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Apache Wars

The Apache Wars encompassed a series of intermittent raids, ambushes, and U.S. military expeditions against various Apache bands in the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico, spanning from the late 1840s following the Mexican-American War until Geronimo's surrender in 1886.^[1]^[2] These conflicts stemmed from Apache groups' traditional raiding economy, which targeted expanding American settlements, mining operations, and livestock for resources, prompting retaliatory campaigns by the U.S. Army to pacify the frontier and protect citizens.^[3] Key Apache leaders, including Mangas Coloradas, Cochise, Victorio, and Geronimo, orchestrated guerrilla-style resistance characterized by hit-and-run tactics across rugged terrain, evading larger U.S. forces for decades.^[3]^[4] U.S. commanders such as George Crook employed innovative strategies, including the enlistment of Apache scouts and cross-border pursuits, to wear down resistance through relentless winter campaigns and reservation policies.^[2] Pivotal events included the 1861 Bascom Affair, which ignited widespread Chiricahua hostilities, and the 1862 Battle of Apache Pass, where U.S. artillery repelled a large Apache assault.^[3] The wars concluded with the subjugation of remaining hostiles, resulting in Apache relocation to reservations and the effective end of their independent warfare, though at significant cost in lives and expenditure for both sides.^[4]^[2]

Historical Background

Origins of Apache Peoples and Society

The Apache peoples, known collectively as Southern Athabaskans, originated from Athabaskan-speaking groups in the subarctic regions of northern North America, particularly the Mackenzie River drainage basin in present-day Canada. Linguistic analysis traces their languages to a common proto-Athabaskan root shared with indigenous groups in Alaska and the Canadian boreal forests, indicating a divergence and southward expansion over centuries.^[5]^[6] Archaeological evidence, including pottery styles and settlement patterns in the Southwestern mountain zones, combined with genetic studies of Y-chromosome markers, supports a migration into the American Southwest between approximately 1000 and 1500 CE, with the primary Apachean influx likely completing by the early 16th century. This movement involved small groups adapting to diverse environments from the Great Plains to the deserts of Arizona, New Mexico, and northern Mexico, displacing or interacting with earlier inhabitants like Puebloan farmers. The timing postdates the major Ancestral Puebloan collapses around 1300 CE, allowing Athabaskans to occupy vacated territories while adopting elements such as agriculture from neighbors.^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] Apache society prior to extensive European contact was organized into autonomous, kin-based bands of 25 to 100 individuals, typically comprising extended matrilineal families where descent and inheritance passed through the female line. These bands, often identified by local resource territories such as mountains or rivers, maintained flexible alliances for hunting or warfare but operated independently, with leadership earned through personal merit in raiding, hunting, or diplomacy rather than formal heredity. Economic subsistence emphasized mobility: men hunted deer, antelope, and bison using bows and spears, while women gathered wild plants like mescal agave and prepared pinyon nuts, supplemented by opportunistic raiding of settled groups for horses and goods after their introduction. Temporary brush-covered wickiups served as dwellings, reflecting a semi-nomadic adaptation to arid, rugged landscapes that prioritized evasion and resource exploitation over permanent villages. Cultural practices included animistic beliefs centered on natural forces and diyin (supernatural beings), with rites like puberty ceremonies reinforcing social cohesion and warrior ethos.^[9]^[11]^[12]

Conflicts with Spanish and Mexican Authorities

The Apache peoples, migrating into the American Southwest from the north around the 15th century, encountered Spanish explorers during Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's expedition in the 1540s, but sustained conflicts arose as Spanish colonization expanded into New Mexico and Sonora from the late 16th century onward.^[13] By the 1680 Pueblo Revolt, Apaches had acquired horses from abandoned Spanish livestock, enabling more effective raiding parties that targeted missions, settlements, and supply lines for horses, cattle, and captives to bolster their nomadic economy.^[8]^[13] Spanish records document intensified Apache incursions in the 1690s, such as raids led by figures like Juanillo near Casas Grandes, prompting failed punitive campaigns by commanders including General Fernández de la Fuente in 1697.^[13] In response, Spanish authorities constructed presidios, such as Tucson in 1776, and launched offensives while experimenting with "peace establishments" in the mid-18th century, distributing rations to some Apache bands in exchange for halting raids and providing scouts against common enemies like the Comanche.^[8]^[13] These measures yielded temporary lulls, but Apache groups exploited divisions in Spanish policy—treating each presidio or settlement as a separate entity for selective peace or war—leading to persistent theft of over 1,000 livestock annually in Sonora during the 1770s and 1780s.^[14]^[13] Military expeditions under leaders like Teodoro de Croix in the late 1770s aimed to subdue Apache mobility through combined arms and indigenous auxiliaries, but guerrilla tactics and terrain familiarity often frustrated Spanish efforts, sustaining a cycle of raids and reprisals.^[15] Following Mexican independence in 1821, the withdrawal of Spanish garrisons and cessation of rations destabilized fragile truces, unleashing escalated Apache raids across Chihuahua and Sonora that claimed over 1,500 settler lives and thousands of livestock by 1848.^[8]^[13] Mexican states responded with scalp bounties formalized in 1837—100 pesos for an adult male, 50 for a female, and 25 for a child—hiring mercenaries like James Kirker to conduct hunts, which included massacres such as the 1837 Santa Rita del Cobre attack killing dozens of Chiricahua during supposed peace negotiations.^[16]^[13] Leaders like Mangas Coloradas organized retaliatory strikes, exemplified by assaults on Fronteras in 1846, perpetuating a brutal frontier war driven by economic desperation and mutual reprisals until the U.S.-Mexican War shifted territorial dynamics.^[13]

