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API gravity

API gravity is a standardized measure of the density or specific gravity of crude oil and other petroleum liquids relative to water, expressed on an arbitrary scale in degrees (°API), where higher values indicate lighter (less dense) substances and lower values indicate heavier (more dense) ones.^[1]^[2] Developed by the American Petroleum Institute (API) in collaboration with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the scale assigns water at 60°F (15.6°C) an API gravity of 10° and is calculated using the formula: °API = (141.5 / specific gravity at 60°F) - 131.5, where specific gravity is the ratio of the liquid's density to that of water under the same conditions.^[2]^[1] In the petroleum industry, API gravity serves as a critical quality indicator for crude oil classification and pricing, influencing refining processes, yield of products like gasoline and diesel, and transportation logistics, as lighter crudes (typically >31.1° API) require less processing than heavier ones.^[2] Crude oils are commonly categorized based on API gravity as light (>31.1° API), medium (22.3–31.1° API), heavy (10.0–22.3° API), or extra heavy (<10.0° API), with light crudes generally commanding higher market values due to their higher proportion of valuable light ends.^[2] Measurements are typically performed using hydrometers or digital density meters at standard temperatures to ensure consistency across global trade and regulatory compliance.^[3] The scale, introduced in 1921 to replace earlier inconsistent systems like the Baumé scale, remains the universal standard for the oil and gas sector worldwide.^[4]

Definition and History

Definition

API gravity is a dimensionless measure used in the petroleum industry to express the density or gravity of liquid petroleum products, calibrated on an arbitrary scale in degrees API (°API).^[1] It serves as an inverse indicator of density, where a higher API gravity value corresponds to a lighter (less dense) liquid, and a lower value indicates a heavier (more dense) one.^[1] This scale is particularly valuable for characterizing the quality of crude oil, as lighter oils with higher API gravity are generally easier to refine and transport, influencing their economic value in the industry.^[5] On the API scale, a value of 10° API corresponds to the density of water; liquids with API gravity greater than 10° are lighter than water and will float on it, while those below 10° are denser and will sink.^[6] For crude oils, typical API gravity values range from 10° to 70°, encompassing heavy, medium, and light varieties, with the inverse relationship to density providing a quick assessment of their physical properties relative to water.^[1] API gravity is derived from the specific gravity of the petroleum liquid compared to water at 60°F (15.6°C).^[1]

Historical Development

The API gravity scale was developed in 1921 by the American Petroleum Institute (API) as an adaptation of the Baumé scale, which had been in use since the late 18th century. The Baumé scale, officially accepted by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in 1916 as the national standard for measuring liquid densities, suffered from inaccuracies when applied to U.S. hydrometer standards, particularly due to a modulus of 140 that did not align well with petroleum densities; the API adjusted this to a modulus of 141.5 to better suit the industry's needs.^[7] This change addressed discrepancies in measuring the relative density of crude oils and refined products, providing a more precise inverse relationship where higher API values indicate lighter liquids.^[7] The primary purpose of the API gravity scale was to establish a standardized, industry-specific measure for petroleum density, replacing inconsistent older scales like the Baumé that led to variations in trade, refining, and quality assessments across the growing U.S. oil sector in the early 20th century.^[7] By the mid-1920s, the scale gained widespread adoption within the API and the broader petroleum community, facilitating uniform reporting and reducing errors in commercial transactions.^[8] Its integration into formal standards came in 1928 with the initial approval of ASTM D287, which outlined the hydrometer method for determining API gravity and solidified its role in laboratory and field practices.^[8] Over subsequent decades, the scale underwent minor refinements for enhanced precision, particularly in the underlying petroleum measurement tables. In the 1980 edition of ASTM D1250, the standard density of water at 60°F was set at 999.012 kg/m³, serving as the reference for API gravity conversions.^[9] This value was updated in the 2008 edition to 999.016 kg/m³ based on improved measurements, ensuring greater accuracy in density calculations without altering the core scale structure.^[9] These adjustments reflected ongoing efforts to align the scale with advances in metrology while maintaining backward compatibility for industry use.

