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Argument

An argument is a structured set of statements in which one or more premises are intended to provide support for a conclusion, serving as a fundamental tool in reasoning, persuasion, and critical inquiry across disciplines such as philosophy, logic, and rhetoric.^[1]^[2] In philosophy and logic, arguments are analyzed for their validity and soundness, where a valid argument ensures the conclusion logically follows from the premises, and a sound argument additionally requires true premises.^[2] Deductive arguments aim to guarantee the truth of the conclusion if the premises are true, as in syllogisms like "All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore, Socrates is mortal."^[1] Inductive arguments, by contrast, provide probable support, drawing generalizations from specific observations, such as inferring future weather patterns from historical data.^[2] Defeasible arguments allow conclusions to be revised with new evidence, reflecting real-world uncertainty.^[2] In rhetoric, arguments extend beyond formal logic to encompass persuasive discourse, often using enthymemes—incomplete syllogisms where audiences supply missing premises to engage actively.^[3] Key models include the Toulmin schema, which breaks arguments into claims supported by data, warrants explaining the connection, and optional qualifiers or rebuttals for nuance.^[3] Rhetorical arguments operate in spheres like personal opinion, technical expertise, or public policy, adapting to cultural and social contexts to influence beliefs or actions.^[3] Overall, effective arguments demand clear premises, robust inference, and evaluation for fallacies, forming the basis of rational discourse in academia, law, and everyday decision-making.^[4]

Origins and Basic Concepts

Etymology

The English word "argument" derives from the Latin argumentum, meaning "evidence," "proof," or "token," which itself stems from the verb arguere, signifying "to make clear," "to prove," or "to make known."^[5]^[6] This Latin root entered Middle English around the early 14th century via Old French arguement, initially denoting "statements and reasoning in support of a proposition" or an "accusation."^[6] Over time, the term retained connotations of logical support and evidentiary grounding, reflecting its origins in classical proof-making practices. The conceptual foundations of argument in Western philosophy trace back to ancient Greek terms and traditions, particularly logos, which encompasses "reason," "discourse," or "rational account," and eristic, derived from eristikos ("fond of wrangling"), referring to contentious debate aimed at victory rather than truth.^[7]^[8] These Greek elements profoundly influenced philosophical usage, with logos serving as a core mode of persuasion in Aristotle's framework, representing the logical structure of an argument itself.^[7] A key milestone occurred around 350 BCE, when Aristotle employed these ideas in his Rhetoric to outline persuasive discourse through reasoned appeals and in his Topics to systematize dialectical argumentation for exploring probable truths via question-and-answer exchanges.^[9]^[7] The meaning of "argument" evolved significantly across eras. In classical rhetoric, it primarily signified persuasive discourse designed to influence audiences, as seen in Aristotle's emphasis on oratorical proof.^[9] By the medieval period, Latin scholastic logicians adapted argumentum to denote syllogistic proofs in structured disputations, integrating Greek dialectical methods into formal inference systems for theological and philosophical inquiry.^[9]^[5] In modern usage, particularly from the late 16th century onward, the term shifted toward informal contexts, encompassing "a subject of contention" by the 1590s and "a quarrel" by the early 20th century, broadening beyond strict evidentiary or logical bounds.^[6]

Formal and Informal Arguments

Formal arguments consist of explicitly stated premises and a conclusion expressed in a symbolic language, such as propositional or predicate logic, where validity is determined through syntactic rules that ensure the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises regardless of their content.^[10] This approach abstracts away from natural language ambiguities, using formal symbols and inference rules like modus ponens to construct derivations that are general and topic-neutral.^[11] For instance, in propositional logic, an argument might be represented as P \to Q, P \vdash Q, evaluated solely by structural form. In contrast, informal arguments occur in natural language discourse, where premises and conclusions are often implicit, context-dependent, and evaluated according to dialectical or rhetorical standards that consider persuasiveness, relevance, and audience acceptance rather than strict syntactic validity.^[12] These arguments prioritize practical reasoning in everyday communication, allowing for enthymemes—omitted premises assumed by the audience—and are assessed for their contribution to dialogue or decision-making, as seen in debates where cultural or situational factors influence interpretation.^[13] Key differences lie in the precision and universality of formal arguments, which eliminate ambiguity through symbolism to achieve objective evaluation, versus the inherent persuasiveness and potential ambiguity of informal ones, which adapt to real-world variability but risk subjective misreadings.^[14] The historical transition from early formal systems to modern ones began with Aristotle's syllogisms in the Prior Analytics (circa 350 BCE), which introduced explicit premises with quantifiers and schematic variables for deductive reasoning, marking the inception of formality by requiring all elements necessary for inference to be stated without external assumptions.^[15] This Aristotelian foundation evolved through medieval and Renaissance developments but saw a pivotal advancement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as Gottlob Frege's Begriffsschrift (1879) developed a symbolic notation for predicate logic that filled gaps in syllogistic limitations by handling complex quantifications and relations explicitly. Bertrand Russell, building on Frege's innovations in collaboration with Alfred North Whitehead in Principia Mathematica (1910–1913), further formalized logic into a comprehensive system integrating mathematics, emphasizing axiomatic derivations free from linguistic vagueness.

