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Adulis

Adulis was the primary Red Sea port of the ancient Kingdom of Aksum, located in Zula Bay approximately 40 kilometers south of Massawa in present-day Eritrea, functioning as a crucial maritime trade hub from the first century BCE through the seventh century CE.^[1]^[2] As the gateway for Aksumite commerce, it exported high-value African goods including ivory, rhinoceros horns, gold, emeralds, slaves, and exotic animals to markets in the Roman Empire, Persia, Arabia, and India, while importing luxury items such as wine, textiles, and metals in exchange.^[3]^[4] The city's strategic position enabled Aksum to control regional trade routes, contributing to the kingdom's economic prosperity and cultural exchanges across the Indian Ocean world.^[5] Archaeological excavations at the site have revealed structural remains, including two early Christian basilicas dating to the Aksumite period following the kingdom's conversion in the fourth century CE, alongside ceramics, amphorae, and evidence of later Islamic burials indicating religious transitions.^[6] Adulis declined due to harbor silting from climatic shifts and coastal recession, leading to its abandonment by the medieval era.^[5]

Geography and Location

Site Description and Topography

Adulis is an archaeological site in the Northern Red Sea region of Eritrea, situated approximately 50 km south of Massawa in the Gulf of Zula.^[6] The site lies on the flat plain of Zula, about 6–7 km inland from the modern Red Sea coastline, reflecting coastal progradation over centuries that shifted the shoreline eastward.^[6]^[7] Originally a functioning port, Adulis was linked to the sea via the wadi bed of the now-dry River Haddas, which facilitated maritime access through a natural inlet.^[7] The topography of the site consists of a low-lying desert plain characterized by scrub-covered mounds and scattered ruins, with minimal elevation variation typical of the Eritrean coastal zone.^[3] Archaeological surveys, including GPS measurements and satellite imagery analysis, have mapped the extent of these features, revealing a dispersed layout of structural remains amid the arid landscape.^[8] The surrounding terrain transitions from the coastal flats to inland hills, providing a strategic yet exposed setting vulnerable to environmental shifts like siltation and erosion.^[9] Remnants at the site include low walls, building foundations, and possible harbor infrastructure, partially buried under wind-blown sand and vegetation, underscoring the challenges of preservation in this hyper-arid environment.^[10] Ongoing excavations highlight the site's horizontal spread rather than vertical monumentality, adapted to its planar topography for trade-oriented functions.^[6]

Environmental and Strategic Setting

Adulis occupied a coastal position on the western shore of the Red Sea in present-day Eritrea, near the modern village of Zula, within a bay that offered sheltered anchorage for ancient vessels despite occasional threats from mainland raiders.^[3] The site's topography consists of low-lying mounds amid scrub-covered terrain, characteristic of the semi-arid Eritrean coastal plain, with underlying fluvial deposits shaped by seasonal wadi flows and long-term sedimentation that altered the harbor's configuration over centuries.^[11] This environment supported limited local agriculture and pastoralism but relied heavily on inland highland resources accessed via caravan routes, such as those through Wadi Haddas, linking the port to the fertile Aksumite plateau approximately 100 km inland.^[12] The regional climate featured hot, dry conditions typical of the Red Sea littoral, with average annual rainfall below 200 mm concentrated in brief monsoon bursts, fostering a landscape of thorny acacia scrub and episodic flash floods rather than sustained vegetation.^[13] Ecologically, the vicinity provided access to marine resources like fish and shellfish, while coral reefs and seasonal winds influenced maritime navigation, enabling monsoon-driven voyages to Arabia and India.^[14] These environmental factors constrained urban expansion to defensible coastal zones but enhanced the site's viability as a transshipment point for exotic goods, including ivory and gold from African interiors.^[6] Strategically, Adulis served as the principal maritime gateway for the Kingdom of Aksum from the 1st century BC, commanding key Red Sea trade corridors that connected sub-Saharan Africa to the Mediterranean, Middle East, and Indian Ocean networks, thereby circumventing Ptolemaic and Roman monopolies on Nile Valley commerce.^[15] Its proximity to the Bab-el-Mandeb strait—about 400 km south—positioned it to intercept southbound Arabian and Indian shipping, facilitating Aksumite exports of slaves, rhinoceros horn, and tortoiseshell in exchange for wine, textiles, and metals.^[2] The port's defensibility relied on Aksumite military oversight rather than natural barriers, as evidenced by historical accounts of raids, underscoring its role in projecting power across the Red Sea while vulnerable to geopolitical shifts like the rise of Islamic naval dominance in the 7th century AD.^[3]^[16]

Historical Development

Origins and Pre-Aksumite Foundations (c. 1500 BC–1st century BC)

