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Apophis

Apophis (Ancient Egyptian: ꜥꜣpp; also known as Apep or Apepi) is an ancient Egyptian deity who embodies chaos (isfet), darkness, and destruction. Depicted as a giant serpent or dragon, he represents the forces of disorder opposing the cosmic order (maat) maintained by the sun god Ra. As the eternal adversary of Ra, Apophis sought to devour the solar barque each night during its journey through the underworld, symbolizing the perpetual struggle between light and darkness, creation and dissolution.^[1] Unlike benevolent deities, Apophis was not worshipped but feared and ritually opposed through spells, execration rites, and protective amulets to ensure the sun's daily rebirth and the stability of the world. His mythology underscores core Egyptian themes of renewal and the triumph of order over chaos, appearing prominently in funerary texts like the Book of the Dead and underworld books from the New Kingdom onward (c. 1550–1070 BCE).^[2]^[3]

Name and Etymology

Etymology

The name Apophis is the Greek form of the ancient Egyptian ꜥꜣpp (often transliterated as Apep or ʿꜣpp), referring to the chaotic serpent deity. This name is derived from an Egyptian verbal root ꜥpp, interpreted as "to slither" or "to encircle," which evokes the coiling motion of a serpent and underscores the entity's serpentine nature in mythological contexts.^[4] In hieroglyphic script, ꜥꜣpp is phonetically spelled using the sign for ʿꜣ (a reed leaf, Gardiner M17), followed by two instances of the biliteral p (a stool or mat, Gardiner Q3), and typically determined by the ideogram of a snake (Gardiner I14, depicting a cobra), emphasizing its reptilian identity. This writing convention appears consistently in ritual and funerary texts, where the determinative reinforces the name's symbolic link to danger and disorder. The evolution of the script shows variations in the New Kingdom, with occasional additions of multiple snake determinatives to heighten the apotropaic effect during execration rites.^[4] The earliest known attestations of ꜥꜣpp date to the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BCE), notably in the autobiography of the nomarch Ankhtifi from Moalla, where it emerges as a personification of chaos opposing order. Prior to this, no explicit references appear in Old Kingdom sources, suggesting the concept crystallized during a time of political fragmentation. Scholars have proposed possible influences from West-Semitic languages, where a root *ʿpp denoting "to slither" or coil may have contributed to the term's adoption, reflecting cultural exchanges in the Nile Delta region. This linguistic parallel highlights how ꜥꜣpp integrated into Egyptian cosmology as a motif of primordial disruption.^[4]

Epithets and Variants

Apophis was frequently referred to by epithets that emphasized his role as a chaotic adversary, such as "Enemy of Ra," which appears in numerous New Kingdom texts describing his opposition to the sun god's daily journey.^[2] Another common title, "Great Serpent," underscores his serpentine form and immense scale as a threat to cosmic order, as seen in solar hymns and magical spells from the same period.^[2] Additional epithets include "He Who is in His Flame," evoking his association with destructive fire, and "One Who Was Spat Out," portraying him as a rejected primordial entity, both drawn from ritual texts aimed at his subjugation.^[5] "The Destroyed One" and "He of the Broken Kas" further highlight his repeated defeat and fragmented spiritual essence in these incantations. Due to a taboo against directly naming or fully writing Apophis to prevent empowering him, his true name was often mutilated, erased, or replaced with epithets in texts and rituals, contributing to the proliferation of variants and descriptive titles.^[3] The variant name Apep represents the Greek transliteration of the Egyptian ꜥꜣpp, prominently featured in Greco-Roman sources and earlier hieroglyphic writings.^[2] This form appears extensively in New Kingdom papyri, such as the Book of Overthrowing Apep, a Late Period compilation of earlier spells that lists multiple epithets and instructs priests on rituals to bind and decapitate the serpent's effigy.^[5] Other orthographic variants include Aaapef, Apap, Apepi, and Apopis, reflecting phonetic adaptations in temple inscriptions and magical documents from the Middle and New Kingdoms.^[6] No distinct "Apophis of the North" title is attested; instead, variations emphasize his universal threat across Egypt. Post-1000 BCE, the name evolved in Demotic script as ꜥpp or ꜥpꜥp, used in late magical papyri for protective spells against chaos forces. By the Coptic period, it became ⲁⲫⲱⲫ (Aphōph), signifying "giant" in a semantic shift, appearing in Christian-era texts blending Egyptian demonology with biblical motifs.^[7] These later forms retained Apophis's core identity as a serpentine disruptor while adapting to cursive scripts and linguistic changes.

