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Zaynab bint Al-Harith

Zaynab bint al-Harith (died circa ) was a from the oasis who attempted to assassinate by serving him a poisoned roasted sheep immediately after the Muslim conquest of . The incident occurred in the aftermath of the in , where Muslim forces defeated the Jewish tribes, resulting in significant casualties including members of Zaynab's family, such as her father, uncle, and husband, which motivated her act of revenge. According to narrations in , Zaynab prepared the sheep, inquiring which portion preferred before concentrating the poison—derived from a plant or substance causing delayed effects—in the shoulder, his favored part; she presented it as a gesture of apparent to the victors. took a bite, discerned the poison through divine or immediate sensation, and spat it out, but his companion Bishr ibn al-Bara' consumed more and succumbed shortly thereafter; the meat was discarded to prevent further harm. When confronted, Zaynab confessed openly, declaring her intent to kill if he were a or, failing that, to eliminate a key enemy of her people, thereby framing the attempt as both a test of prophethood and retaliation. ordered her execution in response, viewing the act as deliberate murder despite initial mercy considerations. accounts attribute lingering effects from to 's final illness in 632 CE, with him reportedly stating on his deathbed that it felt as though his aorta were being severed by the poison, underscoring its reputed long-term impact despite survival for three years. These events, preserved in canonical collections like Sahih al-Bukhari compiled by al-Bukhari (d. 870 CE), represent the primary empirical records of Zaynab's life and actions, with no contemporary non-Islamic sources attesting to the episode, reflecting the era's limited documentation outside oral traditions later codified in Islamic .

Background and Family

Jewish Origins in Khaybar

Zaynab bint al-Harith belonged to a prominent Jewish family in , an settlement about 150 kilometers north of that functioned as a key hub for Jewish agricultural communities in the Arabian Hijaz during the early . Her lineage traced back to Himyarite Jews from , who had migrated northward and established roots in several generations prior to the Muslim conquest, integrating into the local Jewish society known for its fortified villages, orchards, and trade networks with tribes. As the daughter of al-Harith ibn al-Harith, Zaynab was the sister of , a renowned Jewish warrior-poet who commanded defenses at Khaybar's Na'im fortress and was slain in combat in May 628 CE, alongside brothers al-Harith and Yasir. Her marriage to , a chieftain among Khaybar's , further embedded her in the elite stratum of these clans, some of which, including elements of previously displaced from , formed alliances and hosted exiles from earlier conflicts. This familial prominence positioned her amid the Jewish resistance during the 628 CE expedition, where tribal loyalties and vendettas shaped post-conquest interactions.

Marriage and Kinship Ties

Zaynab bint al-Harith was the daughter of al-Harith ibn al-Harith, a member of the Jewish community in , and the sister of , a prominent who commanded Jewish forces during the Muslim of the oasis in 628 CE. Her family traced its origins to who had migrated and established themselves in Khaybar generations prior, integrating into the local Jewish tribal structure that included exiles from Medina's Banu al-Nadir. She was married to al-Nadiri, a leader and warrior-poet affiliated with the Banu al-Nadir faction among Khaybar's , who played a role in the pre-conquest alliances and hostilities with . Sallam was killed early in the , leaving Zaynab widowed amid the defeat of Jewish defenses led in part by her brother , who also perished in combat. These ties positioned her within the elite of Khaybar's Jewish polity, connected through marriage and blood to key figures resisting the Muslim advance.

Context of the Khaybar Conflict

Preceding Alliances and Hostilities

Prior to the Muslim expedition against in of 7 (approximately May 628 ), hostilities between the Muslim community in and Jewish tribes had escalated through a series of broken alliances and plots. The , established upon 's arrival in 622 , had initially bound Muslim, pagan Arab, and Jewish clans—including the , , and —in mutual defense against external threats. However, tensions arose as Jewish leaders rejected 's prophethood and viewed the growing Muslim influence as a challenge to their status, leading to accusations of breaches in the pact. The were expelled from in 624 following clashes during the aftermath of the , while the faced expulsion in 4 (August 625 ) after allegedly plotting to assassinate by dropping a boulder on him during a . The exiled resettled in the fortified Jewish oasis of , approximately 150 kilometers north of , where they joined existing Jewish communities and leveraged their metallurgical expertise to bolster armaments production. From , these exiles continued to foment opposition, inciting nomadic Arab tribes—particularly the —against the Muslims by promising shares of 's wealth in exchange for military support. This incitement contributed to raids on Muslim grazing lands near , including an attack that killed the son of Abu Dharr al-Ghiffari and briefly captured his wife. Such actions perpetuated a cycle of hostility, as served as a base for coordinating threats following the earlier execution of males in 627 CE for treason during the , where they had allied with the invading and forces. Compounding these tribal alliances, individual Jewish leaders in , such as Sallam ibn Abi al-Huqayq, actively plotted against by traveling to and Syrian territories to rally support for renewed warfare shortly after the . In response, authorized a in late 5 (early 627 ), dispatching operatives who infiltrated and assassinated Sallam in his fortified residence, thereby neutralizing a key instigator of unrest. These preceding events, interpreted in Muslim sources as defensive measures against persistent aggression, culminated in the preemptive march on after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628 , which some Khaybar Jews misread as a sign of Muslim vulnerability, prompting further provocations.

