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Plain

A plain is a broad area of relatively flat land that generally lacks significant changes in elevation, making it one of the major landforms on Earth.^[1] Plains cover more than one-third of the world's land area and are found on every continent, often serving as vital regions for agriculture, settlement, and transportation due to their accessibility and fertile soils.^[1] Plains form through various geological processes, primarily involving the erosion of higher land by ice, water, and wind, which deposits sediment over time to create level surfaces.^[1] For instance, floodplains develop along rivers where periodic flooding lays down layers of sediment, while alluvial plains arise at the bases of mountains from fan-shaped deposits of eroded material carried by streams.^[1] Coastal plains emerge when sediment accumulates on continental shelves and rises above sea level due to tectonic uplift or falling ocean levels, often extending inland from shorelines.^[1] Additionally, lava plains result from extensive volcanic flows, typically composed of dark basalt rock, and abyssal plains are vast, flat underwater expanses on the ocean floor at depths of 5,000 to 7,000 meters, formed by sediment covering rough seafloor features.^[1] The characteristics and vegetation of plains vary widely depending on climate and location, ranging from expansive grasslands like the Great Plains in North America or the Eurasian steppes to forested areas such as Mexico's Tabasco Plain, arid desert regions in the Sahara, and frozen tundra in the Arctic.^[1] These diverse environments support significant biodiversity and human activity; for example, the Serengeti Plain in Africa is renowned for its savanna ecosystems and wildlife migrations.^[1] Despite their flatness, plains can include subtle features like rolling hills or river valleys, but they are distinguished from plateaus by their lower elevation and lack of uplift.^[2]

Description

Definition and Etymology

A plain is a broad area of relatively flat land, characterized by gentle slopes and minimal local relief, making it one of Earth's major landforms.^[1] These expansive regions typically exhibit few abrupt changes in elevation, distinguishing them from more rugged terrains like mountains or plateaus.^[1] Plains cover more than one-third of the world's land surface and are found on every continent, often supporting agriculture, settlements, and diverse ecosystems due to their level topography.^[1] The term "plain" originates from Old French plain, meaning "open countryside," which itself derives from Latin planum, a neuter substantive form of planus denoting "flat, even, or level."^[3] This Latin root traces back to the Proto-Indo-European *pele- (2), signifying "flat" or "to spread," reflecting the concept of an unobstructed, horizontally extended landscape.^[3] The earliest recorded English usage of "plain" in a geographical sense dates to around 1300, referring to level expanses like Salisbury Plain in England.^[3] Over time, the word has consistently evoked imagery of simplicity and openness in both literal terrain and metaphorical contexts, underscoring its foundational role in describing unembellished natural features.^[3]

Physical Characteristics

A plain is a broad expanse of land characterized by minimal topographic variation, typically featuring flat or gently undulating surfaces with low relief, where elevation changes are generally less than 100 meters over large areas. These landforms exhibit slopes of 2% or less, often approaching level conditions, distinguishing them from more rugged terrains like hills or mountains. Plains cover more than one-third of Earth's land surface and occur on every continent, including continental interiors and coastal margins.^[1]^[4]^[5] The substrate of plains consists primarily of unconsolidated sediments such as alluvium, loess, or glacial deposits, which contribute to their smooth profile by filling in irregularities through depositional processes. Elevation varies significantly; coastal plains often lie near sea level and may extend underwater with gentle offshore slopes, while interior plains can reach altitudes of several thousand meters, as seen in elevated erosional surfaces. Relief is characteristically low, with local features like shallow depressions or subtle swells rarely exceeding a few meters in height, promoting efficient drainage patterns dominated by meandering rivers and wide floodplains. Soils on plains are frequently deep and fertile due to sediment accumulation, supporting agriculture where climate permits, though aridity or poor drainage can lead to sodic or saline conditions in some areas.^[1]^[4]^[5] Physically, plains lack prominent vertical features, with any hills or ridges being isolated and subdued, often resulting from differential erosion or minor tectonic uplift. Their vast scale—sometimes spanning millions of square kilometers—facilitates broad, uniform landscapes that influence regional hydrology, with rivers exhibiting low gradients and extensive braided channels. In marine contexts, abyssal plains represent the flattest areas on Earth, smoothed by turbidite deposits at depths of 5,000 to 7,000 meters below sea level, covering about 70% of the ocean floor.^[1]^[6] These characteristics make plains highly susceptible to fluvial modification and human land use, underscoring their role as foundational elements in global geomorphology.