Mythological Role

Embodiment of Chaos

In ancient Egyptian cosmology, Apophis served as the quintessential personification of primordial chaos, emerging from Nun, the infinite, formless watery abyss that predated creation. As an uncreated entity, Apophis embodied isfet—the forces of disorder, violence, and dissolution—that inherently opposed Ma'at, the divine principle of harmony, truth, and structured order essential to the universe's stability. This opposition positioned Apophis not as a created deity but as an eternal, antagonistic potentiality within the cosmos, perpetually striving to revert all existence to undifferentiated non-being.^[8]^[1] Within the Heliopolitan cosmogony, centered on the city of Heliopolis, Apophis actively resisted the emergence of the Ennead, the divine family of nine gods initiated by Atum's self-creation from Nun's depths. Atum's act of spitting forth or masturbating to produce Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) marked the first imposition of order, separating the elements and enabling the world's formation; Apophis, however, symbolized the chaotic inertia that sought to undermine this process, preventing the gods' differentiation and the establishment of cosmic boundaries. In the Hermopolitan tradition, associated with the city of Hermopolis, Apophis similarly countered the Ogdoad—the eight primordial deities representing aspects of Nun's chaos—whose interplay was believed to culminate in the birth of the sun and the ordered world, underscoring Apophis's role as a barrier to creation's progression from inert waters to structured reality.^[9]^[10] Apophis's conceptual antagonism extended particularly to key creator figures like Atum and Shu, whom it threatened with entropy and obliteration. Atum, as the primordial mound rising from Nun, directly confronted chaotic dissolution in his creative acts, while Shu's role in upholding the sky against the encroaching waters exemplified the ongoing battle against Apophis's drive toward non-existence. This dynamic portrayed Apophis as an inexorable force of regression, embodying the universe's inherent vulnerability to collapse back into primordial unity.^[9]^[8] The Pyramid Texts, inscribed in royal pyramids from circa 2400 BCE, provide early textual attestation to Apophis's menacing presence, describing it as "the fiend who devours the sun" in spells aimed at repelling chaotic threats to divine and cosmic integrity. These utterances, such as those invoking protection against serpentine adversaries, underscore Apophis's abstract role as an unvanquishable embodiment of disorder, integral to the Egyptians' philosophical framework of creation's fragility.^[11]

Adversary in Solar Cycle

In ancient Egyptian mythology, Apophis served as the primary antagonist in the solar cycle, embodying a constant threat to the sun god Ra's nocturnal voyage through the Duat, the underworld realm traversed each night to ensure the sun's rebirth at dawn. As Ra journeyed in his solar barque, accompanied by a crew of deities including Set and protective serpents like Mehen, Apophis repeatedly attempted to impede the vessel's progress by coiling around it or ensnaring it in massive loops, often depicted as treacherous sandbanks in the underworld waters, thereby risking eternal darkness if successful.^[3]^[2] Apophis's influence extended to natural phenomena interpreted as disruptions in the solar order, such as solar eclipses—viewed as moments when the serpent temporarily swallowed the sun disk—and violent storms that obscured the sky, signaling his near-victories against Ra and the precarious balance of cosmic stability. These events underscored Apophis's role as a force capable of manifesting chaos in the observable world, with thunderstorms and eclipses serving as omens of his aggressive incursions into the divine journey.^[3]^[2] Narratively, Apophis functioned as the perpetual disruptor in the cycle of day and night, his nightly assaults on the solar barque reinforcing the eternal renewal of light over darkness and the ongoing maintenance of Ma'at, the principle of order, through divine and human intervention. Despite repeated defeats—often involving Set spearing the serpent or gods like Isis reciting spells to weaken him—Apophis regenerated each evening, symbolizing the unending vigilance required to preserve the world's rhythmic stability.^[3]^[2] References to Apophis's attacks appear in the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1710 BCE), where spells such as Spell 80 describe the serpent's encircling assaults on the sun, enabling the deceased to participate in repelling him and aiding Ra's barque, thus integrating the mortal's role in upholding the solar cycle. These texts portray Apophis employing tactics like a hypnotic gaze or coiling embrace to ensnare the divine vessel, highlighting his threat as early as the 12th Dynasty.^[12]^[3]

