network for data dissemination, and the Global Data-Processing and Forecasting System (GDPFS) for analysis and prediction.[61] These systems support weather forecasting, climate monitoring, and disaster risk reduction by providing timely, standardized observations from land, sea, air, and space platforms.[62] The GOS forms the observational backbone, comprising coordinated networks of surface- and space-based instruments that deliver real-time data on atmospheric and ocean surface states.[63] Key components include land-based surface stations for temperature, pressure, and precipitation measurements; upper-air observations via radiosondes and wind profilers; marine observations from buoys, ships, and drifting platforms; aircraft-based reports during routine flights; and satellite imagery from geostationary and polar-orbiting systems.[64] Operated by national meteorological services and international partners, the GOS ensures broad coverage, though gaps persist in remote regions like polar areas and developing countries.[65] Transitioning to the WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS) since 2012, it emphasizes interoperability, quality control, and integration across WMO's surface, upper-air, space, and ocean/climate observing networks to address evolving needs in high-resolution forecasting and climate services.[66] Forecasting relies on the GDPFS, rebranded as the WMO Integrated Processing and Prediction System (WIPPS) following the 2023 WMO Congress, which networks global, regional, and national centres for data assimilation and numerical weather prediction (NWP).[67] WIPPS centres, such as World Meteorological Centres, produce deterministic and probabilistic forecasts—ranging from short-term (hours) to medium-range (weeks)—using advanced models that ingest GOS data for ensemble predictions of high-impact events like storms and heatwaves.[68] Products are shared via standardized protocols to enable seamless access for member states, with recent endorsements for incorporating artificial intelligence and machine learning to improve accuracy and efficiency in processing vast datasets.[69] This evolution supports the WMO's goal of equitable access to reliable forecasts, particularly for vulnerable regions.[68]Data Standards and Meteorological Codes
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) develops and maintains international standards for meteorological data representation and exchange to ensure interoperability, accuracy, and efficient global sharing among its 193 member states and territories. These standards, enshrined in the WMO Technical Regulations' Annex II (Manual on Codes, WMO-No. 306), govern the formatting of observational, forecast, and processed data, facilitating real-time transmission via systems like the WMO Information System (WIS).[70][71][72] The Manual on Codes comprises multiple volumes: Volume I.1 specifies alphanumeric codes for traditional textual reports, such as SYNOP (FM 12) for land surface synoptic observations encoding variables like temperature, pressure, and wind at 6-hour intervals, and METAR (FM 15) for aerodrome routine weather reports used in aviation. Volume I.2 details table-driven code forms (TDCF), including BUFR (FM 94) for binary encoding of heterogeneous observational data from sources like radiosondes, satellites, and buoys, and CREX (FM 95) as its character-based counterpart for legacy systems; GRIB editions 1 and 2 (FM 92 and FM 93) handle gridded binary products for numerical weather prediction outputs, such as temperature fields on latitude-longitude grids. Volume I.3 addresses model-derived representations, including XML schemas aligned with common data models for enhanced machine readability.[73][74][71] Key Meteorological Code Forms| Code Form | Type | Primary Application | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| SYNOP (FM 12) | Alphanumeric | Surface land observations | Encodes 20+ variables (e.g., precipitation, visibility) in fixed-length groups for manual or automated stations; transmitted every 3-6 hours.[73][75] |
| BUFR (FM 94) | Binary TDCF | Diverse observations (e.g., satellite, radar) | Uses hierarchical descriptors from Tables A-D for flexible, self-describing subsets; supports up to 2^31 elements per message; updated templates for emerging data like drone measurements.[71][76] |
| GRIB (FM 92/93) | Binary gridded | Forecast and analysis fields | Edition 2 includes JPEG2000 compression and ensemble predictions; specifies product definitions (e.g., 850 hPa geopotential) for model intercomparison.[71][77] |
| CREX (FM 95) | Character TDCF | Legacy observational exchange | Alphanumeric alternative to BUFR for systems without binary support; shares common tables for consistency.[71][78] |