Core Logical Types

Deductive Arguments

Deductive arguments are a fundamental type of logical reasoning in which the premises, if true, guarantee the truth of the conclusion, providing certainty rather than mere probability. This form of argumentation aims to establish necessary inferences, where the conclusion follows inescapably from the given premises without exception. For instance, the classic modus ponens structure exemplifies this: "If P, then Q; P is true; therefore, Q is true."^[16]^[17] The key evaluation metric for deductive arguments is validity, which assesses the structural integrity of the argument independently of the actual truth of the premises. An argument is valid if it is impossible for the premises to be true while the conclusion is false, meaning the logical form ensures that true premises entail a true conclusion in all possible scenarios. Categorical syllogisms, a traditional form, illustrate this: they consist of three propositions—two premises and a conclusion—linked by shared terms, such as the first-figure syllogism in the mood Barbara: "All A are B; all B are C; therefore, all A are C." This validity is a formal property, determined by syntactic rules rather than empirical content.^[16]^[18]^[19] A deductive argument achieves soundness when it is valid and all premises are actually true, thereby ensuring the conclusion is not only necessarily true given the premises but true in reality. Soundness combines logical form with factual accuracy, making it the strongest standard for deductive reasoning; an unsound argument may be valid but fails due to false premises. For example, a valid syllogism with a false major premise, such as "All unicorns are magical; all dragons are unicorns; therefore, all dragons are magical," is unsound despite its structural correctness.^[16]^[19] Classical examples of deductive arguments trace back to Aristotle's syllogistic logic in his Prior Analytics, where he formalized deductive inference through categorical propositions. A paradigmatic case is: "All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal." This syllogism demonstrates how deductive reasoning applies universal and particular statements to yield a specific conclusion, influencing Western philosophy and logic for centuries. Aristotle identified 256 possible syllogistic forms, of which 24 are valid, providing a systematic framework for deduction.^[18]^[20] Despite their rigor, deductive arguments have limitations rooted in their assumptions and applicability. They presuppose complete and accurate information in the premises, which is often unrealistic in complex real-world scenarios where knowledge is partial or evolving. This rigidity can make deductive methods inflexible for handling uncertainty or new evidence, confining their utility primarily to idealized or formal domains like mathematics and theoretical philosophy rather than everyday practical reasoning.^[16]^[17]

Inductive Arguments

Inductive arguments are forms of reasoning in which the premises provide probabilistic support for the conclusion, making it likely but not certain.^[17] Unlike deductive arguments, which aim for necessary entailment, inductive ones are ampliative, extending beyond the information given in the premises to draw generalizations or predictions. For instance, observing 100 white swans may support the conclusion that all swans are white, though this remains fallible if a black swan is later discovered.^[21] The strength of an inductive argument is assessed by the degree to which the premises confirm the conclusion, often formalized through confirmation theory, where evidence E confirms hypothesis H if it increases the probability of H.^[22] In Bayesian terms, this occurs when the posterior probability P(H|E) exceeds the prior P(H), reflecting how new evidence updates beliefs.^[23] Strong inductive arguments thus maximize this evidential support, balancing factors like sample size and relevance, while weak ones offer minimal probabilistic advancement.^[21] Inductive arguments encompass several types, including enumerative induction, which generalizes from a sample to a population, as in inferring traits of all emeralds from observed green ones.^[17] Analogical induction draws parallels between similar cases, inferring properties in one domain based on partial overlap with another, though such inferences are limited by dissimilarities.^[21] Causal inference, another key type, posits cause-effect relations from patterns like repeated correlations, such as linking smoking to lung cancer via epidemiological data./05:Inductive_Logic_I-_Analogical_and_Causal_Arguments/5.03:_Causal_Reasoning) Historically, inductive reasoning gained philosophical scrutiny with David Hume's 1748 critique in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, where he posed the problem of induction: no empirical or rational justification exists for assuming future observations will resemble past ones, rendering inductive inferences unjustified by custom alone.^[24] This skepticism spurred developments in inductive logic, from Rudolf Carnap's mid-20th-century efforts to axiomatize confirmation measures to modern statistical methods like hypothesis testing, pioneered by Ronald Fisher and Jerzy Neyman in the 1920s–1930s, which quantify inductive strength via p-values and error rates to decide between competing hypotheses.^[25]^[21] Inductive arguments face significant challenges, notably underdetermination, where multiple hypotheses can equally fit the same evidence, leaving no decisive grounds for preference.^[26] Alternative explanations exacerbate this, as observed data might support rival causal stories without clear disconfirmation, demanding additional criteria like simplicity or predictive power to resolve ambiguity.^[26] These issues highlight induction's inherent fallibility, yet its practical utility persists in scientific and everyday inference.^[22]