Formation and Classification

Depositional Plains

Depositional plains are flat or gently sloping landforms formed through the accumulation of sediments transported and deposited by natural agents such as rivers, wind, waves, and glaciers. These plains arise when erosional materials from upland areas are carried and laid down in low-lying regions, gradually building up layers of sediment over time to create extensive, level surfaces. Unlike erosional or structural plains, depositional ones result from constructive processes where sediment deposition outpaces erosion, often leading to fertile soils rich in silt, sand, and clay.^[7]^[8] The primary formation process involves the transportation of sediment by agents of erosion followed by its settling in depositional environments. In fluvial settings, rivers erode highlands and deposit coarser materials like gravel and sand near their upper reaches, transitioning to finer silts and clays on floodplains as velocity decreases; during floods, these sediments spread across broad areas, forming alluvial plains. Deltaic environments occur where rivers meet standing bodies of water, such as seas or lakes, causing rapid sediment deposition through distributary channels that fan out and build triangular or bird's-foot shaped plains. Coastal processes contribute via wave and tidal action, where marine currents deposit fine sediments along shorelines to form low-relief coastal plains, while aeolian deposition by wind accumulates wind-blown silt into loess plains or sand into dune fields that can flatten over time. Glacial deposition, though less common for vast plains, involves till and outwash sediments left by retreating ice sheets, creating gently undulating surfaces. These processes are influenced by factors like sediment supply, water or wind energy, and sea-level changes, with deposition often occurring in layers that compact into sedimentary rocks such as sandstone or shale. Lava plains form through the accumulation of successive layers of basaltic lava flows from volcanic activity, creating extensive flat surfaces such as the Deccan Plateau in India.^[7]^[9]^[8] Key subtypes of depositional plains include alluvial plains, which are the most widespread and form along river courses through repeated flooding and meandering; flood plains, a narrower variant along active river channels where seasonal inundations deposit nutrient-rich alluvium; delta plains at river mouths, characterized by prograding sediments that extend coastlines; and coastal plains, shaped by marine and aeolian inputs along continental margins. Loess plains represent wind-deposited variants, consisting of fine, uniform silt particles that create highly fertile but erodible landscapes. These plains typically exhibit low gradients (less than 1-2 degrees), broad extents covering thousands of square kilometers, and sedimentary sequences visible in cross-sections as alternating coarse and fine layers, with features like levees, oxbow lakes, and ripple marks indicating their depositional origin. Their fertility supports agriculture, but they remain dynamic, subject to ongoing deposition, subsidence, or erosion.^[7]^[8]

Erosional Plains

Erosional plains are extensive, low-relief landforms created by the prolonged action of erosional processes that remove elevated terrain, resulting in a nearly flat surface carved from underlying bedrock. These plains differ from depositional plains, which accumulate sediments, and structural plains, which form due to tectonic leveling; instead, erosional plains emerge from subaerial denudation where weathering and erosion by water, wind, ice, or gravity dominate, often under relatively stable tectonic conditions. The resulting landscape typically consists of resistant rock exposures, gently undulating surfaces, and incised valleys, reflecting millions of years of material removal to approach a base level near sea level.^[10] The primary formation processes involve fluvial erosion, where rivers and streams incise valleys and transport sediment, combined with mass wasting and chemical weathering that break down rock. In humid environments, vertical downcutting and lateral planation by rivers reduce highlands to a smooth surface, while in arid or semi-arid regions, sheetwash and pediment development contribute through basal sapping at escarpment bases. Glacial erosion can also planarize landscapes in periglacial zones, though tectonic uplift may subsequently elevate these surfaces, preserving them as relict features. Formation timescales are long, often exceeding 20 million years, as denudation rates must outpace any tectonic activity to achieve regional flattening.^[11]^[10] Two prominent conceptual models describe erosional plains: the peneplain and the pediplain. The peneplain, conceptualized by William Morris Davis in the late 19th century as part of his geographical cycle, represents a mature erosion surface graded to sea level through fluvial processes in humid climates, though modern interpretations emphasize episodic uplift and climate variations. In contrast, the pediplain, proposed by Lester Charles King, forms in drier settings via the coalescence of multiple pediments—low-angle erosion slopes at the foot of retreating scarps—driven by parallel retreat and sheetflood erosion rather than a single base-level control. Recent thermochronological studies support the existence of such surfaces on passive margins, indicating burial, minimal erosion, and later exhumation.^[11]^[12] Notable examples include the Ozark Plateaus in the central United States, where stream erosion has dissected Paleozoic sedimentary rocks into a rugged yet low-relief plain spanning about 120,000 square kilometers, with elevations around 300–600 meters. In Africa, the Great Escarpment along the eastern margin features elevated peneplain remnants formed during the Cenozoic, exhumed after burial on the passive continental margin. Similarly, the western Greenland highlands preserve Miocene-age erosion surfaces, demonstrating long-term landscape stability interrupted by tectonic events. These features highlight the role of erosion in shaping continental interiors over geological time.^[10]^[11]