Causes of the Conflicts

US Expansion into Apache Territories

The United States' territorial expansion into regions inhabited by Apache peoples accelerated following the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), culminating in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed on February 2, 1848. Under the treaty's terms, Mexico ceded approximately 55 percent of its territory—over 525,000 square miles—to the U.S. for $15 million, incorporating present-day California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona and New Mexico, and portions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Texas.^[17] This vast acquisition directly encompassed core Apache homelands in the Southwest, where various Apache bands, including Chiricahua, Mescalero, and Western Apaches, had long maintained de facto control over arid uplands, mountains, and borderlands despite nominal Mexican sovereignty.^[18] The treaty made no provisions for Native inhabitants like the Apaches, who viewed the influx of American surveyors, traders, and military expeditions—such as those led by Major William Emory in 1846–1847—as uninvited encroachments that disrupted traditional raiding economies and resource access.^[18] Further consolidation occurred with the Gadsden Purchase of December 30, 1853, in which the U.S. acquired an additional 29,670 square miles of land south of the Gila River in present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico from Mexico for $10 million.^[19] Primarily motivated by the need for a southern transcontinental railroad route and to resolve ambiguous border claims, this transaction incorporated more Apache territory without consulting affected bands, exacerbating tensions as American engineers and prospectors began surveying and exploiting mineral resources in areas like the Dragoon Mountains.^[20] In response to initial hostilities, the U.S. negotiated the Treaty with the Apaches of 1852 on July 1 at Acoma Pueblo, New Mexico Territory, promising peace, land acknowledgments, and annuities in exchange for ceasing raids on settlers; however, the Senate ratified it with modifications that diluted protections, and enforcement was inconsistent amid ongoing expansion.^[21] The California Gold Rush, triggered by the January 24, 1848, discovery at Sutter's Mill, intensified migration through Apache territories, drawing an estimated 300,000 people westward by 1855 via overland trails.^[22] Southern routes like the Southern Emigrant Trail, extending from Santa Fe through Apache-controlled passes in New Mexico and Arizona, saw thousands of emigrants, freighters, and argonauts annually, often clashing with Apaches over livestock theft and ambushes that claimed dozens of lives.^[23] These movements, fueled by Manifest Destiny ideology and economic incentives, transformed transient Apache borderlands into contested corridors for American commerce and settlement, prompting U.S. Army responses such as the establishment of Fort Webster in 1851 (relocated as Fort Fillmore in 1852) and Fort Craig in 1853 along the Rio Grande to safeguard the Chihuahua Road supply line.^[24] By the mid-1850s, permanent American settlements, mining operations, and ranching ventures proliferated in former Apache strongholds, with the U.S. military constructing additional outposts like Fort Defiance in 1851 among the Navajos (adjacent to Apache ranges) to project control and suppress resistance.^[25] This infrastructure supported federal surveys, such as the 1850s expeditions under Lieutenant Amiel Whipple, which mapped rail corridors through Apache heartlands, signaling irreversible displacement as arable valleys and water sources were claimed under preemption laws.^[19] Apache bands, reliant on seasonal foraging and cross-border raiding for sustenance, faced systemic pressure from these incursions, setting the stage for escalated warfare as U.S. policies prioritized assimilation and confinement over negotiated coexistence.^[20]

Apache Raiding Culture and Economic Incentives

The Apache economy blended foraging for wild plants like mescal, hunting game, and limited horticulture with maize, beans, and squash, but these yielded insufficient surpluses in the arid Southwest to support larger populations without supplementation. Raiding emerged as a critical economic strategy, targeting Spanish, Mexican, and later American settlements for livestock, horses, and household goods that enhanced mobility and sustenance in resource-scarce environments. Small raiding parties, typically numbering 10 to 50 warriors, conducted swift, low-risk operations to seize cattle, sheep, or horses while minimizing direct combat, reflecting a pragmatic focus on acquisition over territorial conquest or vengeance.^[26]^[27] The acquisition of horses from Spanish colonizers after the 1540s transformed Apache raiding incentives, as equines enabled extended-range expeditions for buffalo hunting on the Great Plains and amplified the scale of livestock thefts. Horses served as a form of portable wealth, used for breeding, trading with groups like the Comanche, or enhancing warrior status through displays of large herds; a successful raider might claim dozens of animals, which could be bartered for weapons, cloth, or captives. This equestrian economy incentivized perpetual raiding cycles, as maintaining herds required fodder and defense against counter-raids, while the value of stolen horses—often numbering in the thousands annually from New Mexico settlements by the 18th century—outweighed the risks in Apache calculations.^[28]^[29] Cultural norms reinforced these economic drivers, with young men gaining prestige through raid participation and prowess, often formalized in narratives shared post-expedition. Unlike full-scale warfare aimed at enemy annihilation, Apache raids prioritized economic yield, such as driving off herds from remote ranchos or pueblos, which disrupted settler economies but sustained Apache bands without committing to pitched battles. Captives, particularly women and children, added value through integration as laborers or ransom to intermediaries, further embedding raiding in the socio-economic fabric. By the mid-19th century, as U.S. expansion restricted foraging ranges, these incentives intensified, turning sporadic acquisition into systematic predation on emigrant trails and mining camps.^[30]^[31]

Key Participants

Prominent Apache Leaders and Bands

The Apache Wars primarily involved the Chiricahua Apache, divided into subgroups including the Chokonen, Bedonkohe, Chihenne (also known as Warm Springs or Mimbreño), and Nednhi bands, who occupied territories in southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, and northern Mexico. These bands conducted decentralized raiding and resistance against U.S. encroachment, leveraging rugged terrain for guerrilla warfare. Other Apache groups, such as the Mescalero and Jicarilla, engaged in earlier skirmishes but were less central to the prolonged Chiricahua-led campaigns spanning the 1850s to 1880s.^[3]^[4] Mangas Coloradas (c. 1793–1863), chief of the Mimbreño (Chihenne) band, emerged as a dominant leader in the 1830s, standing over six feet tall and noted for his strategic acumen in raids against Mexican settlements. He forged an alliance with Cochise in the 1850s to counter American expansion, leading joint operations until his capture by Union troops near Pinos Altos, New Mexico, on January 18, 1863, where he was tortured and killed by scalping and shooting.^[12]^[4] Cochise (c. 1805–1874), leader of the Chokonen band centered in the Chiricahua Mountains, inherited influence from his father-in-law Mangas Coloradas and escalated resistance following the Bascom Affair in February 1861, where U.S. Lt. George Bascom's demand for stolen livestock hostages resulted in the execution of Cochise's relatives, igniting widespread hostilities. He co-led approximately 200 warriors in the Battle of Apache Pass on July 15, 1862, against 120 Union soldiers equipped with howitzers, marking a tactical defeat but demonstrating Apache resolve. Cochise negotiated the Chiricahua Reservation in 1872, encompassing much of present-day Cochise County, Arizona, before his death from likely stomach cancer in 1874.^[3] Victorio (c. 1825–1880), a Chihenne band leader succeeding Mangas Coloradas, rejected forced relocation to the San Carlos Reservation in 1877, leading escapes and campaigns across New Mexico and Mexico that killed dozens of settlers and soldiers. His forces evaded U.S. troops through hit-and-run tactics until October 15, 1880, when Mexican forces under Col. Joaquin Terrazas ambushed and killed him along with 78 warriors and family members at Tres Castillos, Chihuahua, effectively ending his war.^[32]^[33] Geronimo (1829–1909), a Bedonkohe band medicine man who rose to war leader after family losses to Mexican raids in 1858, participated in the Battle of Apache Pass and multiple San Carlos escapes, culminating in leading a band of 37 in final raids from 1885. He surrendered to Gen. George Crook on March 27, 1886, but fled, before final capitulation to Gen. Nelson Miles on September 4, 1886, near Bavispe, Mexico, concluding major hostilities.^[4] Other notable figures included Nana (c. 1809–1896), a Chihenne elder who led reprisal raids into the 1880s despite advanced age and injury, and Juh (c. 1825–1883), Nednhi leader allied with Geronimo in cross-border operations until drowning in 1883.^[32]