Archaeological investigations at Adulis reveal evidence of early occupation predating the Aksumite period, with the deepest excavated layers—reaching up to 12 meters—yielding remains of fireplaces, huts, obsidian fragments, and charcoal associated with rudimentary settlements at the end of the 1st millennium BC or earlier.^[9] Pottery from these strata includes black burnished wares featuring incised geometric patterns, indicative of local manufacturing techniques linked to proto-Aksumite cultural horizons.^[9] These findings suggest Adulis functioned initially as a modest coastal settlement, potentially serving as an outpost for inland communities engaged in subsistence and nascent maritime activities. The pre-Aksumite phase, spanning approximately 400–50/40 BC, is characterized by proto-Aksumite material culture, including black-grey ware bowls with carenated profiles and pointed rims (around 17 cm in diameter), as well as black-brown ware with recurved rims and incised lines.^[9] Globular jars, cups, and other vessels mirror assemblages from highland proto-Aksumite sites, pointing to cultural continuity between coastal and interior populations in the Eritrean region.^[9] This period aligns with the Ethio-Sabean kingdom of Da'amat (8th–5th centuries BC), during which Adulis likely emerged as a peripheral trade node, though direct structural evidence from this era remains sparse due to limited stratigraphic excavations.^[9] Trade connections during the late pre-Aksumite centuries are evidenced by imported artifacts, such as Hellenistic Egyptian items (e.g., unguentaria and glass scarabs) and a South Arabian alabaster lid, dating to the 3rd–2nd centuries BC, reflecting Adulis' integration into Red Sea exchange networks with Egypt, Sudan, and the Arabian Peninsula.^[9] Pottery fragments from the broader Eritrean coastal region, found in Egyptian contexts like Mersa Gawasis, hint at earlier maritime links potentially extending to the 2nd millennium BC, but on-site evidence at Adulis primarily substantiates activity from the proto-Aksumite onward, with the site's autonomy from highland polities preserved by geographic separation.^[9] Chronological precision is challenged by reliance on comparative typology and unrefined radiocarbon dating, underscoring the need for further deep excavations to clarify foundational sequences.^[9] By the 1st century BC, these foundations positioned Adulis for expansion under emerging Aksumite influence, transitioning from a proto-urban hub to a prominent port.^[9]

Peak as Aksumite Port (1st century BC–6th century AD)

Adulis served as the chief seaport of the Aksumite Kingdom from the 1st century BC to the 6th century AD, acting as a critical nexus for Red Sea commerce that linked the Ethiopian highlands to Mediterranean and Indian Ocean networks.^[2] Positioned in a deep, protected bay on the Eritrean coast near the Gulf of Zula, the port handled exports of ivory, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells, slaves, and gold dust, primarily sourced from the interior via caravan routes to Aksum, a journey spanning 5–15 days.^[17]^[9] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st-century AD Greco-Roman navigational guide, describes Adulis as a legally regulated trading hub where Roman merchants bartered for "a great quantity of ivory" from elephant-hunting grounds, underscoring its early prominence under Aksumite oversight.^[18]^[19] Archaeological excavations reveal a site spanning 20–30 hectares with domestic quarters, workshops, and monumental structures, including evidence of local production in ivory, shells, and metalwork such as bronze rings and iron spears.^[9] Over 500 ceramic fragments, encompassing Aksumite-style bowls and imported Mediterranean amphorae, sigillata ware, and Sassanian glazed pottery, attest to diverse exchanges with Egypt, Syria, Italy, India, and South Arabia.^[9] Finds of 152 Aksumite coins and glassware from the Eastern Mediterranean further indicate robust economic activity, with the port's control enabling Aksum to mint its own currency and project maritime influence.^[9] Imports comprised textiles, wine, oil, metals, coral, and pilgrim flasks, often transported in Ayla-Aksum amphorae.^[9]^[17] By the 4th–6th centuries AD, Adulis reflected Aksum's imperial zenith, with radiocarbon-dated basilica churches featuring square pillars, step masonry, and imported marble chancel posts and capitals signaling the integration of Christianity into its trade-oriented society.^[6]^[9] These structures, excavated alongside obsidian tools and burnished pottery from early layers, highlight the port's evolution from a proto-Aksumite outpost to a cosmopolitan center, though environmental shifts and shifting trade dynamics foreshadowed its 7th-century decline.^[2]^[9]

Decline and Post-Aksumite Phases (7th century AD onward)