Formulas and Calculations

Primary Formula

The primary formula for calculating API gravity from the specific gravity of a petroleum liquid is:

^\circ \text{API} = \frac{141.5}{\text{SG}_{60/60}} - 131.5

where ^\circ \text{API} denotes degrees API gravity and \text{SG}_{60/60} is the specific gravity relative to water at 60°F (15.56°C) and 1 atm pressure.^[10]^[11] The inverse formula converts API gravity back to specific gravity:

\text{SG}_{60/60} = \frac{141.5}{^\circ \text{API} + 131.5}

^[10]^[11] In this formulation, the constant 141.5 serves as the modulus, derived from an adjustment to the traditional Baumé hydrometer scale (which used 140 or 145) to account for U.S.-specific manufacturing practices in early 20th-century hydrometers.^[11] The constant 131.5 is selected to ensure that water, with a specific gravity of 1.0000 at 60°F and 1 atm, yields exactly 10° API, establishing a reference point where values above 10 indicate lighter-than-water liquids and values below 10 indicate heavier ones.^[11]^[10] The derivation begins with the definition of specific gravity as the ratio of the liquid's density to the density of water at the same reference temperature and pressure:

\text{SG}_{60/60} = \frac{\rho_\text{liquid}}{\rho_\text{water}}

To create an inverse scale that increases as density decreases—facilitating comparisons of petroleum lightness—the formula applies a linear transformation of the form y = a / x - b, where a and b are constants calibrated to the desired reference. Substituting the specific gravity into this structure and solving for the constants to meet the water reference (SG = 1 yields 10° API) yields the primary equation, with 141.5 as the scaling factor aligned to hydrometer conventions and 131.5 as the offset ($141.5 - 131.5 \times 1 = 10).^[11]^[2] This transformation ensures the scale's utility in petroleum measurement under standard conditions of 60°F (15.56°C) and 1 atm.

Derived Calculations

One key derived calculation from API gravity involves determining the volume of crude oil in barrels per metric ton, which is essential for international trade and logistics where mass-based shipping is common. The formula is given by:

\text{Barrels per metric ton} = \frac{\text{API gravity} + 131.5}{141.5 \times 0.159}

where 0.159 represents the approximate volume of one barrel in cubic meters (based on 1 barrel ≈ 159 liters or 0.159 m³), and the constants 141.5 and 131.5 originate from the relationship between API gravity and specific gravity.^[12] This calculation begins with the specific gravity (SG) of the oil, derived from API gravity as SG = 141.5 / (API gravity + 131.5), which measures the oil's density relative to water at 60°F (15.56°C). The density of the oil is then ρ = SG × ρ_water, where ρ_water ≈ 999 kg/m³ at 60°F. For a mass of 1 metric ton (1000 kg), the volume V in cubic meters is V = 1000 / ρ = 1000 / (SG × 999) ≈ 1 / SG (using the approximation ρ_water = 1000 kg/m³ for simplicity in petroleum contexts). Converting to barrels requires dividing by the barrel volume: barrels = V / 0.159 = [1 / SG] / 0.159. Substituting the expression for SG yields the overall formula, facilitating quick conversions without direct density measurements.^[7]^[2] For example, consider crude oil with an API gravity of 35°. The specific gravity is SG ≈ 0.85, leading to a density of approximately 850 kg/m³. The volume for 1 metric ton is thus about 1.176 m³, or roughly 7.4 barrels (1176 liters / 159 liters per barrel), which underscores the practical utility of this calculation in estimating cargo volumes for global oil trade.^[12] Detailed tabulations of these conversions, including adjustments for temperature and pressure (in vacuo or in air), are provided in ASTM D1250, the standard for petroleum measurement tables used throughout the industry to ensure consistent volume-mass interconversions based on API gravity.^[13]