Zaynab's Familial Involvement and Losses

Zaynab bint al-Harith belonged to a leading Jewish family in , with her relatives actively participating in the oasis's defense against the Muslim expedition in 7 (May 628 CE). Her brother, , served as a prominent and of Himyarite descent, renowned for his role in repelling assaults on the fortified settlements. Marhab commanded defenses at the fortress of Qamus and engaged Muslim forces in , where he was ultimately killed by ibn Abi Talib after a brother of Marhab had been slain earlier in the fighting. This duel marked a turning point, facilitating Muslim breaches into Jewish strongholds and leading to broader casualties among 's defenders. The loss of , alongside other kin slain during and subsequent clashes, devastated Zaynab's family, as the battle resulted in the subjugation of Khaybar's Jewish clans and the deaths of several key fighters. Her husband, , a chieftain who had previously coordinated with other Jewish tribes against , endured the conquest but witnessed the erosion of familial and communal authority. These familial setbacks, rooted in the violent uprooting of Khaybar's resistance, directly precipitated Zaynab's vengeful actions post-victory.

The Poisoning Attempt

Motive and Preparation

Zaynab bint al-Harith, a Jewish resident of whose husband and kin had been killed during the Muslim conquest of the oasis in 628 , harbored deep resentment toward and his followers for the defeat and deaths inflicted on her community. This personal loss fueled her intent to assassinate , viewing the act as retribution against the leader responsible for her family's destruction and the subjugation of 's Jewish tribes. Traditional Islamic accounts emphasize her confession during interrogation, where she admitted poisoning the meat to test 's prophethood: if divine, he would be protected; if merely a , his death would benefit her people—revealing a motive blending with of his claims. In preparation, Zaynab roasted a sheep and deliberately laced it with a lethal poison, concentrating a heavier dose in the shoulder after inquiring and learning it was Muhammad's preferred portion, while tainting the entire animal to ensure lethality for any who partook. She then presented the poisoned offering to Muhammad and his companions as a gesture of apparent hospitality following the conquest, masking her intent until the meat itself rejected consumption in some narrations. The poison's potency was evident immediately in companion Bishr ibn al-Bara', who succumbed after eating, underscoring Zaynab's calculated effort to target the Muslim leadership.

The Meal and Initial Reactions

Following the conquest of in 628 CE, Zaynab bint al-Harith, seeking revenge for the death of her family members including her husband , prepared a roasted sheep laced with and presented it to as a . She concentrated the poison particularly in the shoulder portion, having learned that Muhammad favored that cut of meat. During the meal, took a bite from the poisoned shoulder and, according to traditional accounts, received informing him of the poison's presence, prompting him to declare the sheep tainted and instruct his to cease eating. He spat out the morsel, averting immediate fatal harm to himself, though he later remarked that 's effects lingered in his body. One , Bishr ibn al-Bara' ibn Ma'rur, had consumed a larger portion and succumbed to shortly thereafter, exhibiting rapid symptoms of . The initial response among Muhammad's followers was one of alarm and restraint, with the group halting consumption upon his warning, reflecting trust in his prophetic insight as described in the hadith narrations. This event underscored the tensions persisting after the surrender, where defeated Jews were permitted to host meals as gestures of , yet harbored latent hostilities.