US Military Commanders and Strategies

General George Crook emerged as a pivotal commander in the Apache Wars, assuming leadership of the Department of Arizona in February 1871 amid escalating raids. He prioritized counterguerrilla tactics, organizing small, mobile columns equipped with pack mules to traverse the Sierra Madre and other rugged terrains where wagon trains failed, enabling pursuits during winter when Apaches typically rested. Crook's campaigns from 1871 to 1873 subdued Tonto and Yavapai bands, forcing approximately 1,250 warriors and their families onto reservations through relentless tracking and skirmishes that killed or captured hundreds.^[2]^[34] Central to Crook's strategy was the recruitment of Apache scouts—up to 200 from allied bands like the White Mountain Apaches—who provided intimate terrain knowledge and exploited intertribal rivalries, effectively turning Apache methods against hostiles in a divide-and-conquer approach. This yielded decisive results, such as the 1872-1873 offensives that dismantled raiding networks without large battles, though Crook emphasized sustained pressure over annihilation to minimize army casualties, which numbered around 100 killed across his Arizona tenure. In 1882, Crook renewed operations against Chiricahua leaders like Geronimo, securing temporary submissions in 1884 via similar scout-led expeditions, but faced setbacks when Geronimo fled reservations in May 1885, leading to Crook's resignation in March 1886 after negotiations faltered.^[30]^[4] Brigadier General Nelson A. Miles replaced Crook in April 1886, commanding over 5,000 troops in a intensified manhunt for Geronimo's band of 19 warriors and families, who had crossed into Mexico. Miles shifted toward broader sweeps with regular cavalry, telegraph lines, and heliograph signaling stations for rapid coordination across 75,000 square miles, diverging from Crook's scout-heavy reliance by deploying white soldiers in smaller, faster units to seal borders and starve out raiders. This culminated in Geronimo's surrender on September 4, 1886, at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona, after Lieutenant Charles B. Gatewood—veteran of prior Victorio pursuits—mediated terms under Miles' authority, ending major hostilities though at the cost of 69 soldier deaths in the final campaign.^[35]^[36]^[37] Earlier efforts involved figures like Major James H. Carleton's California Column, which in July 1862 repelled Chiricahua attacks at Apache Pass, establishing Fort Bowie as a supply hub and foreshadowing fort-based containment strategies. Overall, U.S. command evolved from reactive punitive raids to proactive reservation enforcement, leveraging scouts and logistics to counter Apache mobility, though success hinged on exploiting internal divisions rather than superior firepower alone.^[3]

Course of the Wars

Early Skirmishes and Jicarilla Apache Conflicts (1840s-1850s)

The United States' military occupation of New Mexico following the Mexican-American War in 1846–1848 brought American troops and settlers into direct contact with Jicarilla Apache bands inhabiting the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and surrounding plains in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. Jicarilla groups, traditionally nomadic hunters and raiders who had exploited weak Mexican governance for livestock theft and trade disruptions along the Santa Fe Trail, viewed the influx of Americans as a threat to their resource access, including bison herds diminished by Comanche competition and environmental pressures. Initial encounters in the late 1840s involved sporadic raids on wagon trains and mining parties, with Jicarillas capturing horses and goods but avoiding large-scale engagements with fortified U.S. garrisons like those at Taos and Santa Fe.^[38]^[39] By 1849, tensions escalated when Jicarilla warriors, allied with Ute bands, ambushed and killed several American traders near the Cimarron Cutoff of the Santa Fe Trail, prompting Governor John Munroe to authorize retaliatory scouts but lacking sufficient forces for decisive action. These early skirmishes reflected Jicarilla adaptation to American presence: small hit-and-run tactics targeting isolated emigrants rather than challenging organized columns, yielding captives and plunder that sustained band economies amid overhunting and settler encroachment. U.S. responses remained limited, focusing on diplomacy and small detachments from the 2nd Dragoons, as federal priorities centered on securing the territory against Pueblo revolts like the Taos uprising of 1847, in which some Jicarillas participated marginally as auxiliaries.^[39]^[40] The 1850s saw intensified conflict driven by the 1850–1851 California Gold Rush and subsequent Pikes Peak rush, which drew miners into Jicarilla territories, destroying piñon groves and water sources essential for their survival. Raids surged, with Jicarillas attacking ranches and stage lines, killing at least a dozen settlers in 1853 alone and prompting the U.S. Army to launch punitive expeditions under Colonel Edwin V. Sumner, who reformed cavalry tactics by emphasizing mobility over infantry reliance. The pivotal engagement occurred on March 30, 1854, at Cieneguilla Creek near present-day Pilar, New Mexico, where approximately 250 Jicarilla warriors under leaders like Chacon ambushed a 60-man detachment of the 1st Dragoons commanded by Lieutenant John W. Davidson. Pursuing a Jicarilla village reported to hold captives, Davidson's force entered a narrow canyon and faced a downhill charge; the dragoons' volley fire and saber charges inflicted initial Apache losses estimated at 20–30 killed, but superior numbers and terrain allowed Jicarillas to envelop and rout the Americans, resulting in 23 U.S. troopers killed and 47 wounded or missing—over 80% casualties—marking one of the worst defeats for regular U.S. forces against Native Americans up to that point.^[41]^[42]^[43] The Cieneguilla debacle exposed vulnerabilities in U.S. pursuit tactics against mobile guerrillas, leading Sumner to dispatch reinforced columns that pursued Jicarilla remnants into the mountains, destroying villages and food stores through summer 1854. Jicarilla resistance fragmented, with bands scattering northward or suing for peace by late 1854, though sporadic raiding persisted until federal reservations were established in the 1860s. These conflicts underscored causal dynamics: Apache raiding as a rational response to territorial compression and economic disruption, met by U.S. escalation prioritizing settler protection over negotiation, setting precedents for broader Apache Wars.^[38]^[39]

Chiricahua and Mimbreño Wars (1850s-1870s)

The Chiricahua and Mimbreño Apache conflicts with United States forces intensified in the 1850s following American expansion into southern Arizona and New Mexico after the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, which brought mining settlements into traditional Apache raiding grounds. Leaders Mangas Coloradas of the Mimbreño and Cochise of the Chokonen Chiricahua band initially sought accommodation but turned to sustained resistance amid escalating settler encroachments and retaliatory violence.^[3] ^[44] The Bascom Affair of February 1861 marked the onset of open warfare. On January 27, 1861, Pinal Apaches raided rancher John Ward's property near Sonoita Creek, Arizona, abducting his 12-year-old Mexican stepson Felix and stealing livestock; Lieutenant George N. Bascom, suspecting Chiricahua involvement, confronted Cochise at Apache Pass on February 3 with 54 soldiers. Cochise denied responsibility and offered to recover the boy, but Bascom detained him and five relatives as hostages; Cochise escaped, rescuing one hostage, prompting mutual executions—U.S. forces hanged Cochise's brother Coyuntura and two others on February 19, while Cochise killed eleven American and Mexican captives. This incident ignited a decade of guerrilla raids by Cochise's forces against military posts and wagon trains.^[45] ^[46] In July 1862, Cochise and Mangas Coloradas ambushed a California Column detachment of approximately 92 Union infantry under Captain Thomas L. Roberts near Apache Pass, utilizing elevated positions for two days of intermittent attacks involving up to 500 warriors. U.S. forces repelled the assaults using howitzer artillery after initial setbacks, incurring two killed and multiple wounded while forcing Apache withdrawal; the engagement prompted the establishment of Fort Bowie to secure the vital water source and supply route. Mangas Coloradas, seeking parley amid mounting pressures, was captured under a truce flag at Pinos Altos, New Mexico, on January 18, 1863, and subsequently tortured, shot, and scalped by U.S. troops under Joseph Rodenbough, with his skull boiled and sent to phrenologists—an act that galvanized further Apache reprisals.^[47] ^[48] ^[44] Cochise continued hit-and-run campaigns through the 1860s, targeting isolated settlements and military patrols in the Chiricahua Mountains and Dragoon Springs area, evading large-scale pursuits via intimate terrain knowledge and small-unit mobility. By 1871, General George Crook's aggressive scouting campaigns inflicted attrition on Apache bands, yet Cochise negotiated a tenuous peace in 1872 with General Oliver O. Howard, securing a reservation encompassing the Chiricahua Mountains; this accord temporarily halted major hostilities for his band but excluded Mimbreño remnants, who fragmented under successors like Victorio.^[3] ^[49]

