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Arhat

In Buddhism, an arhat (Sanskrit: arhat; Pāli: arahant) is an enlightened individual who has attained nirvana, the state of ultimate liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth (samsara), by completely eradicating all mental defilements such as greed, hatred, and delusion.^[1] This accomplishment marks the highest goal of spiritual practice in the Theravada tradition, where the arhat is regarded as a "perfected person" worthy of reverence for achieving the same enlightenment as the Buddha in terms of personal freedom, though without the boundless teaching capacity of a fully awakened Buddha.^[2] The term "arhat" derives from the Sanskrit root arh, meaning "to deserve" or "to be worthy," reflecting the individual's deserving status due to their conquest over inner afflictions.^[1] Alternative etymologies interpret it as "destroyer of enemies," with the "enemies" symbolizing the destructive forces of desire, aversion, and ignorance that bind beings to suffering.^[3] Key characteristics of an arhat include profound wisdom that discerns the impermanent, suffering, and non-self nature of all phenomena; the breaking of the ten fetters (identity view, doubt, attachment to precepts and practices, sensual desire, ill will, desire for fine-material existence, desire for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness, and ignorance);^[4] and, in some accounts, supernormal powers like clairvoyance or levitation arising from purified concentration.^[1] In Theravada, the path to arhatship unfolds through four progressive stages of awakening—stream-enterer (sotāpanna), once-returner (sakadāgāmi), non-returner (anāgāmi), and arhat—each marked by the weakening and ultimate elimination of defilements via insight meditation and ethical conduct.^[5] While central to Theravada as the ideal of self-liberation, the arhat concept holds a subordinate role in Mahayana Buddhism, where it is viewed as a preliminary attainment overshadowed by the bodhisattva path, in which practitioners vow to delay full nirvana to cultivate compassion and liberate all sentient beings.^[6] Mahayana texts often portray arhats as potentially limited by residual subtle obscurations in wisdom and compassion, positioning them below bodhisattvas who aspire to buddhahood for the welfare of others, though arhats remain revered as exemplars of ethical discipline and meditative prowess.^[7] Iconographically, groups of sixteen or eighteen arhats appear in Mahayana art as protective figures awaiting the future Buddha Maitreya, symbolizing the enduring legacy of the Buddha's original disciples.^[6]

Etymology and Terminology

Origins of the Term

The term arhat originates from the Sanskrit verbal root arh, which conveys meanings such as "to deserve," "to be worthy of," or "to merit," evolving into the sense of a "worthy one" or "one entitled to reverence." This etymological foundation is attested in classical Sanskrit lexicons, where arhat functions as a present participle denoting entitlement or fitness, often in contexts of honor or achievement.^[8] In Buddhist usage, the term extends to imply conquest over inner defilements, aligning with the root's connotations of obtaining or securing something valuable through effort.^[9] In the Pali language of early Buddhist texts, the equivalent arahant reflects phonetic adaptations typical of Middle Indo-Aryan evolution, while preserving the core semantics of worthiness and purity. This form appears consistently in the suttas, emphasizing not just desert but also the destruction of mental foes, as derived from interpretive expansions of the root arh. Semantic continuity between Sanskrit and Pali underscores the term's role in denoting spiritual accomplishment without significant alteration in early literature.^[9]^[10] The earliest documented uses of arhat/arahant occur in pre-sectarian Buddhist sources, notably the Pali Canon (Tipiṭaka), whose oral compositions are dated by scholars to the 5th–4th centuries BCE, with written fixation around the 1st century BCE. These texts, including the Sutta and Vinaya Piṭakas, employ the term to describe enlightened disciples, marking its centrality in foundational Buddhist doctrine. This timing places the term within the historical Buddha's era, shortly after his lifetime (circa 563–483 BCE). The word's development draws from broader Vedic and pre-Buddhist Indian linguistic traditions, where arhat and related forms like the verb arhati ("he deserves") applied to seers (ṛṣis), ascetics, or deities worthy of offerings, worship, or respect due to their elevated status. In Vedic literature, such as the Rigveda, similar roots denote merit in ritual or heroic contexts, influencing the Buddhist adaptation to signify ethical and meditative worthiness rather than mere social entitlement. This inheritance highlights how early Buddhism repurposed indigenous terminology for its soteriological framework.^[1]