Non-Monotonic and Structured Forms

Defeasible Arguments

Defeasible arguments are forms of reasoning where conclusions are provisionally justified by premises but remain open to revision or defeat upon the introduction of new evidence that overrides or undermines the initial support.^[27] For instance, the generalization "birds fly" supports the conclusion that a given bird flies, but this can be defeated by evidence that the bird is a penguin, an exception to the rule.^[27] Unlike monotonic deductive systems, where adding premises can only expand or maintain the set of entailed conclusions, defeasible arguments operate within non-monotonic logic, allowing new information to retract previously drawn conclusions.^[28] This non-monotonicity captures everyday reasoning under incomplete knowledge, where beliefs are tentative and subject to update.^[28] A seminal framework for formalizing defeasible arguments is Ray Reiter's default logic, introduced in 1980, which incorporates default rules of the form "typically, P unless exceptional Q" to represent assumptions that apply provisionally absent contrary evidence.^[29] In this system, extensions of a default theory represent consistent sets of beliefs generated by applying such rules without contradiction, enabling the modeling of plausible inferences that can later be overridden.^[29] In artificial intelligence, defeasible arguments via default logic facilitate reasoning under uncertainty, particularly in expert systems for tasks like diagnosis, where initial hypotheses based on typical symptoms are refined or rejected as additional data emerges.^[30] For example, systems using variants like Least Exception Logic integrate default rules with optimization techniques to iteratively isolate faults in complex machinery, such as CNC machines, by prioritizing minimal exceptions to default assumptions.^[30] Recent developments have extended these applications to large language models (LLMs), where defeasible reasoning is evaluated through benchmarks like DEFREASING, assessing how models handle property inheritance and revisions in generic statements, as explored in studies up to 2025.^[31]^[32] Philosophically, defeasible arguments trace roots to epistemology, where the concept of defeaters—evidence that undermines justification—addresses how beliefs can be rationally held yet vulnerable to override, as explored in analyses of knowledge.^[33] This connects to Edmund Gettier's 1963 critique of justified true belief as sufficient for knowledge, highlighting cases where apparent justification fails due to unconsidered defeaters, prompting defeasibility conditions in epistemological theories.^[34]^[33]

Argumentation Schemes

Argumentation schemes are stereotypical patterns of reasoning that link one or more premises to a conclusion, serving as templates for common forms of argument in everyday discourse and providing a structured way to evaluate their plausibility.^[35] These schemes are particularly useful for presumptive or defeasible reasoning, where conclusions are probable rather than certain, and they include associated critical questions to probe potential weaknesses.^[36] For instance, the scheme for argument from expert opinion is structured as follows: Major Premise: Source E is an expert in field F; Minor Premise: E asserts that proposition A (about F) is true; Conclusion: A may plausibly be taken to be true.^[36] The development of argumentation schemes gained prominence through the work of Douglas Walton (1942–2020) in the 1990s, with an initial compilation in 1996 followed by expanded inventories in subsequent publications.^[37] Walton's seminal 2008 book, co-authored with Chris Reed and Fabrizio Macagno, provides a systematic analysis and compendium of 96 schemes, including examples such as argument ad populum (appeal to popular opinion) and the slippery slope argument.^[36] This inventory catalogs diverse patterns drawn from rhetorical, dialectical, and logical traditions, emphasizing their role in practical argumentation.^[36] Each scheme typically consists of premises leading to a conclusion, paired with a set of critical questions that guide evaluation by identifying possible flaws or counterarguments.^[36] For the argument from correlation to cause, the scheme posits: Premise: A and B have been observed to be correlated; Conclusion: A causes B (or vice versa); accompanied by critical questions such as "Is there an alternative explanation for the correlation?" or "Does the correlation hold across relevant cases?"^[38] These components ensure that schemes function not just as descriptive tools but as normative frameworks for assessing argumentative strength.^[35] In informal logic, argumentation schemes bridge the gap between formal deductive systems, which guarantee truth preservation, and the probabilistic, context-sensitive nature of everyday reasoning.^[37] They offer a middle ground by formalizing intuitive patterns without rigid syllogistic structures, enabling clearer analysis of dialogues in law, ethics, and public debate.^[36] Many schemes inherently involve defeasible reasoning, where conclusions can be overturned by new evidence.^[35] Modern extensions of argumentation schemes have integrated them into computational dialectics, where they model debate systems, automated reasoning, and artificial intelligence applications for generating and critiquing arguments.^[39] In these systems, schemes are formalized using computational representations to simulate dialectical exchanges, enhancing tools for argument analysis in natural language processing and decision support.^[40] Recent work as of 2025 has advanced this by developing methods for mining complex argumentation schemes directly from natural language dialogues using large language models.^[41]