Measurement Methods

Hydrometer Method

The hydrometer method represents the conventional approach for directly measuring API gravity in crude petroleum and petroleum products handled as liquids, as outlined in the ASTM D287 standard. This technique employs a specialized glass hydrometer calibrated specifically in API degrees to assess the density relative to water at a reference temperature. Hydrometers used in this method are typically constructed of glass, though metal variants exist for certain applications, and feature scales spanning from 0° to 101° API to accommodate a wide range of petroleum densities. For petroleum oils, readings account for the meniscus by observing the bottom of the curved liquid surface where it intersects the scale, ensuring precise alignment.^[8] The procedure begins with sample preparation, where the petroleum liquid is thoroughly mixed to achieve homogeneity and freed from air bubbles or contaminants that could skew results. A clean, graduated cylinder—typically 500 mL or larger—is filled with the sample to a depth allowing the hydrometer to float freely without contacting the cylinder walls or bottom. The sample temperature is equilibrated to 60°F (15.56°C), the standard reference point, using a controlled environment if necessary; otherwise, the observed temperature is precisely measured with a calibrated thermometer immersed in the liquid. The selected hydrometer, chosen based on the anticipated API range, is gently placed into the sample stem-first to minimize disturbance, then allowed to stabilize without manual adjustment. Equilibrium may require several minutes, particularly for viscous samples, after which the API gravity reading is noted at the meniscus intersection point.^[8]^[14] If the measurement occurs at a temperature deviating from 60°F, corrections are applied to the observed reading to standardize the value. This involves adjusting for the meniscus effect, thermal expansion of the glass hydrometer, and any alternate calibration temperature impacts, followed by use of volume correction factors from ASTM D1250 petroleum measurement tables (or equivalent calculations) to derive the API gravity at 60°F. These tables provide generalized corrections for crude oils and products, ensuring consistency across varying conditions. The method achieves an accuracy of approximately 0.1° API for low-viscosity, transparent liquids under ideal conditions.^[8] Historically, this manual technique has been a staple in both field operations and laboratory analyses since the early standardization efforts in petroleum testing, valued for its portability and minimal equipment needs. Despite its reliability, practical limitations include susceptibility to errors from sample contamination, prolonged settling times for high-viscosity fluids that may trap air or unevenly distribute the hydrometer, and challenges in reading opaque samples where the meniscus is obscured. For such cases, additional agitation or alternative viewing aids may be required, though the method remains unsuitable for non-petroleum hydrocarbons or gases with Reid vapor pressure exceeding 101.325 kPa.^[8]^[14]

Oscillating U-Tube Method

The oscillating U-tube method employs a digital density meter to measure the density of petroleum liquids and viscous oils, enabling the calculation of relative density and API gravity through automated analysis. This technique, detailed in ASTM D5002 for crude oils, involves introducing a small sample volume (typically 1-2 mL) into a U-shaped tube constructed from borosilicate glass or similar inert material. The tube is mechanically excited into oscillation, often using piezoelectric transducers, and its resonant frequency is detected electronically. For field applications, portable digital density meters compliant with ASTM D7777 may also be used.^[15]^[16] The underlying principle relies on the fact that the natural frequency of oscillation f of the filled U-tube is inversely proportional to the square root of the sample's density \rho, expressed as f \propto \frac{1}{\sqrt{\rho}}, where the effective mass of the oscillating system increases with the density of the enclosed fluid.^[17] Modern instruments incorporate built-in software to convert the measured frequency into density values with high precision, achieving resolutions up to 0.0001 g/cm³, followed by computation of specific gravity relative to water at the reference temperature.^[18] This specific gravity is then transformed into API gravity degrees using established petroleum industry formulas, with the entire process often outputting results directly in °API. Instruments feature integrated Peltier elements or similar systems for precise temperature control, maintaining the sample at or correcting measurements to 60°F (15.56°C) to align with API standards, ensuring consistency across varying ambient conditions.^[19] Calibration is performed routinely using dry air (approximating zero density) and freshly degassed water (density of 0.999016 g/cm³ at 60°F), with the U-tube sealed during air calibration to exclude moisture; these references allow determination of instrument constants for accurate density derivation.^[20] Key advantages include rapid measurement times (under 1 minute per sample), minimal operator intervention to reduce human error, and suitability for high-viscosity samples up to several hundred centipoise, as advanced designs incorporate viscosity corrections to account for damping effects on oscillation amplitude.^[21] ASTM D5002 specifies procedures for handling non-ideal behaviors, such as gas bubble detection via live imaging or frequency analysis and corrections for surface tension or thermal expansion in viscous or volatile samples, while integrating with API gravity reporting protocols akin to those in ASTM D287 for standardized outputs.