Victorio's War and Yavapai Conflicts (1870s-1880s)

Victorio, a prominent Warm Springs (Mimbreño) Apache leader born around 1825 in the Black Range of New Mexico, spearheaded resistance against U.S. relocation policies in the late 1870s.^[33] In June 1877, U.S. authorities forcibly moved his band from their traditional lands in New Mexico to the San Carlos Reservation in Arizona, prompting Victorio to lead approximately 300 followers in an escape in September 1877.^[50] Most were recaptured shortly after, but Victorio evaded capture and briefly surrendered at Fort Wingate in 1878 under assurances of return to Warm Springs, which were not honored.^[51] Renewed conflict erupted in August 1879 when Victorio and about 80 warriors fled the Mescalero Reservation near Fort Stanton, New Mexico, initiating a campaign of raids across New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona.^[52] His band, numbering no more than 200 at peak, targeted settlements, miners, and military outposts, killing dozens of civilians and soldiers in ambushes; for instance, on October 10–12, 1879, they attacked Lloyd's Ranch near Nutt, New Mexico, resulting in civilian deaths during a rescue attempt.^[51] U.S. Army responses involved persistent pursuits by the 9th and 10th Cavalry regiments, including Buffalo Soldier units under commanders like Colonel Edward Hatch and Major Albert Morrow, who employed Apache scouts for tracking in rugged terrain.^[53] A pivotal engagement occurred April 6–7, 1880, in the Battle of Hembrillo Basin, New Mexico, where Victorio's forces clashed with elements of the 9th Cavalry in a day-long running fight, inflicting several U.S. casualties before withdrawing southward.^[54] Facing encirclement, Victorio's group fled into Mexico by late summer 1880, continuing raids until cornered. On October 14–15, 1880, Mexican troops under Lieutenant Colonel Joaquín Terrazas ambushed them at Tres Castillos in Chihuahua, killing Victorio—reportedly by suicide to avoid capture—and 62 to 78 warriors, with most of the remaining band slain or captured.^[32] ^[55] Victorio's death fragmented his followers, though lieutenants like Nana mounted limited reprisals before dispersing. Concurrently in Arizona, Yavapai bands—distinct from but allied with some Apache groups—engaged U.S. forces in the Tonto Basin campaigns of the early 1870s, resisting encroachment on their central Arizona territories.^[56] General George Crook launched expeditions in 1872–1873, utilizing infantry, cavalry, and Apache scouts to penetrate remote strongholds. Key actions included the Skeleton Cave Massacre on December 28, 1872, in Salt River Canyon, where U.S. troops under Crook killed 70–100 Yavapai sheltering in a cave, marking a decisive early victory.^[57] ^[56] The campaign culminated in the Battle of Turret Peak on March 27, 1873, where Crook's forces assaulted a Yavapai position in the Tonto Basin, killing several defenders and prompting widespread surrenders.^[58] By 1875, most Yavapai and Tonto groups had submitted, leading to their forced relocation to the San Carlos Reservation on February 27, 1875, effectively ending major hostilities, though sporadic escapes and minor clashes persisted into the 1880s amid broader Apache unrest.^[59] Crook's tactics emphasized mobility and local intelligence, contributing to the U.S. Army's success in subduing decentralized guerrilla resistance in arid landscapes.^[60]

Geronimo's Final Campaigns (1880s)

In May 1885, Geronimo led a breakout from the Turkey Creek vicinity of the San Carlos Reservation in Arizona, fearing imminent arrest by U.S. Indian agents.^[4] The escaping group numbered approximately 35 warriors, 8 boys, and 101 women, totaling 144 individuals who crossed into Mexico's Sierra Madre Mountains.^[61] From these strongholds, Geronimo's band conducted cross-border raids targeting settlements in southeastern Arizona, southwestern New Mexico, Sonora, and Chihuahua, involving livestock theft, pillage, and killings of civilians that provoked panic among border populations.^[62] ^[61] General George Crook directed the U.S. Army's response, committing troops and Apache scouts to pursue the hostiles deep into Mexico despite diplomatic tensions with Mexican authorities.^[63] After months of grueling guerrilla evasion, Geronimo negotiated a surrender with Crook on March 27, 1886, at Cañon de los Embudos in Sonora, Mexico, agreeing to return to Arizona under terms that allowed retention of rifles for hunting but promised relocation to Florida if terms were violated.^[4] ^[63] Geronimo bolted again on March 30, 1886, with a smaller contingent, citing distrust of the surrender conditions exacerbated by mescal consumption during talks and rumors of betrayal.^[63] Crook resigned amid criticism, replaced by General Nelson Miles, who escalated operations with over 5,000 soldiers, hundreds of scouts, and advanced communications like heliographs and telegraphs to coordinate pursuits across rugged terrain.^[61] ^[63] Lieutenant Charles Gatewood, accompanied by scouts, parleyed with Geronimo in late August 1886, leveraging news of family exiles to Florida to secure an unconditional surrender.^[63] On September 4, 1886, Geronimo and 37 followers—18 warriors, 13 women, and 6 children—yielded to Miles at Skeleton Canyon near the Arizona-New Mexico border, concluding the last sustained Apache military resistance against U.S. forces.^[4] ^[63] This campaign, spanning from the 1885 breakout to final capitulation, involved relentless Apache mobility against overwhelming U.S. numerical superiority, resulting in minimal Apache casualties but exhausting their resources and fracturing alliances.^[61]

Tactics and Conduct of Warfare

Apache Guerrilla Raiding and Ambushes

Apache guerrilla raiding emphasized small, mobile parties that exploited the Southwest's mountainous and arid terrain for concealment and rapid strikes. Raiding groups typically numbered 10 to 50 warriors, kept intentionally small to minimize detection risks while maximizing speed and surprise.^[30] These parties targeted vulnerable supply lines, isolated ranches, and wagon trains, aiming to seize horses, livestock, and captives essential to Apache sustenance and warfare economy.^[64] Ambushes formed the core of Apache offensive tactics, often executed in narrow canyons or passes where escape routes were pre-scouted. Warriors initiated attacks with volleys from cover, using bows initially but increasingly captured or traded rifles—including breech-loaders by the 1870s—for greater range and firepower, allowing hit-and-run engagements before U.S. forces could organize counterattacks. Horses, acquired through raids rather than bred extensively, enhanced mobility, enabling warriors to cover vast distances quickly and vanish into rugged landscapes unfamiliar to pursuers.^[65] This combination inflicted sustained attrition on U.S. troops and settlers; for instance, during the 1862 ambush at Apache Pass, Chiricahua forces under Cochise attacked a Union column, killing several soldiers before withdrawing under artillery fire.^[66] The effectiveness of these tactics stemmed from superior terrain knowledge and decentralized command, frustrating conventional U.S. Army pursuits that relied on larger formations ill-suited to pursuit in hostile environments.^[67] Geronimo's later campaigns exemplified this, with small bands conducting raids like the 1885 Bear Valley attack, slaying over a dozen Mexican civilians and evading capture for months despite massive U.S.-Mexican manhunts.^[68] Such operations prolonged conflicts, as Apaches avoided decisive battles, instead eroding enemy morale and resources through persistent, low-risk harassment.^[30] By the 1880s, adoption of repeating rifles further intensified raid lethality, though it did not alter the fundamental guerrilla paradigm.^[64]