The decline of Adulis began in the mid-7th century AD, aligning with the Aksumite kingdom's cessation of coin minting around 650–700 AD, signaling the end of its monetized international trade economy.^[20] This port city, once central to exporting ivory, rhinoceros horn, and gold via Red Sea routes, suffered from the redirection of commerce following the Arab Muslim conquests of the 7th century, which established control over key maritime paths and prioritized ports under Islamic influence.^[21] Environmental degradation, including deforestation and agricultural exhaustion in the Aksumite interior, compounded these disruptions by reducing the hinterland's capacity to supply trade goods, while incursions by nomadic groups like the Beja further destabilized coastal access.^[22] Archaeological strata at Adulis document a phase of destruction and abandonment between the late 7th and early 8th centuries, with structures such as warehouses and basilicas showing no evidence of post-Aksumite reconstruction or sustained occupation.^[23] Excavations of the site's three known early Christian churches reveal imported Mediterranean architectural elements active until circa 600–650 AD, after which layers indicate disuse, possibly linked to a chain of climatic and political crises that eroded Aksumite authority.^[6] Limited post-abandonment activity is attested by Islamic-period burials overlying Christian remains, pointing to intermittent reuse by local populations amid the kingdom's fragmentation into smaller polities.^[9] By the 8th–10th centuries, Adulis had transitioned to marginal local significance, overshadowed by emerging trade centers in the Horn of Africa and Arabian Peninsula, with the site's final obscurity tied to the Aksumite state's dissolution into Agau-influenced successor entities.^[16] Scholarly debate persists on the relative weights of ecological collapse versus geopolitical shifts, but consensus holds that the interplay of trade isolation and internal decline precipitated Adulis' eclipse as a hub of Afro-Eurasian exchange.^[24]

Economy and Trade Networks

Primary Commodities and Exports

Adulis served as the principal outlet for Aksumite exports, channeling commodities from the Ethiopian highlands and coastal hinterlands to Mediterranean, Arabian, and Indian Ocean markets. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st-century AD Greco-Roman trading manual, identifies ivory, tortoise-shell, and rhinoceros horn as key exports from the port, sourced through inland hunting of elephants and rhinoceroses near the Nile's headwaters and transported via caravan routes to Coloe and then Adulis.^[19] These goods were exchanged for imported luxuries like Egyptian linens, metals, and wines, underscoring Adulis's role in balancing regional surpluses with foreign demands.^[19] Ivory dominated Adulis's trade volume, with 6th-century merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes describing systematic slaughter of African elephants—larger-tusked than their Indian counterparts—for export, yielding whole tusks processed locally into artifacts like pyxides before shipment to Rome, Persia, and India.^[9] Archaeological finds at the site, including tusks and Guidit-scraper-marked fragments, confirm this processing and export scale, while Pliny the Elder corroborates ivory alongside hippopotamus skins as staples from the interior.^[9] Gold, panned from Agaw-region rivers under Aksumite oversight, supplemented these, traded in bars or worked into jewelry like chains unearthed in early 20th-century excavations.^[9] Other commodities included obsidian from nearby volcanoes like Alid, tortoise shells from Dahlak Archipelago fisheries, and slaves—captives from raids or debtors funneled through the port for Mediterranean and Arabian buyers—as noted in Aksumite trade analyses drawing on Periplus and Cosmas accounts.^[3] Exotic animals and hides rounded out exports, with the port's open harbor accommodating Greco-Roman and African traders to facilitate these high-value, low-volume shipments that fueled Aksum's coinage and monumental architecture.^[9] While frankincense and myrrh featured in broader Aksumite commerce, Adulis emphasized animal-derived luxuries over aromatics, reflecting its coastal sourcing advantages.^[3]

Import Goods and Exchange Mechanisms

Archaeological excavations at Adulis have uncovered evidence of imported amphorae, including Late Roman 1 types from southeastern Turkey and Cyprus, likely containing wine, and Late Roman 2 from the Aegean, alongside Africana amphorae from North Africa for olive oil or fish sauces, dating to the 4th–7th centuries AD.^[3] Sassanian glazed wares and glass vessels from Judea and the eastern Mediterranean further indicate luxury imports for elite consumption during the Aksumite period.^[9] Earlier finds, such as Dressel 2-4 amphorae from Italy (late 1st century BC–1st century AD) at nearby sites like Diodorus Island, suggest continuity in Mediterranean liquid imports from the pre-Aksumite era.^[3] Literary accounts corroborate these findings; the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century AD) lists imports to Adulis including undressed cloth from Egypt, robes from Arsinoe, glassware, brass and copper vessels, iron tools, and jewelry, exchanged for local exports like ivory and tortoise shells.^[18] Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century AD) describes markets at Adulis handling Egyptian, Roman, and Indian goods, including textiles and metals, transported via Red Sea shipping from Alexandria and Aqaba.^[3] Byzantine marble, such as Proconnesian types used in church furnishings, points to later elite imports from Constantinople, likely arriving post-4th century AD Christianization.^[9] Trade at Adulis operated through a regulated emporion nomimon, a legally designated port where foreign merchants from Egypt, the Mediterranean, Arabia, and India conducted exchanges under Aksumite oversight, as noted in the Periplus.^[18] Bulk commodities like wine and oil were likely bartered directly for Aksumite staples such as ivory, with royal agents managing transactions to enforce customs and prevent unauthorized access, supported by naval patrols and elephant guards described by Cosmas.^[3] While Aksumite gold coinage facilitated some inland and prestige trades from the 3rd century AD, port-level exchanges emphasized commodity barter, evidenced by the absence of widespread foreign coin hoards and the prevalence of utility amphorae over monetary artifacts.^[9] Overland caravan routes via the Haddas Valley linked Adulis to Aksumite highlands, enabling secondary distribution of imports.^[9]