Immediate Consequences

Interrogation and Confession

Following the immediate effects of the , which claimed the life of 's Bishr ibn al-Bara' who had consumed the tainted meat, summoned Zaynab bint al-Harith for questioning. Traditional Islamic sources report that she openly to deliberately the roasted sheep, attributing her actions to a desire for against the Muslim forces for the conquest of and the deaths of her relatives, including her husband Sallam ibn Mishkam and father al-Harith ibn al-Harith. In response to Muhammad's direct inquiry about her intent—"What induced you to do what you have done?"—Zaynab replied that she sought to test his claim to prophethood: if he were truly , divine would alert him to and avert harm; if merely a or , the act would eliminate him and spare her people further subjugation. This confession is preserved in early biographical works like Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah and corroborated in hadith collections, including references in , where her admission underscores the retaliatory and skeptical motives behind the attempt. Accounts vary slightly in phrasing but consistently depict Zaynab's response as unrepentant and logically framed as a verification of prophetic , reflecting Jewish eschatological expectations of a figure amid the conflict's tribal hostilities. reportedly accepted the confession without immediate execution, citing divine protection as evidence of his truthfulness, though her fate was later addressed amid broader reprisals. These narrations, drawn from 8th-9th century compilations, provide the primary evidentiary basis for , though their transmission through oral chains invites scrutiny for potential hagiographic emphasis on 's foreknowledge.

Fate of Zaynab and Accomplices

Following her to the roasted sheep during the , Muhammad declined requests from companions to execute Zaynab, stating "No" when asked explicitly. This decision is recorded in , one of the most authoritative Hadith collections in , narrating that after she admitted her intent to test his prophethood—"If you were a prophet it would not harm you"—no further punishment was imposed by him at that time. Variant reports in later historical compilations, such as those attributed to and transmitted by , suggest she may have been killed subsequently, though these accounts lack the chain of narration (isnad) rigor of Bukhari and are considered less definitive by traditional Islamic scholars. No accomplices are explicitly named in the primary accounts of the incident; Zaynab acted out of personal vengeance for her clan's losses at , preparing alone after inquiring about Muhammad's preferred cut of . One companion, Bishr ibn al-Bara', consumed a portion of the tainted and succumbed to shortly thereafter, but he was a rather than a participant. Some secondary narrations, including those from al-Zuhri, indicate Zaynab later converted to and was spared, aligning with the non-execution in Bukhari, though these are not universally accepted and reflect interpretive differences in early biographical sources. The divergence in reports underscores the challenges in reconstructing events from 7th-century oral traditions compiled over a century later, with Sahih al-Bukhari's version prioritized for its authenticated transmitters, while less corroborated executions appear in polemical or abridged histories potentially influenced by narrative emphases. No contemporary non-Islamic sources detail her fate, leaving Islamic textual traditions as the sole basis for assessment.

Long-Term Effects

Muhammad's Health Decline

Following the poisoning attempt during the conquest of in 628 CE, experienced no immediate fatal effects but reported persistent discomfort from the ingested , despite divine prompting him to discard the tainted portion of the roasted sheep. The companion , who consumed a larger amount, died soon after from the poison's acute impact, with the perpetrator Zaynab bint al-Harith confirming its potency upon interrogation. attributed these lingering symptoms to the incident, noting in narrations that the poison continued to affect him over the ensuing years. Over the approximately four years between Khaybar and his death in June 632 CE, maintained active leadership, including the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah in 628 CE and the in 630 CE, yet traditional accounts indicate the poison contributed to a gradual health deterioration. His final illness, beginning around 11 (early June 632 CE), involved high fever, headaches, and excruciating pain, which he directly linked to the event. In narrations from , his wife, stated during this period: "I still feel the pain caused by the food I ate at Khaibar, and at this time, I feel as if my is being cut from that ." These accounts in , considered authentic by Sunni scholars, portray the poisoning as the underlying cause of his terminal decline, framing his death as a form of martyrdom rather than natural causes alone. While some later interpretations emphasize divine timing over direct causation, the primary evidence emphasizes the poison's enduring physiological toll, including sensations of internal severance, without evidence of full recovery. No contemporary medical analysis exists, but the tradition's consistency across narrators supports the attribution of chronic effects leading to his demise at age 62 or 63.

Attribution to Death in Islamic Sources

In canonical hadith collections, Muhammad's death on 8 June 632 CE is directly attributed to the persistent effects of the poison from the roasted sheep prepared by Zaynab bint Al-Harith following the conquest of Khaybar in May-June 628 CE. During his final illness, Muhammad reportedly stated to his wife Aisha: "O Aisha! I still feel the pain caused by the food I ate at Khaibar, and at this time, I feel as if my aorta is being cut from that poison." This narration, recorded in Sahih al-Bukhari, portrays the poison as having embedded deeply, contributing to his suffering over the intervening years rather than causing immediate fatality, as evidenced by his survival post-incident while companion Bishr ibn al-Bara' succumbed promptly to the same ingestion. The attribution underscores a causal link affirmed by Muhammad himself, with the poison—identified as a potent likely derived from or animal sources common in the region—manifesting delayed symptoms consistent with historical accounts of such agents. Parallel narrations in other early sources, such as those compiled by in Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, reinforce this by detailing Muhammad's explicit reference to the event as the of his affliction, framing it as unresolved from Zaynab's act despite divine protection from instantaneous . Traditional Sunni , drawing from these sahih-grade hadiths, accepts this as the , distinguishing it from concurrent feverish symptoms which are presented as symptomatic of the underlying rather than independent. While some later interpretive traditions, particularly within certain sects like , argue the poison did not directly cause death but served as a prophetic test, primary sources like prioritize Muhammad's deathbed testimony as authoritative evidence of attribution, without qualification or denial in the chain of narration from . This view aligns with the hadith's emphasis on the poison's enduring impact, positioning Zaynab's attempt as the pivotal event in the sequence leading to his demise three to four years later.