Depictions and Attributes

Physical Form

Apophis is primarily depicted in ancient Egyptian art and texts as a colossal serpent, embodying a massive, sinuous form that underscores its threatening presence.^[1] This serpentine representation often features tightly wound coils or a headless body to emphasize its enormous scale.^[13] Some mythological elaborations describe Apophis as stretching 16 yards (about 15 meters) in length, with a head made of flint. In the tomb of Ramesses VI (KV 9), for instance, Apophis appears with twelve heads emerging from its coiled body, highlighting anatomical exaggerations common in New Kingdom iconography.^[14] Artistic variations emerge particularly in the Late Period (c. 700 BCE), where Apophis is sometimes depicted in forms such as a contorted crocodile or other reptilian shapes, showing stylistic evolution.^[3] These depictions frequently employ red and black pigments in tomb reliefs, with red signifying inherent danger and vitality of evil, and black evoking the shadowy depths of the underworld. A notable example survives from the Temple of Hibis in the Dakhla Oasis, dating to the Late Period under Darius I (c. 521–486 BCE), where Apophis is rendered as a large coiled serpent pierced by spears, captured in detailed sandstone reliefs that preserve its scaly, elongated anatomy.^[15] The serpent form of Apophis also carries symbolic weight as a representation of primordial disorder in Egyptian cosmology.^[2]

Symbolic Associations

Apophis, as the primordial embodiment of chaos (isfet), was symbolically linked to darkness, representing the absence of light and order that threatened the cosmic balance maintained by Ma'at. In ancient Egyptian cosmology, his nocturnal assaults on the sun god Ra underscored this association, portraying him as the force of non-existence and oblivion that sought to engulf creation in eternal night.^[2] This darkness extended to symbolic ties with storms and thunder, phenomena interpreted as manifestations of his disruptive power, often equated with the god Set's chaotic domain during the New Kingdom.^[3] The color red further reinforced these indicators of disorder, as Apophis was described as "entirely red" in execration texts, evoking blood, fire, and the destructive aspects of Set, who shared associations with chaos and red-hued deserts.^[16] Apophis's influence was also connected to natural upheavals like earthquakes, viewed as his "wrath" shaking the foundations of the ordered world. These events symbolized the instability he imposed, mirroring the Egyptians' fear of any deviation from harmonious natural cycles that sustained life along the Nile. In art and texts, such as the Amduat, Apophis appears as a colossal serpent whose coils threaten stability, briefly referencing his physical form to emphasize the terror of chaos incarnate.^[2] His symbolic opposition to emblems of divine authority, like the was-scepter denoting power and the ankh signifying life, positioned him as the antithesis of pharaonic and cosmic order; while gods wielded these symbols to affirm Ma'at, Apophis's defeat rituals inverted such motifs to bind and decapitate him, restoring balance.^[17] This contrast highlighted his role in undermining the very principles of rulership and vitality upheld by the Egyptian pantheon. In Ramesside literature, particularly the Book of Overthrowing Apep from temple rituals, Apophis was metaphorically depicted as "the storm that devours," a voracious entity consuming light and order in spells designed to neutralize his threat. These hymns and incantations, recited by priests to ensure Ra's safe passage, portrayed him as an insatiable force of dissolution, with imagery of binding, burning, and spearing evoking the perpetual struggle against entropy. Such metaphors reinforced Apophis's cultural significance as the ultimate devourer, whose subjugation affirmed the triumph of creation over primordial void.^[18]