Connections to Mediterranean, Indian, and African Partners

Adulis functioned as a vital nexus in the Aksumite Kingdom's maritime trade with Mediterranean powers, channeling exports northward via the Red Sea to Egyptian ports such as Berenice Troglodytica and Myos Hormos, which connected to Alexandria and Roman markets.^[19] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a mid-1st-century AD navigational manual by an anonymous Greco-Roman merchant, identifies Adulis as a legally regulated port approximately 3,000 stadia (about 555 km) south of Ptolemais Theron, where Aksumite authorities controlled commerce, exporting ivory, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, and slaves sourced from inland African territories in return for Mediterranean imports like Laodicean woolen garments, linen, rice from Egypt, and Abyssinian steel blades.^[18] This trade peaked under Roman influence from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD, with Aksum supplying exotic goods—ivory for Roman luxury items and possibly live animals for spectacles—while importing wine, olive oil (evidenced by amphorae shards at the site), glassware, and metal tools, as documented in Byzantine accounts and corroborated by pottery finds linking Adulis to eastern Mediterranean workshops.^[9] By the 6th century AD, connections shifted toward Byzantine traders, with merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes visiting Adulis around 522 AD and noting ongoing exchanges of African commodities for imperial goods amid Aksum's Christian alignment with Constantinople.^[25] Through its Red Sea position, Adulis integrated Aksum into Indian Ocean circuits, facilitating indirect exchanges with subcontinental ports like those in Gujarat and the Malabar Coast via seasonal monsoon routes and intermediary Arabian hubs.^[26] Aksumite gold coins bearing royal inscriptions, minted from the 3rd to 7th centuries AD, have been recovered in southern India, indicating that African exports—ivory, gold dust, and civet musk—reached Indian merchants, who reciprocated with spices (pepper, cinnamon), fine cotton textiles, and beads, as inferred from Aksum's broader maritime reach described in Cosmas Indicopleustes' Christian Topography.^[25] While direct Adulis-India voyages are unattested in primary sources, the port's role as a transshipment point amplified Aksum's participation in this network, with 1st-century AD Periplus references to downstream trade extensions beyond Africa suggesting early links to Indian aromatics and dyes flowing southward.^[18] Archaeological traces, including Indian-style glass and carnelian at Aksumite sites, support this connectivity, though Adulis-specific imports remain limited, likely due to perishable goods and post-decline site disturbance.^[3] Inland African partnerships underpinned Adulis' export economy, with caravan routes from the port penetrating the Eritrean highlands and beyond to procure commodities from local tribes and polities.^[27] The Periplus details how "barbarian" inland hunters supplied ivory and other exotica to Adulis under royal oversight, reflecting organized procurement from southern Ethiopian and Sudanese frontiers, including elephant-hunting expeditions yielding tusks for Mediterranean and Indian markets.^[18] Cosmas Indicopleustes, during his 522 AD stay, recorded gold extraction from rivers in the Fazoql region (modern Sudan/Ethiopia border), panned by "naked" indigenous groups and traded via Adulis intermediaries, estimating annual yields sufficient to gild church vessels, highlighting causal dependencies on these African suppliers for Aksum's wealth.^[27] Such ties extended to slave raiding and tribute from peripheral chiefdoms, as well as possible exchanges with Meroitic Nubia for incense and hides, fostering a regional network that prioritized raw material extraction over symmetric reciprocity.^[28]