US Counterinsurgency and Apache Scouts

The United States Army's counterinsurgency against the Apache shifted in the 1870s from conventional large-scale operations to adaptive guerrilla-style tactics suited to the rugged Southwest terrain, emphasizing mobility, intelligence, and relentless pursuit of hostile bands.^[30] General George Crook, appointed commander of the Department of Arizona in 1871, pioneered the integration of Apache scouts to exploit tribal knowledge of local geography, tracking skills, and cultural insights, recognizing that non-Apache forces struggled against Apache evasion and ambushes.^[69] These scouts, authorized for enlistment by Congress in 1866 up to a total of 1,000 across tribes, served as guides, trackers, combatants, and reservation police, often outperforming regular cavalry in locating hidden rancherias.^[70] In Crook's Tonto Basin Campaign of 1872–1873, approximately 98 scouts, including Apache and allied Pima groups, enabled mobile columns of up to 900 soldiers to cover 40–60 miles per day using mule pack trains capable of carrying 250 pounds each, converging on Apache strongholds for decisive strikes like the Battle of Salt River Cave on December 16, 1872, where 76 Apaches were killed.^[30] Scouts guided troops to remote sites, such as Nantaje leading forces to Nanni-Chaddi's rancheria, facilitating the destruction of supplies and neutralization of leaders like Delshay and Chunz, which forced about 6,400 Apaches onto reservations by May 1873.^[30] This approach aligned with principles of short, aggressive operations targeting combatants while minimizing broader civilian disruption, though some non-combatant casualties occurred.^[30] Crook's second Apache campaign from 1882 to 1886 expanded scout usage, enlisting around 250 Chiricahua Apaches into five companies, with 193 participating in the May 1, 1883, Sierra Madre expedition into Mexico under a U.S.-Mexican agreement allowing hot pursuit.^[71] Tactics involved scout-led single-file columns for stealthy tracking, followed by U.S. troops, leveraging turned hostiles like Chatto and Tsoe ("Peaches") for insider intelligence; one scout company proved more effective than six cavalry companies in subduing raiders.^[71] Mule trains sustained operations in mountainous border regions, enabling rapid location and engagement of encampments, as Crook deemed scouts more valuable than all other forces combined.^[69] Apache scouts decisively influenced major outcomes, including Sergeant William Alchesay's mediation during Geronimo's temporary surrender to Crook on March 27, 1886, after tracking his band across Arizona; Alchesay, enlisted since 1872, also contributed to earlier 1872–1873 efforts and earned a Medal of Honor.^[69] Scouts like Alchesay and Ba-Keitz-Ogie convinced kin to surrender and policed reservations, though post-1886 imprisonment of many Chiricahua scouts in Florida undermined long-term trust.^[70] This scout-dependent model broke Apache resistance by mirroring their guerrilla methods with superior logistics and numbers, leading to Geronimo's final capture on September 4, 1886, under General Nelson Miles, though it highlighted tensions between military efficacy and civilian oversight.^[71]

Atrocities and Controversies

Apache Raids, Captives, and Scalping Practices

Apache raiding parties, usually numbering 10 to 50 warriors, executed rapid guerrilla-style attacks on ranches, villages, and wagon trains in the American Southwest and northern Mexico to seize livestock such as horses and cattle, which were vital for mobility and sustenance in their nomadic warfare.^[72] These operations prioritized surprise and evasion, inflicting casualties on defenders—primarily adult males—while minimizing exposure to counterattacks, with raids escalating in frequency during periods of resource scarcity or retaliation for U.S. or Mexican incursions, such as the 40- to 60-warrior assault on Tubac Presidio in Arizona on October 13, 1789.^[73] Historical estimates indicate thousands of settlers were killed or captured across the 19th century, though precise tallies remain elusive due to underreporting in remote areas.^[74] Captives, predominantly women and children spared from immediate execution, served multiple purposes: replenishing tribal populations depleted by disease and warfare through adoption, providing labor for herding or domestic tasks, or generating ransom payments, particularly from Mexican authorities who frequently negotiated releases.^[75] Treatment varied by circumstance and subgroup; Chiricahua Apaches, for instance, subjected some white captives to severe ordeals including skinning, roasting alive, or smashing children's heads against rocks as acts of vengeance, reflecting intertribal norms of retribution rather than systematic policy.^[74] Survivor accounts, such as that of Olive Oatman captured in 1851 by Tonto Apaches near what is now Arizona, describe initial brutality—marked by family killings and forced marches—followed by variable integration, with Oatman eventually transferred to and adopted by the Mohave tribe after a year of harsh servitude.^[76] Similarly, Herman Lehmann, seized at age 11 by Apaches in Texas around 1870, endured beatings and ritual humiliations before partial assimilation into the group.^[77] Male captives faced higher mortality, often tortured or killed outright to deter pursuit. Scalping emerged as a common Apache practice during these conflicts, involving the ritual removal of hair and skin from slain enemies' heads as trophies symbolizing martial prowess and used in post-raid ceremonies to honor victories or intimidate foes.^[78] Contemporary reports document instances such as Chiricahua warriors ritually scalping nine Mexican victims during a raid, alongside inter-tribal clashes where Apaches scalped Comanche raiders in overlapping territories like the Conchas region.^[79] This custom, while predating European contact among some Plains and Southwestern tribes, intensified amid 19th-century bounties and warfare dynamics, with scalps sometimes exchanged or displayed to validate claims of kills in Apache oral traditions.^[80] Evidence from military journals and settler narratives confirms its prevalence in Apache-US encounters, though not universally applied to every raid.^[81]