Translations and Variations

The term arhat originates from the Sanskrit root arh, signifying "to be worthy" or "to deserve," which underlies its adaptations in various Buddhist linguistic traditions. This sense of worthiness often extends to "worthy of offerings" (arhaṇa), influencing translations across traditions.^[3] In Chinese Buddhist texts, arhat is transliterated as Āluóhàn (阿羅漢), a phonetic rendering of the Sanskrit that preserves its sound while alternative translations like Yìnggòng (應供), meaning "worthy of offerings," highlight its connotation of veneration.^[11] The Tibetan equivalent is dgra bcom pa, literally "conqueror of foes" or "foe destroyer," emphasizing the vanquishing of internal afflictions, with this interpretive translation reflecting certain Mahayana perspectives on enlightenment.^[12] In Japanese, especially within Zen Buddhism, the term is rendered as Arakan (阿羅漢), often shortened to Rakan (羅漢), directly adopting the Chinese transliteration for use in artistic and doctrinal contexts.^[13] Western scholarly English translations of arhat include "Worthy One," "Perfected One," and "Saint," though debates persist regarding the precision of these terms, particularly to avoid imposing non-Buddhist religious associations while conveying the original sense of moral and spiritual worthiness.^[14] In Southeast Asian Theravada traditions, such as in Thailand, the Pali-derived form Arahant (อรหันต์) is prevalent, maintaining close phonetic fidelity to the early Indian sources and underscoring its role in monastic attainment.^[15]

Definition and Meaning

In Early Buddhist Texts

In the Nikāyas of the Pāli Canon, the foundational scriptures of early Buddhism, an arahant (Pāli for "worthy one") is defined as a practitioner who has completely eradicated the āsavas—the taints or defilements of sense-desire (kāmāsava), desire for continued existence (bhavāsava), and ignorance (avijjāsava)—thereby realizing nirvāṇa in this life.^[16] This destruction of the āsavas is described as the culmination of the path, freeing the individual from the cycle of rebirth and suffering, as stated in numerous suttas where the Buddha identifies the arahant as "one whose taints are destroyed" (khīṇāsava).^[17] For instance, in the Sabbāsava Sutta (MN 2), the Buddha outlines contemplative methods leading to this eradication, emphasizing discernment of phenomena to prevent the arising or increase of these defilements.^[16] The arahant represents the ideal disciple in the pre-Mahāyāna suttas, serving as a model for monastics emulating the Buddha's awakening while remaining subordinate to him as teacher. Exemplified by prominent figures such as Sāriputta and Moggallāna, the Buddha's chief disciples, the arahant demonstrates profound wisdom and ethical perfection, often assisting in propagating the Dhamma to others.^[18] Sāriputta, praised for his analytical insight, and Moggallāna, renowned for his supernormal powers, both attained arahantship shortly after ordination and are frequently depicted in the Nikāyas as exemplars of this status, underscoring the arahant's role in sustaining the early saṅgha. Attainment of arahantship occurs through direct insight into the Four Noble Truths—the truth of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path leading to cessation—and the principle of dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda), which reveals the conditioned arising and cessation of phenomena without recourse to notions of universal salvation. This realization severs the roots of craving and ignorance, enabling the irreversible entry into nirvāṇa, as articulated in discourses like the Mahānidāna Sutta (DN 15), where understanding interdependence dismantles the illusions sustaining saṃsāra. Historically, the concept of the arahant emerged in 5th-century BCE India amid the Buddha's teachings in the Gaṅgā valley, adapting pre-existing honorific terms for worthy ascetics to describe monastics who fully replicate his enlightenment while forgoing the unique omniscience of a Buddha.^[18] This early usage reflects the soteriological focus on personal liberation within the monastic community, predating later sectarian developments.^[9]