Society, Culture, and Religion

Urban Organization and Daily Life

The ancient port city of Adulis spanned approximately 40 hectares, bounded by topographic features such as wadi walls to the south and leveled plains to the west and east, without evidence of defensive walls, implying reliance on Aksumite central authority for security.^[3]^[29] Structures generally aligned along a northwest-southeast axis, with geophysical surveys suggesting an initial organic growth evolving into a more regulated, possibly grid-like plan during the Aksumite peak in the 4th–6th centuries AD.^[3] The urban core lay about 5 km inland from the Red Sea near the Haddas River, separating residential and administrative zones from harbor facilities on nearby islands like Dissei and Diodoros, consistent with a "port of trade" model for regulating commerce.^[9]^[3] Prominent buildings included a large palace-like complex measuring 22.5 by 38 meters with 16 rooms, constructed using local basalt and mica schist in stepped, coursed masonry suggestive of multi-story designs, and three early Christian basilicas dated to the late 5th–7th centuries AD via radiocarbon analysis.^[3]^[29] These churches, including an episcopal complex (30 by 20 meters) with Y-shaped barriers and solea for liturgical separation, an eastern basilica with eight pillars and baptistery, and a northern church, incorporated Aksumite elements like schist podia alongside imported Byzantine marble (e.g., Proconnesian and Dokimeion types) for chancel screens and architraves, reflecting centralized religious authority and architectural synthesis.^[6]^[29] Housing quarters near the river yielded glass fragments and domestic pottery, while northern areas featured possible workshops and storerooms, indicating functional zoning for administration, religion, and trade.^[9] Daily life revolved around maritime commerce, with dense concentrations of imported amphorae (e.g., Late Roman 2 types from Aqaba and Egypt, 6th–7th centuries AD) and local hand-made wares evidencing markets handling exports like ivory and tortoise shells alongside imports such as wine, glass, and metals.^[3]^[9] Subsistence activities included fishing, as shown by fish bones and bronze hooks, and artisanal crafts like metalworking (e.g., scales, surgical tools, grindstones) and potential goldsmithing in structures near churches.^[9] Early settlement layers revealed fireplaces and huts with obsidian tools and burnished pottery, pointing to continuity from pre-Aksumite phases into a cosmopolitan society of local inhabitants, Aksumite overseers, and transient merchants, where religious transitions—evidenced by church phases and cross-incised slabs—integrated pagan holdovers with Christian liturgy amid trade-driven cultural exchanges.^[9]^[6]

Religious Transitions: Paganism to Christianity

Prior to the adoption of Christianity, the Aksumite Kingdom, including its port of Adulis, practiced a polytheistic religion centered on deities such as Astar, the sky god, Beher, associated with the sea, and Mahrem, a war god, as evidenced by royal inscriptions and dedicatory stelae from the Aksumite heartland.^[30] An anonymous Aksumite emperor's Greek inscription at Adulis references Zeus, Poseidon, and Ares, likely representing syncretic interpretations of local gods.^[30] While direct archaeological evidence of pagan temples in Adulis remains limited, the site's integration into the Aksumite realm implies similar religious practices, potentially including rituals tied to maritime trade and protection from sea deities.^[31] The transition to Christianity in the Aksumite Kingdom occurred during the reign of King Ezana (c. 320–360 AD), who officially converted around 330–340 AD, influenced by the Syrian Christian Frumentius, who became the kingdom's first bishop after educating the royal court.^[32] This royal endorsement marked a top-down shift, with Ezana's coinage transitioning from pagan symbols to crosses by the mid-4th century.^[32] In Adulis, as a peripheral trade hub, exposure to Christian merchants from the Roman Empire likely predated official adoption, fostering gradual integration rather than abrupt imposition.^[33] Archaeological excavations at Adulis reveal three early Christian churches, indicating consolidation of the faith post-conversion. The northern urban church, measuring 18.8 × 10 m with a basilical plan and horseshoe apse, contains a coin of Ezana (345–375 AD), suggesting foundation in the mid-4th century, possibly overlying a pre-Christian structure.^[32] The eastern church (26 × 18 m), featuring a baptismal font, dates to the 5th–6th centuries, while the "British Museum" church incorporates imported marble, linking to 6th-century Byzantine influences.^[32] Radiocarbon dating of associated materials places some structures in the 6th–early 7th centuries, reflecting phased construction and evolving architectural styles blending local basalt with Mediterranean elements.^[6] These findings, corroborated by 6th-century accounts from Cosmas Indicopleustes describing a church in Adulis, underscore Christianity's entrenchment amid ongoing trade cosmopolitanism, with no evidence of violent suppression of paganism but hints of continuity in burial practices like infant amphora interments.^[32]^[6] The religious shift in Adulis appears organic and elite-driven, tied to Aksum's imperial ambitions and Red Sea commerce, rather than uniform across the kingdom's periphery, as later repurposing of church sites for Islamic burials by the 7th century attests to further transitions.^[33] Scholarly interpretations emphasize this as a cosmopolitan adaptation, with architectural and material changes signaling evolving sacred practices without clear markers of conflict.^[6]