US Treacheries, Scalp Bounties, and Military Excesses

The Bascom Affair in February 1861 represented a pivotal instance of U.S. military treachery that escalated hostilities with the Chiricahua Apache. Lieutenant George N. Bascom summoned band leader Cochise to a parley under a flag of truce near the Butterfield Overland Stage Station in Apache Pass, Arizona Territory, to negotiate the return of stolen cattle and a kidnapped Anglo boy, Felix Ward, taken in a raid attributed to Aravaipa Apache. Upon Cochise's arrival with relatives—including his brother Coyuntura, wife, and son—Bascom detained them as hostages, asserting Cochise's complicity despite denials and offers of assistance in recovery. Cochise escaped but ambushed a passing supply wagon, capturing its occupants to exchange; failed talks led Bascom to hang six Apache captives, including Cochise's kin, on February 19, while Cochise executed one hostage and returned the mutilated corpse, vowing perpetual war. This betrayal, rooted in Bascom's inflexible demands and disregard for tribal customs, ignited 11 years of Chiricahua resistance, costing hundreds of lives.^[3] Another documented treachery occurred on January 18, 1863, involving Mimbreño Apache leader Mangas Coloradas. The chief, seeking truce after retaliatory strikes on encroaching miners, approached a U.S. camp under flag of truce but was immediately captured by California Volunteers under General Joseph R. West near Pinos Altos, New Mexico Territory. Detained at abandoned Fort McLane, Mangas was subjected to torture—soldiers reportedly applied heated bayonets to his feet and scalp to extract information—before being shot twice by sentinels around 1 a.m. on January 19, with the official report claiming an escape attempt provoked by a thrown rock. Contemporary accounts, including those from diarist Daniel E. Conner and miner Clark B. Stocking, indicate premeditated murder, possibly on implicit orders, as Mangas posed no immediate threat; his head was subsequently scalped, boiled, and shipped to Eastern phrenologists for study, violating basic protocols for prisoners under truce. General West's inquiry upheld the escape narrative, but inconsistencies fueled Apache outrage and prolonged conflict.^[82] U.S. scalp bounties were not formally legislated by the federal government against Apache specifically, unlike Mexican policies in Sonora and Chihuahua from 1835 onward, which paid 100 pesos per male warrior scalp to incentivize eradication. However, in Arizona Territory, territorial authorities and vigilante groups extended similar incentives informally into the 1860s and possibly 1870s, with reports of $100 rewards advertised for Apache scalps or heads, encouraging civilian and militia participation in killings that blurred lines between sanctioned warfare and bounty hunting. Such practices amplified military excesses, as U.S. Army units occasionally tolerated or engaged in scalping non-combatants during campaigns, exemplified by the post-mortem desecration of Mangas Coloradas, reflecting a broader pattern of retributive brutality amid irregular frontier warfare.^[83] Military excesses extended beyond treacheries to include extrajudicial executions and village destructions that targeted civilians. In the Bascom Affair, the hanging of hostages without trial or conclusive evidence violated emerging codes of conduct, while Mangas' torture breached prisoner treatment norms outlined in U.S. Army regulations. Broader operations under commanders like George Crook in the 1870s-1880s involved scorched-earth tactics—burning crops, hogans, and stores to starve resistors—but excesses peaked in incidents like the failure to prevent civilian-led massacres, though Army complicity was indirect; these actions, driven by manpower shortages and retaliatory imperatives, resulted in disproportionate civilian casualties among Apache bands.^[82]

Surrender and Immediate Aftermath

Geronimo's Surrender and Imprisonment

Geronimo, leader of the Chiricahua Apache, surrendered to Brigadier General Nelson A. Miles on September 4, 1886, in Skeleton Canyon, Arizona Territory, accompanied by approximately 30 followers including Naiche, son of Cochise.^[35]^[84] This event concluded the major phase of Apache resistance against U.S. forces, as Geronimo was the last prominent warrior to capitulate formally.^[35] Miles assured Geronimo of fair treatment, though these promises were not fully honored, with the group designated as prisoners of war rather than receiving amnesty.^[36] Following the surrender, Geronimo and his band were transported by train to San Antonio, Texas, for temporary holding at Fort Sam Houston, then shipped to Fort Pickens near Pensacola, Florida, arriving in late October 1886.^[85] Conditions in Florida proved harsh for the arid-adapted Apaches, with high humidity, unfamiliar diseases, and inadequate facilities contributing to numerous deaths among the 469 Chiricahua prisoners held across camps including Fort Marion and Fort Pickens.^[86] Geronimo himself performed manual labor such as quarrying rock and mixing mortar, while exhibiting relative freedom of movement compared to initial confinement.^[87] In 1887, Geronimo was transferred to Mount Vernon Barracks in Alabama, where tuberculosis and malaria further decimated the prisoner population, with over 50 deaths recorded by 1889 due to the subtropical climate and poor sanitation.^[85] Persistent health complaints from Apache leaders prompted relocation in 1894 to Fort Sill, Oklahoma Territory, where conditions improved with allotted land for farming and ranching; Geronimo raised crops, livestock, and even converted to Christianity in 1900, though he retained traditional practices.^[88] Despite this, he remained classified as a prisoner of war, denied permission to return to Arizona, and lived under military oversight with limited autonomy.^[63] Geronimo died on February 17, 1909, at Fort Sill's hospital from pneumonia, contracted after falling from his horse during a solitary ride and lying exposed overnight in cold weather; he was approximately 85 to 90 years old.^[61] He was buried in the Beef Creek Apache Cemetery at Fort Sill, marking the end of his captivity that spanned over two decades without repatriation to ancestral lands.

Reservation Policies and Apache Relocation

Following the conclusion of major hostilities in the Apache Wars, United States policy emphasized the confinement of Apache bands to designated reservations as a means of asserting federal control over tribal populations and facilitating white settlement in the Southwest. Reservations such as San Carlos, established by executive order on December 14, 1872, under President Ulysses S. Grant, consolidated various Apache groups—including San Carlos, White Mountain, and forcibly relocated Yavapai—onto arid lands along the Gila River in Arizona Territory, spanning approximately 1.8 million acres.^[89]^[90] These policies, rooted in broader post-Civil War efforts to segregate Native populations, provided nominal annuities and rations but often featured inadequate water, arable land, and oversight, fostering malnutrition and disease that prompted recurrent escapes and raids by leaders like Victorio and Geronimo.^[30] Federal agents enforced sedentarization through military enforcement, aiming to transition Apaches from nomadic raiding to subsistence farming, though resistance persisted due to cultural incompatibilities and perceived treaty violations. The surrender of Geronimo and approximately 500 Chiricahua Apaches on September 4, 1886, at Skeleton Canyon marked a punitive escalation in relocation policy, treating the group as prisoners of war rather than relocating them to Arizona reservations. Transported by rail, they were dispersed to Fort Marion (near St. Augustine) and Fort Pickens in Florida, where the subtropical climate exacerbated vulnerability to malaria and tuberculosis; an estimated 25-50% of the prisoners perished within the first few years from these diseases and related hardships.^[88]^[91] In 1888, survivors—numbering around 400—were shifted to Mount Vernon Barracks in Alabama, enduring continued high mortality rates, with limited family reunifications and forced separation of children for assimilationist education at institutions like the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, where 37 Chiricahua youths arrived in 1887 and many succumbed to tuberculosis.^[88]^[92] By October 1894, the remaining roughly 300 Chiricahua were relocated to the Fort Sill military reservation in Oklahoma Territory, where they were allotted lands and gradually integrated as scouts and farmers, though still under military supervision.^[93] This exile policy, justified by military leaders like General Nelson Miles to prevent resurgence of resistance, barred return to ancestral Arizona and New Mexico territories until 1913, when President Woodrow Wilson ended their POW status; approximately one-third remained at Fort Sill, while two-thirds transferred to the Mescalero Apache Reservation.^[88] Geronimo himself, denied repatriation despite appeals, died at Fort Sill on February 17, 1909, exemplifying the long-term cultural and demographic toll of these enforced displacements, which reduced Chiricahua numbers through mortality and dispersal without restoring sovereignty.^[12] Such relocations reflected a causal chain from wartime subjugation to demographic attrition, prioritizing territorial security over tribal viability.^[94]