Structural Plains

Structural plains are flat or gently undulating landforms created primarily through tectonic processes, where large sections of the Earth's crust are uplifted or subsided without significant subsequent erosion or deposition. These plains form when horizontally layered sedimentary rocks remain relatively undisturbed by later geological activity, often resulting from the emergence of ancient seabeds or continental shelves due to tectonic forces. Unlike other plain types, structural plains exhibit minimal relief and are typically bounded by fault lines or escarpments, reflecting their origin in broad crustal movements.^[13] The formation of structural plains begins with the deposition of sediments in marine or shallow water environments over vast areas, followed by tectonic uplift that exposes these layers at the surface. This process is associated with plate tectonics, such as the rifting or convergence of continental plates, which elevates submerged regions to form extensive low-relief surfaces. In some cases, subsidence of continental interiors can also contribute, creating depressed basins that appear as plains. These features are common along continental margins, where tectonic stability allows the preservation of flat topography over millions of years.^[14]^[8] Characteristics of structural plains include their broad extent, often spanning thousands of square kilometers, with soil cover often developed in situ from weathered bedrock, though subject to later depositional modifications in some cases, leading to variable thickness. They frequently host fertile agricultural lands due to the even terrain but can be prone to seismic activity given their tectonic origins. Representative examples include the Great Plains of the United States, formed by the uplift of the continental shelf adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico during the Cenozoic era, covering about 2.9 million square kilometers across multiple states. Another prominent case is the Russian Platform, a vast interior plain resulting from stable cratonic subsidence and uplift, extending over 5 million square kilometers in eastern Europe and western Asia. The West Siberian Plain in Russia exemplifies a structural plain shaped by subsidence in a foreland basin.^[15]^[16]

Global Examples

In the Americas

The Americas host several prominent plains, shaped by tectonic, erosional, and depositional processes across diverse climatic zones. In North America, the Great Plains represent one of the continent's largest physiographic provinces, extending from the Rio Grande in Texas northward into Canada and eastward from the Rocky Mountains. This vast interior lowland, covering approximately 1.3 million square kilometers in the United States alone, formed primarily through the deposition of sediments from the eroding Rockies during the Cenozoic era, creating a gently sloping surface underlain by flat-lying sedimentary rocks such as sandstones, shales, and limestones.^[17] The region's geology reflects a history of marine incursions and fluvial aggradation, with Quaternary glaciation influencing northern extents by depositing loess and till.^[18] Along the eastern seaboard of North America lies the Atlantic Coastal Plain, a depositional feature spanning from Cape Cod southward to Florida and Mexico, characterized by unconsolidated sediments of sand, gravel, clay, and marl accumulated since the Late Cretaceous. This plain, up to 300 kilometers wide in places, resulted from the subsidence of the continental margin and sediment input from Appalachian erosion, forming a low-relief terraced landscape that dips seaward.^[19] Its aquifers and barrier islands highlight ongoing marine influence, with the plain's formation tied to eustatic sea-level changes and tectonic stability.^[20] Central America's plains are predominantly coastal, flanking a central volcanic cordillera that dominates the isthmus from Mexico to Panama. The Caribbean coastal plain, extending through countries like Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, consists of low-lying alluvial and deltaic deposits from rivers draining the interior highlands, with widths varying from 10 to 50 kilometers and elevations rarely exceeding 100 meters. These features emerged from Holocene sedimentation in tectonically active foreland basins influenced by the subduction of the Cocos Plate.^[21] On the Pacific side, narrower plains, such as those in El Salvador and Guatemala, form from volcanic ash and lava flows mixed with fluvial sediments, supporting fertile but erosion-prone agriculture.^[22] In South America, the Llanos, a vast tropical grassland plain covering about 570,000 square kilometers across Venezuela and Colombia, occupy the Orinoco River basin as a foreland depression filled with Tertiary to Quaternary siliciclastic sediments derived from the eastern Andes. This structural plain, with minimal relief and seasonal flooding, evolved through flexural subsidence adjacent to the Andean orogeny, hosting hydrocarbon reservoirs in Cretaceous sandstones.^[23] Further south, the Pampas in Argentina and Uruguay form a temperate alluvial plain of roughly 750,000 square kilometers, underlain by late Miocene to Pleistocene loess and fluvial deposits from Andean and Patagonian sources, shaped by global climate shifts that established its humid grassland ecology around 7-8 million years ago.^[24] The Gran Chaco, spanning 650,000 square kilometers in Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina, is a subtropical foreland basin plain composed of Paleozoic to Quaternary alluvial fans and aeolian sediments, influenced by Andean thrust loading and characterized by low-relief savannas and thorn forests.^[25]