Conflicts and Battles

Daily Confrontations with Ra

In ancient Egyptian mythology, the daily confrontations between Apophis and Ra formed a central narrative of cosmic struggle, enacted during the sun god's nocturnal voyage through the Duat in the solar barque. As Ra traversed the twelve hours of the underworld, Apophis repeatedly sought to coil his serpentine body around the barque, threatening to halt its progress and engulf the sun in darkness. This peril peaked in the later hours, particularly the eleventh hour of the Book of the Gates, where Apophis is depicted as a massive serpent encircling the vessel, only to be repelled through divine intervention and incantations. Protective spells, recited by the crew of gods aboard the barque, invoked the power of creation to loosen Apophis's coils and drive him back, ensuring Ra's emergence at dawn and the renewal of light.^[19]^[20] Seth played a pivotal role in these encounters, often portrayed as the fierce defender who speared Apophis to prevent the serpent from capsizing the barque. In the eleventh hour sequence of the Book of the Gates, Seth thrusts a lance into Apophis's side, symbolizing the triumph of ordered violence over chaos, while the god's epithets in accompanying spells emphasize his unyielding stance against the enemy. This act was complemented by magical barriers and utterances that immobilized Apophis, with deities like the four spear-wielding guardians in the tenth hour assisting by stabbing the serpent's forms. Such depictions underscored the precarious balance of the solar cycle, where Ra's survival depended on collective divine resistance.^[19]^[20] At the transition to dawn, deities including Bastet and Isis intervened to bind and spear Apophis, securing Ra's ascent. Bastet, manifesting as a protective cat or torch-bearing figure, struck at the serpent's vulnerabilities in vignettes from New Kingdom tombs, such as TT 1, where she embodies the Eye of Ra's destructive fury. Isis, wielding spells drawn from her magical prowess, bound Apophis with ropes or nets alongside Seth and Serket, as detailed in the Book of the Amduat and Book of Gates, preventing any final assault as the barque approached the horizon. These actions at the twelfth hour or first light ensured the serpent's temporary defeat, allowing the sun to rise unhindered.^[20] These mythic battles extended into temple ceremonies where priests performed execration rituals against Apophis, striking effigies of the serpent to symbolically repel chaos and maintain maat. Such practices, conducted at sites like Edfu and Karnak, reinforced the mythology's role in upholding cosmic order through ritual action.^[20] Detailed accounts of Apophis's manifestations in the Duat appear in papyri like the Turin Amduat (c. 1300 BCE), which illustrates the serpent's multiple forms across the underworld hours, often as a coiling adversary threatening the barque. In the seventh hour of the Book of the Amduat, Apophis emerges in a cavernous guise, repelled by a "great magician" and accompanying gods through spearing and incantations. These vignettes, preserved in the Turin papyrus's registers, depict Apophis's recurring peril, subdued hour by hour to facilitate Ra's passage.^[21]^[22]

Other Mythic Encounters

In addition to his primary role as the adversary of Ra, Apophis appears in mythic narratives confronting other deities, particularly in contexts of cosmic order and renewal. One prominent encounter occurs in the Ptolemaic-era inscriptions of the Edfu Temple, where Horus, depicted in falcon-headed form, spears Apophis transformed into a hippopotamus, symbolizing the triumph of kingship and order over chaotic forces threatening the land's stability.^[23] Apophis also features in creation stabilization myths involving the earth god Geb and sky goddess Nut, where these deities actively oppose the serpent to maintain the separation of heaven and earth established by Shu. In the Book of the Dead (Chapter 33), Geb, alongside Shu, stands firm against the rerek-snake—a manifestation of Apophis—ensuring the integrity of the terrestrial realm against encroaching disorder.^[24] This opposition underscores Apophis's pre-creation origins as a force predating and undermining the structured cosmos formed by the Ennead.^[24] Late-period Demotic magical texts, dating around 300 BCE, depict Apophis in scenarios challenging Osiris's resurrection, portraying the serpent as a threat capable of causing Osiris to "die again" and disrupting the cycle of renewal tied to the underworld. These narratives, preserved in papyri and ostraca, invoke Apophis alongside other chaotic elements to emphasize the fragility of divine rebirth and the need for protective spells.^[25]