Specialized Argument Varieties

Arguments by Analogy

Arguments by analogy, also known as analogical reasoning or reasoning from analogy, involve drawing a conclusion about a target case based on its perceived similarities to a source case, where the premises emphasize relevant shared features to justify the inference.^[42] In this form of argument, the structure typically posits that because two cases resemble each other in certain respects, they are likely to resemble each other in an additional respect, such as outcomes or properties. For example, one might argue that a new drug for a respiratory disease will be effective because it shares key molecular structures and mechanisms with an established drug that successfully treated a similar condition in animal trials. This type of reasoning serves as a subtype of inductive argumentation schemes, relying on probabilistic rather than certain inference.^[42] Evaluating arguments by analogy requires assessing the relevance and weight of the similarities between the source and target cases against any notable differences, often framed as a balance where pertinent analogies strengthen the conclusion while disanalogies weaken it. A key approach to this evaluation draws on John Stuart Mill's methods of experimental inquiry, particularly the method of agreement and method of difference, adapted for causal analogies to determine whether shared causes or effects plausibly extend across cases.^[42] For instance, in causal analogies, one examines whether the similarities align with established causal patterns, ensuring that irrelevant features do not mislead the inference. The strength of an analogical argument is often measured by principles of proportionality—where a greater number or more significant similarities relative to differences enhance the argument's persuasive force—and the careful avoidance of disanalogies that could undermine the comparison. Proportionality suggests that the conclusion's reliability increases as the analogy becomes more comprehensive, provided the similarities are material to the inferred property. Disanalogy avoidance involves scrutinizing potential counterexamples, such as overlooked differences in context or conditions, to prevent invalid extensions. Historically, arguments by analogy have played a central role in legal reasoning within common law systems, where the doctrine of stare decisis mandates treating current cases analogously to prior precedents to ensure consistency and predictability in judicial decisions.^[43] For example, courts often analogize novel disputes to established rulings on similar facts, inferring similar legal outcomes. In the sciences, Charles Darwin employed analogical reasoning extensively in On the Origin of Species (1859), comparing artificial selection in breeding to natural processes, arguing that just as breeders produce variations in domestic animals, natural mechanisms could similarly drive evolutionary change in wild species.^[42] Darwin's analogies bridged observable human interventions with unobservable natural selection, providing intuitive support for his theory. Despite their utility, arguments by analogy are prone to limitations, particularly false analogies that lead to overgeneralization by extrapolating from superficial similarities while ignoring critical differences. John Maynard Keynes critiqued this vulnerability in A Treatise on Probability (1921), warning that analogical inferences risk error when the selected similarities are not causally relevant, potentially resulting in flawed policies or scientific hypotheses based on incomplete comparisons.^[44] Such overgeneralizations can perpetuate biases, as seen in historical misapplications where cultural or contextual disanalogies were overlooked.

Enthymematic Arguments

An enthymeme is an argument in which one or more premises, or occasionally the conclusion, are left unstated, relying on the audience to supply the missing elements based on shared knowledge or assumptions.^[45] The term originates from the Greek enthymema, meaning "something in the mind" or "a thought put in the mind," reflecting its implicit nature where parts are "enthused" or inferred by the listener.^[46] Aristotle introduced the concept in his Rhetoric, defining the enthymeme as "a sort of syllogism" or "rhetorical demonstration" that proceeds from probabilities or signs rather than strict necessities, distinguishing it from the fully explicit deductive syllogisms of formal logic.^[45] Enthymemes commonly feature a missing premise, such as in the argument "Socrates is mortal because he is human," which omits the general premise "All humans are mortal" assumed to be obvious to the audience.^[47] Other types include a suppressed conclusion, where the outcome is implied rather than stated, or omitted evidence that supports the link between premises.^[48] These omissions can occur across various argument forms, including deductive and analogical structures, but the enthymeme's core lies in its elliptical quality tailored to rhetorical contexts.^[45] Reconstructing an enthymeme involves filling in the gaps through contextual cues, shared cultural maxims, or principles of rational inference, such as those outlined in H.P. Grice's theory of conversational implicature, which posits that communicators follow cooperative maxims to infer unstated content.^[49] This process ensures the argument aligns with the audience's worldview, but it demands careful analysis to avoid misinterpretation, as multiple plausible completions may exist.^[50] In rhetoric, enthymemes enhance persuasive efficiency by engaging the audience actively, fostering a sense of involvement and agreement as they "complete" the reasoning themselves, which Aristotle described as the "substance" of proof.^[51] However, this reliance on implicature introduces risks of ambiguity or manipulation, particularly if the unstated elements exploit unexamined biases.^[51] For instance, political speeches often employ enthymemes to imply shared values without explicit articulation, such as a leader stating "We must protect our freedoms" to evoke an unstated premise about a specific policy threat, thereby rallying support through inferred consensus.^[51]