In Asia

Asia hosts some of the world's largest and most significant plains, formed primarily through alluvial deposition, glacial activity, and tectonic subsidence, supporting dense populations and agriculture across diverse climates from tundra to tropical regions.^[26] The West Siberian Plain, spanning over 2.6 million square kilometers in north-central Russia, represents the largest continuous lowland on Earth, characterized by flat terrain covered in Quaternary sediments and extensive peatlands that form the planet's biggest high-latitude wetland complex. This depositional plain, shaped by ancient river systems and Pleistocene glaciations, features permafrost in its northern extents and serves as a major hub for oil and gas extraction alongside limited agriculture in its southern fertile zones.^[27]^[28] In South Asia, the Indo-Gangetic Plain extends approximately 3,000 kilometers from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, encompassing parts of Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, and is a vast alluvial feature built from sediments deposited by the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers in a foreland basin south of the Himalayas.^[29] This level, fertile lowland, with elevations mostly below 300 meters, supports over 600 million people through intensive rice and wheat cultivation, though it faces challenges from monsoon flooding and groundwater depletion.^[30] The North China Plain, covering about 409,500 square kilometers (158,000 square miles) in eastern China between the Yellow River and the Bohai Sea, is a flat alluvial expanse formed by repeated sediment deposition from the Huang He (Yellow River), which has raised the land surface through loess and silt accumulation over millennia.^[31] Known as the "cradle of Chinese civilization," this plain's deep, fertile soils enable it to produce a significant portion of China's grain, sustaining high population densities despite vulnerability to river avulsions and dust storms.^[32]^[33] Northeastern China's Manchurian Plain, also called the Northeast Plain or Songliao Plain, occupies around 350,000 square kilometers in the provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning, featuring gently undulating terrain from alluvial and lacustrine deposits between the Greater and Lesser Khingan Mountains.^[34] Dubbed the "breadbasket of China," it benefits from black soil rich in organic matter, supporting major soybean, corn, and rice production, though industrialization has led to soil degradation in some areas.^[35] In Central Asia, the Turan Plain, or Turan Lowland, forms a broad, arid depression of about 1 million square kilometers across Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and parts of Afghanistan, characterized by desert and semi-desert surfaces shaped by tectonic subsidence and sparse fluvial inputs from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers.^[36] This structural plain, bounded by the Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, and mountain ranges like the Tian Shan, historically facilitated pastoral nomadism but now relies on irrigation for cotton and grain amid water scarcity issues.^[37] The Mesopotamian Plain in southwestern Asia, stretching roughly 500 kilometers between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern Iraq, is an alluvial lowland formed by millennia of river sedimentation in a rift valley, creating fertile soils amid surrounding deserts.^[38] This cradle of early urban civilizations like Sumer, it supports date palms, barley, and wheat through ancient irrigation techniques, though salinization and modern damming pose ongoing threats to its productivity.^[39]^[40]

In Europe

Europe's plains are predominantly low-lying, fertile regions shaped by glacial, fluvial, and marine processes, forming extensive lowlands that support dense populations and agriculture. The continent's major plains include the expansive North European Plain, the Pannonian Plain in Central Europe, and the Po Plain in northern Italy, each contributing significantly to regional geography and human settlement. These features contrast with Europe's rugged uplands and mountains, providing vital arable land across diverse climatic zones. The North European Plain, also known as the Great European Plain, is one of the largest continuous lowland areas in the world, stretching approximately 3,000 kilometers from the Pyrenees in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east, with widths varying from 300 to 1,000 kilometers. It encompasses parts of France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Poland, and extends into southern Scandinavia and the Baltic states, characterized by glacial deposits, river valleys, and fertile loess soils that facilitate intensive farming. This plain's gentle slope toward the North Sea and Baltic Sea has historically influenced migration, trade, and urbanization, with major rivers like the Rhine, Elbe, and Vistula draining into it.^[41]^[42] In Central Europe, the Pannonian Plain, often referred to as the Hungarian Plain, occupies a tectonic basin surrounded by the Carpathian Mountains, Alps, and Dinaric Alps, covering about 240,000 square kilometers across Hungary, Serbia, Croatia, Slovakia, Romania, Slovenia, and parts of Ukraine and Austria. Divided into the Little Hungarian Plain in the northwest and the larger Great Hungarian Plain in the southeast, it features alluvial soils from rivers such as the Danube and Tisza, supporting steppe grasslands and viticulture. Formed by subsidence and sediment infill during the Miocene epoch, the plain's flat terrain, averaging 100-200 meters above sea level, has been a crossroads for historical migrations and empires.^[43]^[44] Southern Europe's Po Plain, the largest alluvial plain on the continent, lies between the Alps to the north and the Apennine Mountains to the south, spanning roughly 46,000 square kilometers in northern Italy and draining into the Adriatic Sea via the Po River. Composed of Quaternary sediments from Alpine erosion, it includes fertile deltaic and floodplain areas that yield high agricultural output, particularly rice, corn, and dairy products, sustaining over 16 million inhabitants. The plain's subsidence and flood risks, exacerbated by intensive land use, highlight its dynamic geomorphology.^[45]