Religious and Funerary Contexts

Execration Rituals

Execration rituals targeting Apophis formed a core component of ancient Egyptian temple practices, designed to symbolically destroy the serpent and safeguard the daily passage of the sun god Ra against its chaotic disruptions. These rites, performed by priests, invoked magical principles of sympathetic destruction, where physical acts on representations of Apophis mirrored and effected harm to the entity itself.^[26] A prominent example is the "Overthrowing of Apophis" ceremony detailed in the Book of Overthrowing Apophis, preserved in the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus from the Ptolemaic period (4th century BCE). In this ritual, priests crafted wax figurines of Apophis, inscribed with its names and epithets, then stabbed them repeatedly with knives, mutilated the forms, and burned the remnants in a sacred fire to ensure the serpent's impotence. This ceremony, emphasizing the binding and incineration of the figures, was intended to assist Ra in overcoming Apophis during the sun's nocturnal journey, with the ashes sometimes scattered or buried to prevent resurgence.^[20] Complementary to these acts were the spells from the Book of Overthrowing Apophis, a collection of incantations recited primarily at dawn in temple settings to weaken the serpent before sunrise. Priests would intone these spells—often four times per invocation—over images or effigies, detailing Apophis's defeat through spitting, trampling with the left foot, spearing, binding with black thread, and burning in flames fueled by bryony or other purifying materials. The text, preserved in papyri like the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus, structured the recitations for daily use, aligning with solar hours to synchronize human magic with divine cosmic battles.^[27] Rituals frequently incorporated everyday materials imbued with symbolic power, such as red ink for inscribing Apophis's myriad names and titles on pottery vessels, which were then shattered against temple walls or the ground to shatter the serpent's influence. Red, associated with chaos and vitality in Egyptian cosmology, amplified the rite's efficacy, with fragments collected and disposed of in Nile waters or sacred pits to carry away the malevolence. These elements of writing, breaking, and dispersal underscored the rituals' focus on erasing Apophis's very existence from the ordered world.^[26] Such practices were historically enacted in major temples, adapting earlier Middle Kingdom traditions into New Kingdom and later worship, including at sites like Karnak where they integrated into broader liturgical cycles for cosmic and national protection. Evidence from temple inscriptions and papyri confirms their routine execution in temple settings, emphasizing solar theology and state-sponsored magic.^[20]

Role in Afterlife Texts

In ancient Egyptian funerary literature, Apophis served as a central antagonist in the deceased's perilous navigation of the underworld, embodying chaos that threatened the solar cycle essential for rebirth and eternal existence. Texts such as the Book of the Dead equipped the deceased with spells to actively participate in repelling this serpent, mirroring the gods' nightly triumph to ensure the sun's renewal and the soul's safe passage to the afterlife.^[28] Spell 17 of the Book of the Dead exemplifies this, enabling the deceased to identify with the sun god Ra and join in the defeat of Apophis. Accompanying vignettes typically depict a cat—manifesting Ra or Atum—slaying or fettering the serpent with a knife, symbolizing the containment of disorder; the spell's recitation empowered the deceased to invoke similar protection, repelling Apophis's attacks on the solar barque during the underworld journey.^[28] This personal agency transformed the deceased into an ally of Ra, ensuring their transformation into an akh (transfigured spirit) free from chaotic threats.^[29] Tomb ceilings often featured astronomical depictions of Apophis bound or subdued by deities, reinforcing the eternal vigilance against solar interruption in the afterlife. These illustrations, such as those in New Kingdom royal tombs, portrayed the serpent coiled and restrained amid celestial motifs, guaranteeing the uninterrupted dawn for the deceased's eternal sustenance and cosmic harmony.^[20] The portrayal of Apophis evolved from the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts, where he first prominently appears as an enemy slain in spells like 160 and 414 to safeguard the deceased or sun god, to Late Period versions of the Book of the Dead that heightened emphasis on individual victory. In these later adaptations, spells drew on execration influences to personalize the deceased's role in subduing Apophis, evolving from collective divine combat to empowered self-defense against chaos.^[29]^[20]

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