Philosophical and Explanatory Aspects

World-Disclosing Arguments

World-disclosing arguments represent a distinctive category in philosophical discourse, rooted in the hermeneutic traditions of Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer, where arguments function not merely as tools for justification but as means to reveal or "disclose" new dimensions of understanding, thereby altering one's ontological engagement with the world. In Heidegger's ontology, as outlined in Being and Time, world disclosure (Erschlossenheit) refers to the primordial way in which human existence (Dasein) makes the world intelligible through pre-reflective practices and holistic understanding, projecting possibilities that shape meaningful relations rather than deriving truths propositionally.^[52] Gadamer extends this in Truth and Method, portraying arguments as interpretive dialogues within the hermeneutic circle, where fusion of horizons opens novel possibilities beyond fixed truths, emphasizing historical and linguistic contingency over abstract reasoning.^[53] These arguments prioritize transformative receptivity—self-decentering encounters that expand horizons of significance—over consensus or validity claims.^[54] Philosophically, world-disclosing arguments draw from hermeneutics to frame argumentation as an existential process of semantic renewal, challenging entrenched vocabularies and resolving crises of meaning by revealing alternative perspectives. Unlike propositional logic, which evaluates arguments through deductive validity or inductive probability within fixed semantic structures, world-disclosing arguments emphasize narrative and existential transformation, testing their efficacy pragmatically within evolving horizons of intelligibility rather than through falsifiable propositions.^[54] For instance, Thomas Kuhn's concept of paradigm shifts in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions illustrates this dynamic: scientific revolutions do not accumulate facts but reorient the entire "world" of scientific practice, disclosing new gestalts that render anomalies visible and reshape disciplinary possibilities, akin to a hermeneutic break in understanding.^[55] Similarly, in ethical domains, Carol Gilligan's In a Different Voice deploys world-disclosing arguments by critiquing male-biased justice frameworks, introducing care ethics as a relational ontology that reveals overlooked dimensions of moral reasoning centered on responsibility and interconnectedness, thereby challenging and expanding ethical horizons.^[56] Critics, particularly from proceduralist perspectives like Jürgen Habermas's discourse ethics, argue that world-disclosing arguments suffer from excessive subjectivity, lacking intersubjective accountability and normative grounding, which risks aestheticism or authoritarian impositions without mechanisms for rational critique.^[54] In postmodern contexts, their emphasis on interpretive openness invites charges of unfalsifiability, as disclosures evade empirical verification and prioritize fallible, horizon-bound revelations over universal truth standards, potentially undermining philosophical rigor.^[54] Despite these concerns, proponents maintain that such arguments enrich critical theory by fostering receptivity to historical novelty, essential for addressing deep cultural discontinuities.^[54]

Arguments Versus Explanations

Arguments serve to persuade or justify a belief in a conclusion by deriving it from accepted premises, aiming to establish the truth of the conclusion through logical inference.^[57] In contrast, explanations seek to clarify why or how a known fact or event occurred, presupposing the truth of the event and providing causal or descriptive reasons for it.^[58] For instance, the statement "The bridge collapsed because of weak supports" functions as an explanation by accounting for a observed event, whereas "Weak supports cause collapses, therefore this bridge will collapse" constitutes an argument by predicting a future outcome from general premises to support a claim.^[59] A primary way to distinguish arguments from explanations involves directionality: arguments proceed forward from known premises to an uncertain conclusion, while explanations proceed backward from a known effect to its causes.^[60] Another key test is replaceability: in explanations, the premises can remain valid even if the specific event they describe is replaced with another fitting instance, as the focus is descriptive; however, altering the conclusion in an argument typically invalidates its justificatory purpose.^[61] Philosophical debates on explanations often highlight tensions between deductive models and causal accounts. Carl Hempel's covering-law model posits that explanations take the form of deductive arguments subsuming events under general laws, treating explanation as a logical derivation akin to prediction.^[62] In response, Wesley Salmon's causal processes model emphasizes ontic explanations through physical causal interactions and processes, rejecting the symmetry between explanation and argument by focusing on how events fit into the world's causal structure rather than mere logical subsumption.^[63] Overlaps and confusions between arguments and explanations frequently arise in scientific contexts, where hypotheses may simultaneously justify predictions (as arguments) and account for observed data (as explanations), leading to blurred distinctions in practice.^[57] This blending can obscure analysis, as seen when explanatory models are repurposed to support theoretical claims without clear separation.^[58]