In Africa

Africa's plains encompass a diverse array of flat or gently undulating landforms, ranging from expansive savannas and semi-arid grasslands to vast river basins and coastal lowlands, covering significant portions of the continent's interior and margins. These features, often formed through erosional processes, tectonic stability, or sedimentary deposition, support unique ecosystems and human activities. Much of central and eastern Africa features broad pediplains and etchplains, characterized by low relief and lateritic soils, which dominate the landscape between higher plateaus and escarpments.^[46] One of the most iconic plains is the Serengeti, a vast grassland ecosystem spanning approximately 30,000 square kilometers across northern Tanzania and southwestern Kenya. This undulating plain, part of the East African savanna, features short-grass expanses, acacia-dotted woodlands, and seasonal rivers, facilitating the annual Great Migration of over 1.5 million wildebeest and hundreds of thousands of zebras. The Serengeti exemplifies depositional and erosional plains shaped by ancient volcanic activity and fluvial processes, serving as a critical biodiversity hotspot with high concentrations of large mammals like lions, cheetahs, and elephants.^[47]^[48] In central Africa, the Congo Basin represents one of the world's largest tropical lowland plains, covering over 3.4 million square kilometers across six countries, including the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo. This structural and depositional plain, formed by the subsidence of the African craton and filled with sediments from the Congo River system, lies at elevations below 500 meters and is predominantly covered by dense rainforest. It acts as a major carbon sink, absorbing more CO2 than the Amazon, and harbors immense biodiversity, including over 10,000 plant species and unique fauna like forest elephants and okapis, though it faces threats from deforestation and mining.^[49]^[50] Southern Africa's Bushveld, a semi-arid savanna plain extending across parts of South Africa, Botswana, and Zimbabwe, covers roughly 100,000 square kilometers at elevations of 760 to 1,200 meters. Characterized by thorny acacia scrub, open grasslands, and granite outcrops (kopjes), this erosional plain results from prolonged weathering of the ancient Kaapvaal Craton. It supports diverse wildlife, including white rhinos, giraffes, and over 300 bird species, and is economically vital for ecotourism and cattle ranching, with reserves like Kruger National Park highlighting its conservation value.^[51] The Kalahari, often classified as a semi-desert plain rather than a true desert, spans about 900,000 square kilometers across Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa. This ancient inland basin plain, shaped by tectonic downwarping and aeolian processes, features flat expanses of red sand, salt pans, and sparse vegetation adapted to low rainfall (250-500 mm annually). Home to specialized species such as meerkats, gemsbok, and black-maned lions, the Kalahari's plains integrate with the Okavango Delta, forming seasonal wetlands that enhance regional biodiversity and support indigenous San communities through traditional foraging.^[52] Northern Africa's Sahel serves as a transitional plain zone, a band stretching approximately 5,400 kilometers from Senegal to Sudan, averaging 200-500 kilometers in width, and separating the Sahara Desert from the Sudanian savannas. This flat, eroded plain experiences erratic rainfall (100-600 mm) and supports pastoralism with species like acacias and migratory herds of cattle and camels. However, it is increasingly vulnerable to desertification, exacerbated by climate change and overgrazing, impacting millions of inhabitants reliant on its fragile ecosystems.^[47]