Evidence of Cultural Interactions

Archaeological investigations at Adulis have uncovered diverse imported artifacts attesting to multifaceted cultural interactions across the Red Sea and Indian Ocean networks from the 1st century BC to the 7th century AD. Prominent among these are Mediterranean imports, including Dressel 2-4 amphorae originating from Italy (late 1st century BC–1st century AD) and Eastern Sigillata A ware, recovered at Dese Island and Diodorus Island, indicating early Roman trade links.^[3] Later phases feature Late Roman 1 and 2 amphorae from regions like Turkey, Cyprus, and the Aegean (5th–6th centuries AD), alongside Ayla-Aksum types from Aqaba in Arabia, concentrated in northern and eastern areas of the site.^[3]^[9] Glass vessels, including unguentaria and bottles of Hellenistic-Egyptian style, as well as North African African Red Slip and sigillata wares (4th–5th centuries AD), further evidence exchanges with the Roman world and its provinces.^[9] Over 1,600 objects from 1907 excavations, encompassing 42 gold coins (mostly Aksumite but including one foreign), marble fragments, and copper scales, highlight sustained Byzantine-era contacts peaking in the 6th–7th centuries AD.^[9] Persian influences appear in Sassanian glazed wares such as bowls and jars (4th–7th centuries AD).^[9] Indian Ocean ties are suggested by possible Gujarati pottery fragments (6th–7th centuries AD) and a carnelian gem incised with a lion, likely of Indian or Sassanian provenance, alongside exports of ivory documented in classical accounts.^[9] South Arabian connections include an alabaster lid (3rd–2nd centuries BC) and Aqaba amphorae sherds from the Aksumite period at Galala Hills.^[9]^[3] Architectural evidence reinforces these interactions, with early Christian basilicas (6th–7th centuries AD) incorporating Byzantine elements like Corinthian capitals, octagonal alabaster columns, and Proconnesian marble chancel posts and screens imported from the Marmara region.^[9] The Monumentum Adulitanum inscription (c. 525 AD), recorded by Cosmas Indicopleustes, references offerings to Greek gods such as Zeus, Ares, and Poseidon, evidencing Hellenistic cultural persistence amid Aksumite hegemony.^[9] Ge’ez-inscribed pottery (400–700 AD) bearing Christian monograms and the 1st-century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea's description of imports like textiles, glass, and Roman money for resident foreigners collectively illustrate Adulis' role as a cosmopolitan entrepôt fostering religious and material exchanges.^[9]^[34]

Archaeological Evidence and Investigations

Early European Explorations (19th–20th centuries)

The ruins of Adulis were first systematically identified by British explorer and diplomat Henry Salt in 1810, during a mission to the region under British government orders.^[9] Salt documented the site's location in Annesley Bay (also known as the Gulf of Zula), noting its association with ancient descriptions and local naming as "Azoole," and produced the earliest modern map of the bay highlighting the mounds and remnants.^[35] His account, published in 1814, emphasized visible elephant tusks and marble columns amid the ruins, linking them to classical references by authors like Cosmas Indicopleustes, though Salt's observations remained primarily descriptive without extensive digging.^[9] Limited follow-up visits occurred in the mid-19th century, including by members of French scientific expeditions such as Théodore Lefebvre's in the 1840s, who referenced Adulis in broader surveys of Eritrean coastal antiquities but conducted no major interventions.^[9] European engagement shifted toward structured archaeology in the early 20th century amid colonial interests in Italian Eritrea. In 1906, Swedish archaeologist Richard Sundström, as part of Enno Littmann's Deutsche Aksum-Expedition (a German-American effort focused on northern Ethiopia and Eritrea), excavated a substantial structure northwest of the main ruins, uncovering building foundations and artifacts that hinted at pre-Aksumite activity.^[3] The next year, Italian archaeologist Roberto Paribeni directed more comprehensive digs across approximately 20 locations in the northwest sector, exposing large buildings, tombs with human remains, and Dressel-type amphorae, which evidenced two occupational phases: an archaic layer predating the Aksumite era and a overlying Aksumite stratum with Christian-era elements.^[3]^[36] Paribeni's work, documented in official reports, marked the first systematic stratigraphic insights but was constrained by colonial priorities and logistical challenges, leaving much of the site undisturbed.^[3] These efforts established Adulis's significance as an Aksumite port while highlighting gaps in understanding its full extent and chronology.

Mid-20th Century Surveys and Interruptions

In the aftermath of World War II, archaeological investigations at Adulis were minimal, constrained by Eritrea's transition from Italian colonial control to British military administration (1941–1952) and the subsequent uncertainties of federation with Ethiopia in 1952. No major excavations occurred during the 1940s, as resources were directed toward post-war stabilization rather than systematic surveys, leaving the site largely untouched since early 20th-century Italian efforts.^[9] A notable exception came in 1957, when a French team from the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, led by Roger Sauter, undertook an underwater survey in the Gulf of Zula at Ras Malkatto in the Bay of Zula. The expedition recovered lithic instruments, potsherds, and fragments of jars, suggesting evidence of ancient coastal and maritime use, though the scope remained exploratory and results were not extensively published beyond an unpublished manuscript titled Section d’Archéologie. Rapport de l’Expédition du Moana (avril 1957). These artifacts were deposited in the National Museum of Addis Ababa, highlighting Adulis's role in prehistoric Red Sea interactions but providing limited stratigraphic data.^[9] More comprehensive surface and trench surveys resumed in 1961–1962 under Francis Anfray, director of the Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology, focusing on a housing quarter adjacent to the Biet Khalif structure and extending to nearby Matara. Anfray's team documented approximately 350 pottery fragments, metal objects, and an elephant tusk, with ceramics spanning the 5th century BCE to the 2nd century CE, indicative of pre-Aksumite domestic life and early trade networks. Trenches exposed well-preserved walls and architectural features in Adulis's central zone, offering preliminary insights into urban layout, though full analysis was constrained by the era's logistical limitations. Findings were reported in Anfray's publications, including comparative studies of Aksumite material culture.^[9]^[32] These activities were curtailed by Ethiopia's de facto annexation of Eritrea in 1962, which ignited the Eritrean War of Independence (1961–1991), rendering the site inaccessible amid armed conflict, minefields, and political upheaval. The ensuing 30-year war devastated infrastructure and prioritized security over heritage preservation, imposing a research hiatus exceeding 50 years until Eritrean-led efforts recommenced in 2011. This interruption preserved Adulis from modern development but obscured potential degradation from natural erosion and looting, with aerial photography from the 1960s–1970s providing only ancillary mapping support during the lull.^[9]^[37]