Long-Term Consequences

Demographic and Territorial Impacts

The Apache Wars contributed to a marked demographic decline among Apache tribes through direct combat losses, exposure to diseases, and hardships associated with displacement and reservation confinement. For the Chiricahua Apache, population estimates stood at approximately 1,200 individuals just prior to the escalation of conflicts in 1861, with subsequent warfare, including battles like Apache Pass where Apaches reported 63 warriors killed, eroding numbers further. Western Apache groups totaled fewer than 5,000 in the 19th century, suffering proportional reductions from skirmishes, retaliatory massacres, and post-1886 imprisonment, where many perished in exile at sites like Mount Vernon Barracks in Alabama due to malnutrition and illness. These losses, compounded by disrupted traditional economies and family structures, initially suppressed population recovery, though census rolls from the late 19th century document stabilization on reservations amid federal oversight.^[8]^[95]^[96] Territorially, the wars facilitated the transfer of vast Southwestern lands from nomadic Apache control to U.S. settlement and resource extraction, confining surviving groups to delimited reservations that represented a severe contraction from historical ranges. Pre-conflict Apache domains encompassed expansive regions from the Arkansas River southward to northern Mexico and westward from central Texas to central Arizona, enabling mobile raiding and foraging across millions of square miles. By the 1890s, major reservations like San Carlos (1,900,000 acres) and Fort Apache were established, but these were fragmented, shared among tribes, and subject to allotment under the 1887 Dawes Act, which reduced holdings—for example, shrinking some original reservation lands to 32,643 acres after surplus parcels were sold to non-Natives. This confinement severed access to traditional hunting grounds and water sources, while enabling American mining booms (e.g., copper in Arizona) and ranching, which accelerated non-Native population influx into former Apache territories.^[9]^[97]^[98]

Integration into American Society and Resistance

Following the surrender of Geronimo and his followers on September 4, 1886, the Chiricahua Apache were initially imprisoned as prisoners of war at Fort Marion in Florida, where malaria and harsh conditions reduced their numbers from approximately 500 to under 300 by 1888.^[88] They were relocated to Mount Vernon Barracks in Alabama in 1887, experiencing further deaths from disease and inadequate care, before transfer to Fort Sill in Oklahoma Territory in 1894, where they remained until 1913.^[88] At that point, survivors—numbering about 200—were offered choices: enlistment in the U.S. Army, relocation to the Mescalero Apache Reservation in New Mexico, or remaining at Fort Sill; roughly half opted for Mescalero, integrating into tribal life there while others dispersed or maintained semi-autonomous communities.^[98] Western Apache groups, such as those on the San Carlos and White Mountain reservations established in the 1870s, faced enforced sedentism, with the U.S. government promoting agriculture and wage labor through agencies like the San Carlos Indian Agency founded in 1872, though aridity and cultural mismatches limited success.^[99] Economic integration varied by tribe; the San Carlos Apache developed cattle ranching as a primary activity, supplemented by intermittent sawmill operations and recreational developments like lakefront tourism, though these faced challenges from resource management and federal oversight.^[100] The White Mountain Apache Tribe, on a reservation encompassing 1.6 million acres including timberlands, established logging enterprises and a ski resort in the 20th century, generating revenue for tribal infrastructure while employing members in forestry and hospitality, reflecting adaptation to market economies under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, which enabled tribal governments and land consolidation.^[101] ^[102] Education via federal boarding schools, such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School model extended to Arizona, aimed at cultural assimilation by teaching English and vocational skills, leading to higher literacy rates but also intergenerational trauma from separation and suppression of native languages; by the mid-20th century, many Apaches pursued off-reservation employment in mining, construction, and the military. Military service provided another avenue of integration; Apache scouts, formalized after 1866, continued enlisting into the early 20th century, with units like those at Fort Apache aiding in border patrols until the program's gradual phase-out by the 1920s, though individual Apaches served in World War I and II, contributing to U.S. forces while leveraging skills from reservation life.^[103] Tribal members from San Carlos and White Mountain participated in subsequent conflicts, including Vietnam, with enlistment rates exceeding national averages due to economic incentives and patriotism, though this often conflicted with traditional values.^[104] Amid assimilation pressures, Apaches resisted through cultural preservation; tribes maintained oral histories, clan structures, and ceremonies like the Sunrise Dance on reservations, establishing centers such as the White Mountain Apache Culture Center in the late 20th century to archive artifacts and languages, countering language loss where only 20-30% of youth spoke Western Apache fluently by the 2000s.^[105] ^[106] Legal resistance included lawsuits against federal breaches of trust, such as the White Mountain Apache's successful 2011 claim recovering $15 million for mismanaged Fort Apache lands, and San Carlos efforts to block mining projects threatening sacred sites like Oak Flat since the 2010s, prioritizing sovereignty over resource extraction.^[107] ^[108] These actions preserved territorial integrity and ecological knowledge, with tribes like White Mountain integrating restoration practices drawing on pre-reservation philosophies to manage forests sustainably against historical overexploitation.^[109] Overall, integration fostered economic self-reliance for some—evident in per capita incomes rising from under $5,000 in the 1970s to over $10,000 by 2020 on select reservations—while resistance ensured cultural continuity, with populations rebounding to around 100,000 self-identified Apaches nationwide by the 2020 census.^[110]