Interpretations and Controversies

Traditional Islamic Accounts

In traditional Islamic sources, such as the collections of and early biographical works like Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah (as preserved in Ibn Hisham's recension) and al-Tabari's Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, Zaynab bint al-Harith is depicted as a Jewish woman from the oasis whose family members, including her husband , father, and uncle, had been killed during the Muslim conquest of in 7 (approximately May 628 ). Motivated by vengeance, she prepared a roasted sheep—identified variably as lamb or goat—infused with , placing a lethal concentration in the shoulder after inquiring that this was Muhammad's favored cut. She presented it as a gesture of to the Muslim leaders upon their return from the campaign. Muhammad took a bite from the poisoned but promptly detected the toxin, which accounts attribute to or the meat itself "speaking" to warn him, leading him to spit it out and prohibit others from consuming it. His Bishr ibn al-Bara' ibn Ma'rur, however, had already swallowed a portion and died shortly thereafter from the effects. Zaynab was summoned for , where she openly confessed to the act, stating her aim was to ascertain 's prophetic status: if he were a true messenger of , divine protection would alert him and spare his life; if merely a earthly king or impostor, the poison would eliminate him. Narrations in record initially expressing reluctance to execute her solely for attempting to verify his prophethood, though subsequent accounts, including those in Ibn Sa'd's Tabaqat al-Kubra, indicate she was ultimately put to death following Bishr's demise and at the behest of his kin. These sources emphasize the incident as a foiled assassination attempt thwarted by Muhammad's prophetic insight, underscoring themes of divine safeguarding amid hostility from 's Jewish tribes. Later traditions link the to enduring physical affliction, with reportedly declaring on his deathbed in 11 AH (632 CE) that he continued to suffer from the Khaybar meat, feeling as though his was being severed by its lingering impact—a symptom some narrators connect to the poison's potency. Such details appear in multiple isnads within , reinforcing the event's significance in sira literature as evidence of both human enmity and supernatural preservation.

Critical and Non-Muslim Perspectives

Some non-Muslim critics interpret the poisoning attempt by Zaynab bint al-Harith as a deliberate of Muhammad's claimed prophetic status, with the poison intended to harm him only if he lacked divine protection; her reported words upon —"If you were , it would not harm you; but if you were a king, I would rid the of you"—explicitly frame the act as verification of immunity. Muhammad's survival of the immediate effects but later deathbed complaints of feeling gnawing at him from the shoulder he ate are cited as evidence of ultimate failure in this test, undermining assertions of God's safeguarding and suggesting human vulnerability consistent with non-prophetic mortality. Historiographical skepticism from Western scholars emphasizes the improbability of the poison causing death approximately four years after ingestion at Khaybar in May 628 CE, as most known toxins of the era (e.g., plant- or animal-derived) would either act acutely or dissipate without chronic lethality over such an interval absent continuous exposure or pre-existing debilitation. This temporal gap, combined with contemporary descriptions of Muhammad's final illness as a rapid feverish pleurisy lasting about two weeks before his death on June 8, 632 CE, points to natural pathology—possibly infectious pneumonia or similar—rather than residual toxicology. The linkage in later hadith and sira literature, compiled over a century post-event, is viewed as retrospective etiology to imbue Muhammad's passing with martyrological significance, elevating it beyond mundane illness amid sources prone to theological embellishment for communal cohesion. Such perspectives prioritize causal mechanisms grounded in observable and criticism, discounting miraculous interventions due to lack of corroboration outside texts; Islamic traditions' does not override empirical implausibility or the incentive to frame adversity as redemptive , a seen in other religious origin stories. Critics further note potential narrative in Muslim , where attributing harm to Jewish reinforces communal against perceived perennial foes, potentially amplifying or fabricating details to justify post-conquest reprisals like Zaynab's execution.

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