Contemporary Eritrean-Led Excavations (2011–present)

In 2011, the Eritrean government initiated the Adulis Project, led by the National Museum of Asmara, to systematically investigate the site's archaeological remains through a joint Eritrean-Italian expedition involving institutions such as the Eastern Desert Research Centre (CeRDO) and the Université de Paris-Sorbonne.^[38]^[9] The effort aimed to expose previously identified monumental structures, establish stratigraphic sequences, and map the site's extent using GPS surveys, yielding a topographic overview that integrated modern tombs, ruins, and potential urban layouts.^[38] Initial stratified excavations from 2011 revealed a chronological span from the 1st to early 7th centuries AD, including pottery assemblages indicative of Red Sea trade networks.^[16] Between 2011 and 2016, four excavation seasons focused on port-related deposits and monumental architecture, uncovering transport vessels with organic residues linked to commodities like resins and possibly baboon trade, corroborating classical accounts of Adulis as a transshipment hub.^[5]^[39] These efforts documented a shift in ceramic imports, with Mediterranean amphorae dominating until the 6th century AD, followed by Indian Ocean influences, supporting a refined site chronology tied to Aksumite decline.^[40] Eritrean teams contributed to on-site management and artifact analysis, emphasizing national heritage preservation amid limited prior systematic work.^[41] Subsequent phases from 2018 onward targeted religious structures, including re-excavation of the "Church of the British" and a larger basilica identified as potentially the ecclesia episcopalis, revealing early Christian conversion evidence through architectural phases and grave goods dating to the Aksumite period.^[6]^[42] In 2018–2019, collaborations with the Pontificio Istituto di Archeologia Cristiana uncovered two of three known early churches, with stratigraphy indicating pagan-to-Christian transitions via reused materials and inscribed elements.^[6] By 2022, these digs exposed church foundations and associated burials, while 2024 efforts yielded ancient ceramics illuminating trade continuity into late antiquity.^[43]^[41] Ongoing surveys have also documented 326 Muslim graves from the late Islamic period, extending the site's interpretive timeline.^[44] The project has prioritized Eritrean oversight in decision-making and capacity-building, despite international partnerships, to counter earlier colonial-era interruptions and affirm Adulis's role in Horn of Africa heritage.^[45] Recent phases, including a 2024 Italian-supported mission, continue under this framework, focusing on conservation and further stratigraphic probing to resolve debates on the site's urban extent and post-Aksumite phases.^[46]

Significance and Interpretations

Contributions to Aksumite Power and Regional Influence

Adulis functioned as the Kingdom of Aksum's primary Red Sea port from the 1st century AD onward, serving as the conduit for exports including ivory, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, gold, incense, and slaves to distant markets in the Roman Empire, India, and Arabia, while facilitating imports of luxury goods such as wine, metals, and textiles.^[3]^[47] This commerce, attested in the mid-1st-century Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, generated immense wealth that fueled Aksum's economic expansion, enabling the minting of gold coinage, construction of monumental stelae and palaces, and sustenance of urban centers.^[3]^[47] The prosperity derived from Adulis translated into military capabilities that amplified Aksum's regional hegemony, with the port's strategic position supporting naval operations and serving as a staging ground for expeditions across the Red Sea.^[48] By the 3rd century AD, Aksumite rulers like Gadara conducted naval raids and conquests into Himyar and western Arabia, leveraging trade revenues to subdue rivals and secure monopolies over lucrative routes for silk, spices, and aromatics.^[49] King Ezana's mid-4th-century campaigns against Nubian polities further extended Aksumite control over inland trade networks, linking them to Adulis's maritime outlets.^[49] A pivotal demonstration of Adulis's role occurred under King Kaleb around 525 AD, who assembled a fleet of 60 to 70 ships at the nearby Gabaza harbor—associated with Adulis—to invade the Himyarite kingdom, overthrowing the Jewish ruler Dhu Nuwas in response to trade disruptions and Christian persecutions, thereby restoring Aksumite influence in southern Arabia.^[48]^[49]^[3] Inscriptions like the Monumentum Adulitanum, erected at Adulis to commemorate such victories and territorial claims dating back to interactions with Ptolemy III (c. 246–221 BC) but reused by later Aksumite kings, underscore the port's symbolic and practical centrality to projecting power.^[3] This naval and economic leverage positioned Aksum as a peer to Rome and Persia in late antiquity, dominating Red Sea commerce until the 7th century.^[49]