In Oceania and Antarctica

In Oceania, the Nullarbor Plain stands as one of the most prominent examples of a vast, arid lowland, spanning approximately 200,000 square kilometers across southern Australia in South Australia and Western Australia. Formed as an uplifted Miocene-era sea floor composed primarily of limestone, it represents a karst landscape shaped by tectonic uplift over the past 40 million years, resulting in an exposure of ancient seabed up to 300 meters above sea level along the Great Australian Bight. The plain's flat, treeless expanse, averaging 180 meters in elevation, features underground aquifers and sinkholes but lacks surface water, supporting sparse vegetation adapted to semi-arid conditions.^[53] Further east, depositional plains dominate in southeastern Australia, such as those within the Murray-Darling Basin, which cover over 1 million square kilometers and formed through sediment accumulation in Paleogene and Neogene sedimentary basins via fluvial and lacustrine processes. These low-relief areas, often less than 200 meters above sea level, facilitate internal drainage systems terminating in ephemeral salt lakes like Lake Eyre, highlighting the role of prolonged erosion and deposition in creating fertile agricultural zones amid otherwise rugged terrain. In eastern Australia, expansive lava plains from Paleogene and Neogene volcanic activity cover significant portions of Queensland and New South Wales, forming basaltic tablelands that contribute to the continent's diverse flatland mosaic.^[53] New Zealand's plains are predominantly depositional, with the Canterbury Plains representing the largest contiguous flat area at about 10,000 square kilometers on the east-central South Island. Originating over 22 million years ago from tectonic subsidence along the plate boundary, these plains expanded through sediment deposition from braided rivers like the Waimakariri and Rakaia, which carried glacial till from the Southern Alps during multiple ice ages, the last ending 14,000 years ago. The resulting landscape, characterized by wide floodplains and shifting river channels, extends up to 50 kilometers eastward onto the continental shelf, supporting intensive pastoral farming on alluvial soils up to 10 meters thick. Smaller coastal plains, such as those in the Hauraki region of the North Island, similarly arise from volcanic and fluvial sediments but are more fragmented due to the archipelago's tectonic activity.^[54] In Antarctica, plains are largely obscured beneath the continental ice sheet, which blankets 98% of the 14 million square kilometer landmass, but subglacial topography reveals extensive flat areas including vast lowlands and basins. The East Antarctic Ice Sheet overlies immense plains sloping gently toward the coast, with ice thicknesses up to 4 kilometers concealing a diverse bedrock landscape of plateaus and sediment-filled depressions formed during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. These subglacial features, mapped through radar and gravity surveys, include broad, near-horizontal fluvial surfaces in regions like the Wilkes and Aurora Basins, indicating ancient river systems that predate the current glaciation.^[55]^[56] Coastal ice-free plains, though limited to less than 1% of the continent, occur in oases such as the Vestfold Hills and Bunger Hills along the East Antarctic margin, where exposed bedrock forms flat, elevated plateaus up to 100 meters high, shaped by Pliocene fluvial erosion and minimal ice cover. These areas, totaling around 50,000 square kilometers continent-wide, feature dry, rocky terrains with polygonal ground patterns from periglacial processes, supporting unique microbial ecosystems in an otherwise hyper-arid polar desert receiving under 50 millimeters of annual precipitation. The McMurdo Dry Valleys, the largest ice-free region at 4,800 square kilometers, include flat valley floors classified as polar deserts, influenced by katabatic winds and katabatic drainage that maintain their exposure.^[57]^[58]