Deficiencies and Modern Analysis

Fallacies and Non-Arguments

Fallacies represent errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument's inference from premises to conclusion, often appearing persuasive despite their flaws.^[64] They are broadly categorized into formal fallacies, which involve invalid logical structures, and informal fallacies, which arise from content, context, or linguistic issues rather than form alone.^[65] Formal fallacies can be detected solely by examining the argument's logical form, independent of specific content. For instance, affirming the consequent occurs when an argument invalidly reverses a conditional: if P, then Q; Q is true; therefore, P is true. This structure fails because the consequent Q may arise from causes other than P.^[64] Informal fallacies, by contrast, depend on the argument's substantive elements and are more varied. Ad hominem attacks the arguer's character or circumstances instead of the argument itself, such as dismissing a policy proposal because its proponent has a criminal history.^[65] Straw man distorts an opponent's position to make it easier to refute, for example, caricaturing a call for environmental regulations as demanding the shutdown of all industry.^[64] Begging the question assumes the conclusion within the premises, as in arguing that capital punishment is immoral because it involves state-sanctioned murder without independently establishing the equivalence.^[65] The study of fallacies traces back to Aristotle, who in his Sophistical Refutations (circa 350 BCE) identified 13 types of sophistical refutations—arguments that appear to refute but actually fall short—dividing them into six linguistic fallacies (e.g., equivocation, amphiboly) and seven non-linguistic ones (e.g., accident, begging the question, ignoratio elenchi).^[64] This classification influenced later logicians, including Irving M. Copi, whose Introduction to Logic (1961) expanded the catalog, providing explanations of eighteen informal fallacies, grouping them into categories such as fallacies of relevance (e.g., ad hominem), defective induction (e.g., hasty generalization), presumption (e.g., begging the question), and ambiguity (e.g., equivocation). Copi's framework emphasized practical analysis beyond Aristotle's dialectical focus, aiding identification in everyday discourse.^[64] Non-arguments, distinct from fallacious arguments, are expressions that lack the essential premise-conclusion structure required for reasoning, thus offering no inferential support.^[66] Common examples include reports, which merely convey factual information without drawing conclusions, such as "A powerful car bomb exploded outside the telephone company headquarters, injuring 25 people."^[66] Warnings alert to potential dangers without premises justifying a claim, like "Watch out that you don’t slip on the ice."^[66] Questions inquire rather than assert, for instance, "What is your name?" and similarly, exclamations or commands (e.g., "Close the door!") do not constitute arguments.^[67] These forms may resemble arguments superficially but fail to provide reasons for belief.^[66] Detecting fallacies and non-arguments often employs Stephen Toulmin's model from The Uses of Argument (1958), which breaks down arguments into data (premises), claim (conclusion), and warrant (reasoning linking them).^[68] Gaps appear as problematic premises (weak or irrelevant data), hasty conclusions (overreaching claims), or missing warrants (unjustified links), revealing invalid inferences or absences of argumentative structure altogether.^[68] For non-arguments, the model highlights the lack of these interconnected elements, such as in a mere report where no claim is advanced.^[68] Fallacies undermine an argument's credibility by introducing unreliable reasoning, potentially misleading audiences and obstructing rational dialogue.^[65] However, some informal fallacies may hold contextual validity; for example, ad hominem can be appropriate in ethical or legal settings where an arguer's bias or inconsistency directly bears on their testimony's reliability, such as disqualifying a conflicted witness.^[64] Fallacies can also manifest in inductive or analogical arguments, where weak generalizations or irrelevant similarities compromise probabilistic inferences.^[64]

Argument Mining

Argument mining is a subfield of natural language processing (NLP) that focuses on the automatic detection, extraction, and analysis of argumentative structures in textual corpora, including identifying premises, claims, and their relations to reconstruct the reasoning process.^[69] This task aims to convert unstructured natural language into formal representations suitable for computational analysis, such as argument graphs.^[69] Seminal work in this area, including surveys of foundational techniques, emphasizes its roots in combining NLP with computational models of argumentation.^[69] The process typically unfolds in three main stages: identification, extraction, and analysis. Identification involves segmenting text to distinguish argumentative content from non-argumentative portions, often using supervised classification to detect spans that express reasoning.^[69] Extraction parses the internal structure within these spans, delineating components like premises and claims, frequently leveraging dependency parsing or rhetorical structure theory.^[70] Analysis then classifies relations between components, such as support or attack, and may include stance labeling or scheme identification.^[69] Modern techniques predominantly employ machine learning models, with transformer-based architectures like BERT enabling effective sequence labeling for component detection and relation prediction through attention mechanisms.^[71] Key datasets supporting these methods include those from IBM's Project Debater, released in 2018, which provide annotated arguments from debates and persuasive texts for training models on claim-evidence pairs.^[72] Evaluation often uses metrics like ArgMicroF1, which balances precision and recall for micro-averaged argument structures across datasets.^[69] Applications span diverse domains, including legal AI for extracting arguments from court decisions to aid case analysis and precedent retrieval.^[73] In social media moderation, it helps detect persuasive or contentious content in user-generated posts to flag misinformation or toxic debates.^[74] Educational tools leverage it for automated essay scoring by evaluating argumentative quality and coherence in student writing.^[75] Challenges persist in handling implicit arguments, where premises or relations are omitted and must be inferred, akin to enthymematic reasoning in natural discourse.^[69] Multilingualism adds complexity, as models trained on English corpora underperform on low-resource languages without transfer learning adaptations.^[76] Advances in the 2020s include multimodal extensions integrating text with images or audio, as demonstrated in political debate analysis where visual cues enhance argument relation detection.^[77] Large language models have further boosted performance by enabling zero-shot extraction in diverse contexts.^[78] Ethical concerns arise from biases in training data, which can perpetuate social stereotypes in argument classification, potentially undermining fairness in applications like debate systems.^[79] For instance, datasets skewed toward certain demographics may amplify underrepresentation of minority viewpoints, leading to inequitable outcomes in automated moderation or scoring.^[79]