Classifications and Applications

Crude Oil Classifications

Crude oil is categorized into light, medium, heavy, and extra heavy (or bitumen) based on API gravity thresholds that reflect density and influence extraction, transportation, and refining characteristics. Light crude oil has an API gravity greater than 31.1°, corresponding to a low density of less than 870 kg/m³, making it less viscous and easier to flow.^[7] Medium crude falls between 22.3° and 31.1° API (density 870–920 kg/m³), offering a balance of properties suitable for versatile refining. Heavy crude is defined below 22.3° API (density 920–1000 kg/m³), exhibiting higher viscosity that poses challenges in handling and processing, often requiring dilution or heating. Extra heavy oil or bitumen has an API gravity below 10°, resulting in a semi-solid state with density exceeding 1000 kg/m³.^[7]^[22] These classifications originate from industry conventions established by the American Petroleum Institute (API) and are widely adopted in trading norms, including those referenced by OPEC for basket crudes, as well as in ASTM International standards for petroleum density measurements, though no single universal standard dictates the exact thresholds.^[1] Light crudes, such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI) with approximately 39° API, flow easily at ambient temperatures, yield higher proportions of valuable light products like gasoline and diesel, and typically exhibit lower viscosity.^[23] In contrast, heavy crudes like Mexican Maya (around 22° API) are more viscous, contain greater amounts of heavier hydrocarbons and asphaltenes, and often have elevated sulfur content, necessitating specialized upgrading to improve flow and reduce impurities.^[24] Extra heavy bitumens, exemplified by Athabasca oil sands bitumen (8–10° API), are nearly solid, with high viscosity and density that tie closely to their high asphaltene and resin content, limiting direct use without extensive processing.^[25] The categories also loosely correlate with other properties: higher API values generally indicate lower viscosity and potentially lower sulfur (sweet crudes), while lower values align with increased viscosity and variable sulfur levels (sour crudes), affecting overall refining economics without a strict universal correlation.^[23] These distinctions, measured via methods like hydrometers or digital analyzers, enable consistent global trading and operational planning in the petroleum industry.

Industry Applications

In the petroleum trading sector, API gravity serves as a critical parameter for assessing crude oil quality and determining pricing differentials, with lighter crudes exhibiting higher API values commanding premium prices due to their ease of processing and higher yields of valuable products.^[26] For instance, Brent crude, a global benchmark with an API gravity of approximately 38°, influences contract pricing and quality specifications in international trades, often fetching higher values than heavier alternatives.^[27] API gravity data is also integral to trading contracts for volume conversions, such as barrel-to-ton calculations, enabling accurate valuation and fair transactions between buyers and sellers.^[26] Within refining operations, API gravity significantly affects processing yields and strategies, as higher API crudes (typically above 33°) yield greater proportions of high-value fuels like gasoline and diesel through straightforward distillation, minimizing the need for intensive treatments.^[28] In contrast, lower API heavy crudes require advanced techniques such as hydrocracking to break down complex hydrocarbons, which increases refinery design complexity, operational costs, and energy consumption.^[28] This distinction drives refiners to optimize their crude slates around API profiles to balance yields and profitability, with light crudes often preferred for efficiency in modern facilities.^[27] Beyond trading and refining, API gravity influences other practical applications in the supply chain, including pipeline transportation where lower API values correlate with higher viscosity, reducing flow rates and necessitating additives or heating to maintain efficient throughput.^[29] Blending operations commonly adjust API gravity to meet specific grade requirements for downstream markets, combining light and heavy crudes to optimize transport and refining compatibility.^[26] Environmentally, heavier low-API oils pose greater spill risks due to their persistence and potential to submerge in water (below 10° API), complicating cleanup and increasing ecological impacts under regulatory frameworks.^[30] Economically, API gravity plays a pivotal role in global supply chain valuation, exemplified by the Venezuelan Orinoco Belt's extra-heavy crudes at around 8.5° API, which incur substantial discounts and upgrading costs compared to Saudi Arabia's Arab Light crude at 32–36° API, a lighter benchmark that supports higher market premiums and easier integration into international trade flows.^[31]^[32] These disparities underscore how API-based quality assessments shape investment decisions, transportation logistics, and overall petroleum economics on a worldwide scale.^[27]

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