Ecology and Biodiversity

Flora and Fauna

Plains, as expansive flat or gently undulating landforms, support diverse ecosystems. While many are characterized as grasslands, savannas, or prairies, where flora and fauna are adapted to open habitats with seasonal precipitation and periodic disturbances like fire or grazing, others include forested, desert, and tundra environments. Vegetation is dominated by herbaceous plants, particularly perennial grasses with extensive root systems that enhance soil stability and nutrient cycling, often exhibiting high belowground biomass relative to aboveground growth. In temperate plains, such as the North American Great Plains, shortgrass species like blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and buffalo grass (Bouteloua dactyloides) prevail in drier western areas, transitioning eastward to mixed-grass prairies with little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and tallgrass prairies featuring big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans), which can reach heights of 2 meters and cover up to 70% of the landscape in undisturbed sites.^[59] Forbs, including wildflowers like coneflowers (Echinacea spp.) and asters, add diversity, supporting pollinators and contributing to floristic richness that can exceed 100 species per square meter in mesic conditions.^[60] In tropical and subtropical plains, such as African savannas, flora shifts to a mix of continuous grass layers and scattered woody plants, with elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) forming dense stands up to 3 meters tall during wet seasons, interspersed with drought- and fire-resistant trees like acacias (Acacia spp.) and baobabs (Adansonia digitata) that provide shade and browse.^[61] These ecosystems maintain a balance through adaptations like resprouting after fires, which clear understory and promote grass dominance. In South American pampas, grasses from genera such as Stipa and Piptochaetium dominate, with approximately 190 native grass species (out of 230 total grass species) supporting a total vascular plant diversity of approximately 1,000 species.^[59] Globally, grassland flora exhibits C4 photosynthetic pathways in warmer regions for efficient water use, enabling persistence in semi-arid climates with 500-900 mm annual rainfall. In arid desert plains like the Sahara, vegetation is sparse, adapted to extreme dryness with species such as drought-tolerant shrubs (Acacia tortilis) and succulents, supporting specialized fauna including gazelles and fennec foxes. Frozen tundra plains in the Arctic feature low-growing mosses, lichens, and sedges, sustaining caribou migrations and predators like arctic foxes, with biodiversity limited by harsh conditions but crucial for polar ecosystems. Forested coastal plains, such as Mexico's Tabasco Plain, host tropical rainforests with high tree diversity (e.g., mahogany and ceiba) and rich understory, harboring monkeys, birds, and insects in humid environments.^[1] Fauna in plains ecosystems forms complex food webs centered on grazing herbivores that shape vegetation structure through consumption and trampling, fostering biodiversity via nutrient redistribution. In temperate regions, large herbivores like the American bison (Bison bison) historically numbered in the tens of millions across the Great Plains, grazing on grasses and promoting forb growth, while smaller mammals such as prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) create burrows that enhance soil aeration and habitat for other species. Predators including coyotes (Canis latrans) and swift foxes (Vulpes velox) control rodent populations, and birds like the greater prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) and burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia) rely on grassland openness for foraging and nesting.^[59] Wetlands within plains, such as those in the Mississippi Valley, support migratory waterfowl and amphibians, contributing to over 300 bird species in associated habitats.^[59] Tropical plains host iconic megafauna, with savannas sustaining herds of herbivores like African elephants (Loxodonta africana), plains zebras (Equus quagga), and wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) that migrate seasonally, totaling millions across ecosystems and influencing grass composition through selective grazing.^[61] Apex predators such as lions (Panthera leo), cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus), and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) maintain balance by preying on these grazers, while diverse insects like termites aid decomposition and nutrient cycling. In the pampas, grassland specialists include the pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus) and over 60 bird species adapted to open terrain, such as the greater rhea (Rhea americana), though many face threats from habitat conversion.^[59] Overall, plains fauna diversity is high in undisturbed areas, underscoring their role in ecological connectivity.

Environmental Role and Threats

Plains, encompassing vast expanses of flat or gently undulating terrain often dominated by grasslands and savannas, serve critical functions in global ecosystems. They act as significant carbon sinks, storing approximately 34% of the world's terrestrial carbon stocks primarily in their deep soils, which helps mitigate climate change by sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide.^[62] These landscapes also regulate water cycles through extensive root systems that enhance groundwater recharge, reduce flood risks by absorbing rainfall, and maintain water quality by filtering pollutants.^[62] Additionally, plains support soil stability, preventing erosion in areas prone to wind and water degradation, and provide essential habitats that foster biodiversity, including endemic species adapted to open terrains like migratory birds and large herbivores.^[1] In terms of biodiversity, plains host diverse flora and fauna, with grasslands alone covering about 40% of Earth's land surface (excluding Antarctica) and serving as hotspots for species such as the saiga antelope in Eurasian steppes or bison in North American prairies. These ecosystems enable nutrient cycling and pollination services vital for surrounding regions, while their connectivity allows for wildlife migration corridors that sustain genetic diversity.^[62] Plains also contribute to regional climate moderation by influencing local precipitation patterns through evapotranspiration from grasses and scattered vegetation.^[63] However, plains face severe threats from human activities and environmental changes. Conversion to agriculture and pasture has degraded around 50% of global grasslands, with millions of acres lost annually to cropland expansion, leading to habitat fragmentation and loss of native species.^[62] Overgrazing by livestock exacerbates soil compaction and desertification, while urbanization and infrastructure development further encroach on these areas, reducing their ecological integrity. Climate change intensifies these pressures through prolonged droughts, altered rainfall, and increased wildfire frequency, which disrupt vegetation recovery and shift ecosystem boundaries, as observed in northward migrations of North American plain biomes by hundreds of miles since the 1970s.^[64] Invasive species and afforestation efforts, intended for carbon sequestration, often outcompete native plants, diminishing biodiversity. Only about 4.6% of temperate plains are currently protected, underscoring the urgent need for conservation to preserve their roles in global environmental stability.^[62]