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Mar 18, 2000 · The rise of modern formal logic following the work of Frege and Russell brought with it a recognition of the many serious limitations of ...
[20]
Validity and Soundness | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
A deductive argument is sound if and only if it is both valid, and all of its premises are actually true. Otherwise, a deductive argument is unsound.
[21]
Aristotle: Logic | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The aim of logic is the elaboration of a coherent system that allows us to investigate, classify, and evaluate good and bad forms of reasoning.
[22]
Inductive Logic - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 24, 2025 · An inductive logic is a system of reasoning that articulates how evidence claims bear on the truth of hypotheses.Principal Inference Rules for... · Elements of the Inference... · Examples
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Confirmation and Induction | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
One view of the relation between confirmation and induction is that the conclusion H of an inductively strong argument with premise E is confirmed by E. If ...
[24]
Confirmation - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 30, 2013 · Its central technical term—confirmation—has often been used more or less interchangeably with “evidential support”, “inductive strength”, and ...
[25]
The Problem of Induction - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 21, 2018 · The No-Free-Lunch theorems may be seen as fundamental limitations ... We seem to need more than just deductive reasoning to support practical ...
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Induction, The Problem of | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Philosophical folklore has it that David Hume identified a severe problem with induction, namely, that its justification is either circular or question-begging.What was Hume's Problem? “ · Kant on Hume's Problem · Empiricist vs Rationalist...
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Underdetermination of Scientific Theory
Aug 12, 2009 · The simple idea that the evidence available to us at a given time may be insufficient to determine what beliefs we should hold in response to it.
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Defeasible Reasoning - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 21, 2005 · Pollock distinguishes two kinds of defeaters: rebutting defeaters, which are themselves prima facie reasons for believing the negation of the ...Applications and Motivation · Epistemological Approaches · Logical Approaches
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Non-monotonic Logic - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Dec 11, 2001 · Non-monotonic logic (NML) is a family of formal logics designed to model and better understand defeasible reasoning.
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A logic for default reasoning - ScienceDirect.com
In this paper we propose a logic for default reasoning. We then specialize our treatment to a very large class of commonly occuring defaults.
[31]
Default logic: A practical approach to expert systems - ScienceDirect
We describe an integrated environment, in which a diagnostic problem is decomposed through the use of Least Exception Logic (LEL) and the solution to the ...
[32]
Defeaters in Epistemology | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Defeasibility refers to a kind of epistemic liability or vulnerability, the potential of loss, reduction, or prevention of some positive epistemic status.The Gettier Problem and... · Variations on Mental State...
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[PDF] analysis 23.6 june 1963 - is justified true belief knowledge?
ANALYSIS 23.6 JUNE 1963. IS JUSTIFIED TRUE BELIEF KNOWLEDGE? By EDMUND L. GETTIER. V ARIOUS attempts have been made in recent years to state necessary and ...
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[PDF] Justification of Argumentation Schemes - Open Journal System
Jul 8, 2005 · Abstract: Argumentation schemes are forms of argument that capture stereotypical patterns of human reasoning, especially defeasible ones ...
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Argumentation Schemes - Cambridge University Press
This book provides a systematic analysis of many common argumentation schemes and a compendium of 96 schemes. ... Walton, Douglas (1998). Ad Hominem Arguments.Missing: inventory | Show results with:inventory
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[PDF] An Epistemological Appraisal of Walton's Argument Schemes
In 1996, Walton pub- lished a first compilation of a long list of argument schemes; since its publication in 2008, however, Argumentation Schemes, co- authored ...Missing: inventory | Show results with:inventory<|control11|><|separator|>
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Arguments from Correlation to Causation | Request PDF
Feb 26, 2025 · Douglas Walton · Chris Reed. Argumentation schemes are forms of argument that model stereotypical patterns of reasoning.
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Argumentation schemes in AI: A literature review. Introduction to the ...
Argumentation schemes guide the process of invention by providing the conditions for an inference scheme to apply and support the argument evaluation by showing ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Arguments from authority and expert opinion in computational ...
In this paper we show that an essential aspect of solving the problem of uncritical acceptance of expert opinions that is at the root of the ad verecundiam ...
[40]
The Thesis that Enthymemes are Relaxed Inferences
The enthymeme is not strictly speaking a sullogismos or deductive argument, but rather a relaxed form of inference, is based on the definition of the enthymeme.
[41]
Enthymeme - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
enthymeme(n.) "a syllogism in which one premise is omitted," in Aristotle, "an inference from likelihoods and signs," 1580s, from Latin enthymema, from Greek ...
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Enthymeme - Definition and Examples - ThoughtCo
May 14, 2025 · An enthymeme is an argument where a key part is left for the audience to infer. Aristotle said enthymemes are powerful for persuasion ...
[43]
Finding the Missing Link: An Algorithmic Approach to Reconstructing ...
Oct 30, 2025 · Enthymemes are arguments that are not fully articulated, often omitting a connection between premise and conclusion but sometimes also other ...
[44]
Enthymemes: From Reconstruction to Understanding | Request PDF
Grice's theory of conversational implicature provides a model for how people use rational principles to manage how they reason to representations of arguments, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[45]
Argument Interpretation and the Implicit Side of Enthymemes ...
Aug 12, 2025 · Argument interpretation and reconstruction are two necessary presuppositions of argument analysis and evaluation, constituting a cornerstone ...