Insights into Early Christianity and Trade Dynamics

Archaeological excavations at Adulis have uncovered two early Christian basilicas, dated via radiocarbon analysis to the sixth and seventh centuries AD, offering direct evidence of Christianity's establishment in this Aksumite port following the kingdom's official conversion under King Ezana around AD 330–350.^[6]^[43] These structures, including an episcopal complex, exhibit architectural features blending local Aksumite elements with Byzantine influences, such as basilical plans and apses, indicative of a cosmopolitan religious synthesis facilitated by maritime contacts.^[29] The presence of these churches near the harbor suggests Christianity's role in integrating Adulis into broader ecclesiastical networks, potentially aiding the kingdom's diplomatic ties with the Byzantine Empire and reinforcing social cohesion amid diverse trader populations.^[6] Adulis functioned as Aksum's principal Red Sea emporium from approximately the first century BC to the seventh century AD, channeling highland resources like ivory, gold, emeralds, and tortoiseshell to Mediterranean, Arabian, and Indian markets in exchange for imported glass beads, pottery, textiles, and Roman coins.^[9]^[26] Artifact assemblages, including amphorae from the Mediterranean and beads from India, attest to robust multilateral trade dynamics, with Adulis imposing tariffs that amassed wealth for Aksum, evidenced by coin hoards and monumental constructions.^[50] The port's diverse faunal remains and grave goods reflect interactions among African, Greco-Roman, and South Arabian merchants, underscoring its role as a multicultural hub where economic exchanges likely disseminated Christian ideas alongside commodities.^[51] The convergence of religious and commercial spheres at Adulis highlights causal links between trade routes and evangelization: Red Sea shipping networks, active since the Ptolemaic era, transported not only goods but also missionaries and liturgical objects, enabling Aksumite Christianity to evolve as a hybrid tradition incorporating Ethiopian, Byzantine, and possibly Syriac elements by the sixth century.^[52]^[29] This interplay bolstered Aksum's geopolitical influence, as Christian identity aligned with alliances against Persian and Himyarite rivals, while trade revenues funded church building, creating a feedback loop of economic prosperity and religious consolidation.^[6]^[53]

Debates on Chronology and Site Extent

Scholars debate the precise chronology of Adulis's occupation, with traditional accounts emphasizing its role as a key Aksumite port from the 1st to the 7th century AD, supported by ceramic sequences, coin finds, and architectural remains indicating continuous activity peaking in the 5th–6th centuries AD via radiocarbon dating.^[54] However, recent evidence challenges this by documenting pre-Aksumite phases, including handmade gray-black pottery and obsidian tools from the early 2nd millennium BC, Hellenistic unguentaria from the late 1st millennium BC, and proto-Aksumite globular jars dated ca. 400–50 BC, suggesting Adulis functioned as a regional trade node prior to Aksumite dominance.^[55] ^[9] These findings, including South Arabian-style throne fragments implying early monumental construction, prompt reassessment of whether Adulis originated independently or as an extension of Ethio-Sabean Da'amat culture (8th–5th centuries BC), though limited stratified deposits leave the scale and continuity of pre-1st century AD settlement uncertain.^[55] The site's decline around the early 7th–8th centuries AD aligns with Islamic expansion disrupting Red Sea trade, as evidenced by post-Aksumite reuse as cemeteries, but exact causal mechanisms remain contested due to sparse late-phase artifacts.^[54] ^[9] The extent of Adulis's ancient settlement also sparks discussion, with early 20th-century estimates placing it at approximately 20–24 hectares based on visible ruins, while topographic and geophysical surveys from 2003–2004 expand this to 30–40 hectares across low mounds aligned northwest-southeast, encompassing palaces, churches, and housing without evident defensive walls.^[3] ^[56] Now 5–6 km inland due to sedimentation, the core site on the Gulf of Zula's north bank is bounded by wadi walls to the south-southeast, the Zula plain to the east-west, and modern fields to the north, though debates persist over incorporating satellite features like the Samidi mausolea 7 km north or Massawa Airport mounds, which may represent ceremonial extensions or dispersed suburbs rather than contiguous urban sprawl.^[9] ^[3] Subsurface anomalies detected via magnetometry suggest untapped structures beyond surface scatters, complicating precise delineation amid erosion and modern reuse, with some arguing for a broader 40-hectare footprint tied to harbor logistics at Dissei Island.^[3] ^[56]

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