Human Interaction and Significance

Agricultural and Economic Uses

Plains play a pivotal role in global agriculture due to their expansive flat terrains, which allow for mechanized farming, efficient irrigation, and large-scale crop rotation, while their often fertile alluvial soils—deposited by rivers—enhance productivity. These characteristics make plains ideal for staple crops like wheat, rice, maize, and soybeans, as well as livestock grazing, supporting food security for billions. For instance, in the Indo-Gangetic Plains spanning India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, intensive rice-wheat systems contribute a significant portion, approximately 15-20%, of the world's wheat and rice, bolstering national economies through exports and domestic supply chains.^[65] In the Americas, plains exemplify economic engines driven by agribusiness. The Argentine Pampas, covering over 50 million hectares of fertile grassland, sustain a robust cattle industry and grain production, contributing around 7-10% to Argentina's GDP and facilitating major exports of beef and soybeans to global markets.^[66] Similarly, the U.S. Great Plains, encompassing states like Kansas and Nebraska, account for about two-thirds of the nation's wheat and significant portions of corn and sorghum, with irrigation advancements amplifying yields and supporting rural economies valued in billions annually.^[67] Across Europe and Africa, plains underpin diverse agricultural economies amid varying climates. The North European Plain, stretching from France to Russia, enables high-yield dairy farming, potato cultivation, and cereals through advanced soil management, forming the backbone of food production in densely populated nations like Germany and Poland. In Africa, the Nile Valley plain remains vital, irrigating cotton, sugarcane, and grains that constitute over 80% of Egypt's agricultural water use and a substantial share of its economy, despite challenges from arid surroundings (as of 2023).^[68] Beyond farming, these plains foster economic diversification via agro-processing industries and transportation networks, enhancing trade and urbanization while mitigating rural poverty through employment in value-added sectors.

Cultural and Historical Aspects

Plains have profoundly shaped human history and culture across the globe, serving as fertile grounds for early agricultural societies, pathways for migration and conquest, and homelands for nomadic pastoralists. Their vast, level expanses facilitated the development of some of the world's earliest civilizations by providing arable land for intensive farming, which supported population growth and urbanization. For instance, alluvial plains formed by major river systems enabled the rise of complex societies through reliable food surpluses and trade networks.^[69] In Asia, the Indo-Gangetic Plain stands as a cornerstone of ancient and classical civilizations, cradling the Indus Valley Civilization around 2500 BCE and later serving as the heartland for Vedic culture and empires like the Maurya and Gupta. This expansive alluvial terrain, nourished by the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers, fostered advancements in agriculture, urban planning, and spiritual traditions, including the origins of Hinduism and Buddhism. The plain's fertility allowed for dense settlements and cultural exchanges that influenced much of South Asian history.^[70]^[71] The Eurasian Steppe, stretching from Eastern Europe to Mongolia, has been pivotal in fostering nomadic empires and facilitating transcontinental interactions. Inhabited by pastoralists for millennia, it gave rise to horse-mounted cultures that revolutionized warfare and trade, most notably the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan in the 13th century, which connected East and West through the Silk Road extensions. These steppe nomads, adapting to the grassland's mobility, influenced the fall of sedentary empires and spread technologies, languages, and genetic lineages across Eurasia.^[72]^[73] In the Americas, the Great Plains of North America were central to Indigenous cultures long before European contact, supporting hunter-gatherer societies from at least 10,000 years ago. The introduction of horses in the 18th century transformed Plains tribes like the Lakota, Comanche, and Cheyenne into equestrian nomads, leading to vibrant traditions of buffalo hunting, tipi dwellings, and intertribal sign language. These cultures emphasized communal rituals, oral histories, and spiritual connections to the land, though colonial expansion disrupted them profoundly by the late 19th century.^[74]^[75]^[76] South America's Pampas, a temperate grassland plain, emerged as a cultural symbol of independence and rural life in the 19th century, epitomized by the gaucho tradition among Argentine and Uruguayan herders. These skilled horsemen, central to cattle ranching, inspired national literature such as José Hernández's El gaucho Martín Fierro (1872), romanticizing themes of freedom, horsemanship, and resistance to urbanization. The Pampas' role in exporting beef and wheat propelled Argentina's economic rise, intertwining economic and cultural identities.^[77]^[78] In Europe and Africa, plains have historically enabled agricultural revolutions and pastoral adaptations while serving as corridors for conflict. The North European Plain, with its heavy soils tilled by medieval innovations like the heavy-wheeled plow, became a demographic powerhouse, supporting feudal manors and later industrial cities from the Middle Ages onward. It also witnessed frequent invasions due to its lack of natural barriers, shaping geopolitical dynamics from Roman times to World War II. Meanwhile, Africa's Sahel region, a semi-arid plain, has sustained diverse pastoralist groups like the Fulani, whose transhumant herding and oral epics reflect adaptations to environmental variability and inter-ethnic exchanges over centuries.^[69]^[79]^[80]

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