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Martin Heidegger - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jan 31, 2025 · Translated as Heidegger, Language, and World-Disclosure (Modern European Philosophy), Graham Harman (trans.), Cambridge/New York: Cambridge ...Heidegger's Aesthetics · Heidegger on Language · Heidegger and the Other... · 108
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Hans-Georg Gadamer - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 3, 2003 · Gadamer claims that language is the universal horizon of hermeneutic experience; he also claims that the hermeneutic experience is itself ...Biographical Sketch · Hermeneutical Foundations · Philosophical Hermeneutics
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[PDF] Critique and Disclosure
World-disclosing arguments need not pretend to some privileged access to ... poses that which Heidegger, Gadamer, Wittgenstein, Davidson, and others, have ...
[49]
[PDF] The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
singly, responsible for such paradigm shifts as the Copernican,. Newtonian, chemical, and Einsteinian revolutions. Nor were they responsible for the somewhat ...
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Feminist Ethics - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 27, 2019 · In more recent work, Gilligan has modified the idea that the perspective of care is a distinctively feminine one, arguing instead that it is a ...Themes in feminist ethics · Ethic of care and relational ethics · Intersectionality
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Argument and explanation | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal ...
Jun 5, 2023 · Arguments help us establish support for claims and play a role in changing people's beliefs about these claims, while explanations provide us ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
Scientific Explanation - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 9, 2003 · Examples like this suggest that at least some explanations possess directional or asymmetric features to which the DN model is insensitive.2. The Dn Model · 3. The Sr Model · 4. The Causal Mechanical...<|separator|>
[53]
Argument and Explanation - Because
The best way to remember the difference between argument and explanation is to think of them as answering two different questions.
[54]
Scientific argument and explanation: A necessary distinction?
May 23, 2011 · The more unequivocal and unquestioned the premises of an argument, the stronger the sense of directionality and the more likely it is to ...
[55]
Reasons Why Arguments and Explanations are Different
Argument and explanation are different; generally they differ pragmatically. Reasoning is used in both, and the same indicator words are used in both.Missing: directionality | Show results with:directionality
[56]
[PDF] Studies in the Logic of Explanation - andrew.cmu.ed
Studies in the Logic of Explanation tence (S₁). In addition to violating the con- dition of non-limited scope, this sentence has the peculiarity of making ...
[57]
[PDF] Scientific Explanation and the
nature of scientific explanation (see Salmon, 1978). The main purpose of the present book is to examine the nature of scientific explanation. It will become ...
[58]
Fallacies - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
May 29, 2015 · A refutation will be sophistical if either the proof is only an apparent proof or the contradiction is only an apparent contradiction. Either ...
[59]
Fallacies | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
A formal fallacy can be detected by examining the logical form of the reasoning, whereas an informal fallacy usually cannot be detected this way because it ...
[60]
[PDF] Philosophy 57 — Day 2 - Branden Fitelson
Jan 28, 2003 · There are many kinds of non-arguments. Reports, pieces of advice, warnings, and statements of belief or opinion are some simple non-arguments. • ...Missing: questions Copi
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[PDF] Critical Thinking | Bellevue College
**Practice Problems: Arguments and Non-arguments. In each case, does the passage present an argument or a non-argument? 1. Elizabeth and Marty went together ...<|separator|>
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Understanding Fallacies on Toulmin's Layout of Argument
Dec 2, 2013 · This paper provides a preliminary account of fallacies on Toulmin's model of argument, one that improves upon previous attempts to understand ...
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Argument Mining: A Survey | Computational Linguistics | MIT Press
Argument mining is the automatic identification and extraction of the structure of inference and reasoning expressed as arguments presented in natural ...Manual Argument Analysis · Argument Data · Argument Mining: Automating...
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[PDF] Five Years of Argument Mining: a Data-driven Analysis - IJCAI
Abstract. Argument mining is the research area aiming at ex- tracting natural language arguments and their re- lations from text, with the final goal of ...
[65]
[PDF] Argument Mining using BERT and Self-Attention based Embeddings
In this paper, a novel methodology for argument mining is proposed which employs attention-based embeddings for link prediction to model the causational ...
[66]
Debater Datasets - IBM Research
Argument Mining is a prominent research frontier. Within this field, we distinguish between Argument Detection - the detection and segmentation of argument ...
[67]
Mining legal arguments in court decisions | Artificial Intelligence and ...
Jun 23, 2023 · We train an argument mining model that outperforms state-of-the-art models in the legal NLP domain and provide a thorough expert-based evaluation.
[68]
The evolution of argumentation mining: From models to social media ...
Argumentation mining is a rising subject in the computational linguistics domain focusing on extracting structured arguments from natural text.
[69]
A Comprehensive Survey of Argument Mining in the Educational ...
Aug 25, 2025 · The application of argument mining (AM) in the educational domain is a tool for identifying text structures that express an argument.
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[PDF] Multilingual Argument Mining: Datasets and Analysis
Oct 13, 2020 · This work explores the potential of transfer learning using the multilingual BERT model to address argument mining tasks in non-English ...Missing: implicitness multilingualism
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[PDF] Multimodal Argument Mining: A Case Study in Political Debates
Oct 17, 2022 · 1 Introduction. Argument mining (AM) aims to extract argu- ments and their relations from natural language sources (Lippi and Torroni, ...
[72]
Large Language Models in Argument Mining: A Survey - arXiv
Jun 19, 2025 · This survey systematically synthesizes recent advancements in LLM-driven AM. We provide a concise review of foundational theories and annotation frameworks.
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Argument from Old Man's View: Assessing Social Bias in ...
Recent research has shown that machine learning models trained on respective data may not only adopt, but even amplify the bias.Missing: issues | Show results with:issues