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Conclusion: The use of Apache scouts as auxiliary forces during Crook's second Apache campaign was extremely effective and unique in contrast to how the ...
[72]
“2 HISTORICAL SKETCH – WESTERN APACHES” in “The San ...
Raids brought the Apache horses, mules, burros, cattle, cloth, clothing, blankets, metal to be made into spearheads, arrowpoints or knives, occasionally ...
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It was on this day in 1789 that a large Apache raiding party - Facebook
Oct 13, 2025 · It was on this day in 1789 that a large Apache raiding party (numbering between 40-60 warriors) attacked Tubac Presidio at dawn.It was on this day in 1789 that a large Apache raiding...Apache Raid on Tubac Presidio in 1789, Arizona HistoryMore results from www.facebook.com
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The long and fierce struggle of the Apaches | Culture | EL PAÍS English
Jun 5, 2023 · They knew the terrain and how to use it to their advantage. Their incredible mobility made them masters of what today we call guerrilla warfare.<|separator|>
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Captives of American Indians - Texas State Historical Association
1860 or 1861. Parker, taken captive by Comanches in 1836, was assimilated into Comanche culture and lived with them for almost twenty-five years before her ...
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Apache Captives' Ordeal - HistoryNet
Jun 12, 2006 · When Apache warriors swooped down on the defenseless Oatman family in sunbleached Arizona in 1851, the harrowing nightmare was just beginning.
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10 Famous Captives of American Indians Who Became One With ...
Dec 23, 2017 · Born in Texas, Herman was about eleven years old when he and his younger brother were captured by an Apache raiding party. ... Late 19th century ...<|separator|>
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https://santafenewmexican.com/news/trail_dust/trail-dust-scalping-began-as-ancient-indian-practice/article_f30aa968-53bd-5b1c-88dc-c50b8f492058.html
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[PDF] The Scalp Hunt in Chihuahua—1849 - UNM Digital Repository
But the true representatives of the crusading Chihuahuan spirit against the hated Apaches and Comanches were the unlicensed guerrilla bands that sprang up to ...
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[PDF] Scalp-taking - Projects at Harvard
Throughout the 19th century, Native American scouts serving in the. US Army were allowed to take scalps (Van de Logt, 2008: 101). The most recent evidence of ...
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Scalping in the Old West - Nick Brumby Westerns
May 6, 2025 · Scalp-taking may have developed as an alternative to the taking of human heads, for scalps were easier to take, transport, and preserve for subsequent display.<|separator|>
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[PDF] The Enigma of Mangas Coloradas' Death - UNM Digital Repository
The federal head chief of all the Apaches was a notorious personage and was known to keep his headquarters near Pinos Altos at the time.... The pronunciation of ...
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Pinal Apaches, Miners, and Genocide in Central Arizona, 1859-1874
In April 1864, the United States authorized Arizona Territorial Governor John N. ... State-sponsored Apache scalp bounties may have continued in Arizona into the ...
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Native History: Geronimo Is Last Native Warrior to Surrender
Sep 4, 2013 · ... Geronimo surrendered to General Nelson A. Miles on September 4. Miles, in his memoirs, described Geronimo as “one of the brightest, most ...
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Geronimo (person) | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and ...
Geronimo finally surrendered to Miles in September 1886. As prisoners of war Geronimo and his followers were exiled, being sent first to Florida, then to ...
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1886: Apache armed resistance ends; Geronimo surrenders
1886: Apache armed resistance ends; Geronimo surrenders ; 1 / 4. NEXT. Council between General Crook and Geronimo · Council between General Cook and Goyathlay ( ...
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OUT OF THE PAST: Geronimo comes to Fort Pickens
Jan 5, 2013 · On March 27, 1886, a tired Geronimo and his band finally surrendered to Gen. George A. Crook, the Civil War veteran who threatened to kill all ...
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Post Apache Wars - Chiricahua National Monument (U.S. National ...
Aug 19, 2018 · Geronimo's fourth and final surrender was in Skeleton Canyon in southern Arizona, the summer of 1886. General Nelson Miles took the credit. One ...
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History & Culture - OFFICIAL WEBSITE - san carlos apache tribe
Raids erupted into war over land and cattle. The U.S. military moved in to protect the settlers and some Apaches agreed to work as scouts for the military.
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San Carlos Apache Tribe - Inter Tribal Council of Arizona |
Encompassing 1,834,781 acres, the San Carlos Apache Reservation was established by executive order on November 9, 1871. Over one-third of the community's land ...
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'SHAME AND ENDURANCE: THE UNTOLD STORY OF ... - ICT News
'SHAME AND ENDURANCE: THE UNTOLD STORY OF THE CHIRICAHUA APACHE PRISONERS OF WAR', BY H. HENRIETTA STOCKEL.Missing: numbers | Show results with:numbers
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Apache Prisoners of War (1886-1887)
Chiricahua Apache prisoners of war, held at Fort Marion, were transferred to Carlisle Indian School, with 37 initially transferred and 62 ...
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Ft. Sill Apache Tribe - The University of Oklahoma
In 1894, the Chiricahua Apaches were relocated from the prisons in Alabama and Florida via train to Ft. Sill, where they would become known as the Ft. Sill ...
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[PDF] THE INCARCERATION OF THE CHIRICAHUA APACHES, 1886-1914
The Chiricahua Apaches were incarcerated from 1886-1914 in Florida, Alabama, and Oklahoma, causing population loss and cultural disruption. They were first ...
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Western Apache - Summary - eHRAF World Cultures
Estimates of the nineteenth century population total less than 5,000. 161 Population · 657 Public Welfare. LINGUISTIC AFFILIATION. Western Apache is one of the ...
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Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 | National Archives
Oct 9, 2014 · The Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 ( M595, 692 rolls) contains census rolls that were usually submitted each year by agents or superintendents in charge of ...
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Apaches - History, Modern era, The first apaches in america
Apache populations today may be found in Oklahoma, Arizona, and New Mexico. The San Carlos Reservation in eastern Arizona occupies 1,900,000 acres and has a ...Overview · Modern Era · Acculturation And...<|separator|>
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What Happened to the Apache Tribe? - Native Hope Blog
Feb 12, 2023 · There was consistent tension between Apache bands and Spanish settlers, and Spanish colonists and Apache bands would raid each other.
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Our History | SAN CARLOS APACHE TRIBE - OFFICIAL WEBSITE
Our ancestors were finally forced to accept the demands of the U.S. Government and remain confined to reservations. In 1872, the United States created Camp San ...
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[PDF] Public Choice, Culture and American Indian Economic Development
The only significant economic activity on the reservation is cattle grazing. A tribal sawmill and lakefront recreational development were operated at one time, ...Missing: integration | Show results with:integration
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WMAT - History
We are Western Apaches, closely related to the people of San Carlos, Payson, and Camp Verde. Though there are differences in language, history, and culture.
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History - SCAT - san carlos apache enrollment
Dec 3, 2023 · On December 14, 1872, President U.S. Grant marked the inception of the San Carlos Apache Reservation. The Dutch Reformed Church, entrusted with ...
[103]
Lead the Way: Researching U.S. Army Indian Scouts, 1866–1914
Mar 31, 2023 · A year after the fighting ended in the Civil War, Native Americans began serving as enlisted Indian Scouts in the US Army.
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[PDF] White Mountain Apache - Institute of Social and Economic Research
Tribal leadership and many community members had long been aware of the problems and had sought to address them.
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White Mountain Apache Culture Center and Museum
The Cultural Center serves as a repository for the Tribe's cultural heritage through the preservation of oral histories, archival materials and objects.
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Cultural Foundations for Ecological Restoration on the White ...
Sep 16, 2003 · Like many indigenous peoples, Apaches see the cause of unhealthy ecosystems not as the result of traditional philosophies, but rather as the ...<|separator|>
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The White Mountain Apache Reclamation of the Fort ... - Project MUSE
Our review of Fort Apache history provides the backdrop for examining litigation brought by the Tribe against its trustee, the United States, for breach of its ...
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After centuries of erasure, Arizona tribes fight to preserve culture ...
Jan 15, 2024 · San Carlos Apache leaders fear their message is lost on the youth, who may not understand the importance of preserving Indigenous languages in ...Missing: resistance | Show results with:resistance
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[PDF] Ecological Restoration and the Revitalization of the White Mountain ...
Apr 27, 2009 · The main argument of this dissertation is that the White Mountain Apache Tribe‟s appropriation of ecological restoration played a vital role in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Apache | Research Starters - EBSCO
Raiding for supplies was an important part of Apache life, leading inevitably to conflict with Europeans. The earliest known violence involved Gaspar Castano de ...Missing: society | Show results with:society