In Theravada Tradition

In Theravada Buddhism, the arhat (Pali: arahant) represents the highest spiritual attainment attainable by both lay and monastic practitioners, embodying full enlightenment and complete liberation from the cycle of samsara, though distinct from the supreme Buddhahood reserved for a perfectly enlightened Buddha.^[14] This ideal serves as the guiding goal for all followers, emphasizing individual realization of nibbana through the eradication of defilements, positioning the arahant as a worthy one who has destroyed the roots of suffering.^[14] The concept builds briefly upon the early Buddhist texts, where the arahant is depicted as the foundational model of enlightenment achieved by the Buddha's disciples. A pivotal doctrinal exposition appears in the Visuddhimagga, composed by Buddhaghosa in the 5th century CE, which systematically outlines the path to arahantship through the complete eradication of the ten fetters—identity view, doubt, attachment to rites and rituals, sensual desire, ill will, desire for fine-material existence, desire for immaterial existence, conceit, restlessness, and ignorance.^[19] Buddhaghosa describes these fetters as the binding forces that perpetuate rebirth, and their total abandonment marks the irreversible entry into the deathless state of nibbana, attainable only at the final stage of enlightenment.^[19] This work, drawing from the Pali Canon, underscores the arhat's freedom from all mental effluents, rendering them utterly pure and beyond the reach of further becoming.^[19] Arhatship constitutes personal liberation from the round of rebirths, realized primarily through vipassana (insight) meditation that penetrates the three characteristics of existence—impermanence, suffering, and non-self—leading to the direct knowledge of nibbana.^[20] In this tradition, the arahant achieves parinibbana upon death, entering final cessation without remainder, having fulfilled the noble path's requirements in this life.^[21] In contemporary Theravada contexts across Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar, arahants are revered as living exemplars of the Dhamma, with monastic communities and lay devotees honoring those recognized or reputed to have attained this state through rigorous meditation practice and ethical conduct. Such figures inspire widespread veneration, often associated with forest meditation traditions that perpetuate the arhat ideal amid modern societal challenges.^[22]

In Mahayana Tradition

In Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of the arhat is reinterpreted as representing a provisional stage of enlightenment, inferior to the bodhisattva path that aspires to full buddhahood for the sake of all beings. Central Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra (composed around the 1st century CE), portray arhats as having achieved personal liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth but criticize them for prioritizing self-focused nirvana over universal compassion (karuṇā).^[23]^[24] In this text, arhats like Śāriputra are depicted as initially content with their attainment, only to be urged by the Buddha to recognize its limitations and commit to the higher bodhisattva ideal, emphasizing that true awakening involves boundless empathy for sentient beings rather than solitary escape.^[25] This hierarchical view extends to the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, early Mahayana texts from the 1st to 2nd centuries CE, where the arhat's path is seen as incomplete without the bodhisattva's additional vows of compassion and skillful means (upāya). Arhats, classified under the śrāvaka vehicle, are described as capable of progressing to the bodhisattva stage by arousing the aspiration for enlightenment (bodhicitta) and cultivating the perfections (pāramitās), thus transforming their nirvana into a dynamic force for liberating others.^[26]^[27] Mahayana doctrine often frames this through the "two vehicles" (dvayāna) framework, contrasting the "lesser vehicle" (hīnayāna)—encompassing arhat and pratyekabuddha paths—as limited and self-oriented with the "great vehicle" (mahāyāna) of the bodhisattva, which is deemed superior and complete. This critique positions the arhat ideal as a skillful expedient for those of lesser capacity but ultimately "small" or provisional, leading ultimately to the one vehicle (ekayāna) of universal buddhahood as revealed in texts like the Lotus Sutra.^[28]^[24] Despite this demotion, the arhat persists in East Asian Mahayana traditions, such as Chan (Zen) Buddhism, where figures like the sixteen or eighteen arhats symbolize disciplined meditation and guardianship of the dharma, serving as exemplars of rigorous practice en route to ultimate awakening. In Chan lore, arhats embody the fruits of insight meditation but are subordinated to the bodhisattva's compassionate engagement, inspiring practitioners toward non-dual realization beyond personal nirvana.^[29]^[30]

Path to Arhatship

The Four Stages of Enlightenment

In Theravada Buddhism, the path to Arhatship is delineated through four progressive stages of enlightenment, known as the sotāpanna (stream-enterer), sakadāgāmī (once-returner), anāgāmī (non-returner), and arahant (fully enlightened one). These stages represent deepening insights into the Four Noble Truths, achieved through the cultivation of the Noble Eightfold Path, which integrates ethical conduct (sīla), meditative concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā).^[20] Each stage corresponds to the eradication or attenuation of specific fetters (saṃyojana)—mental bonds that tether beings to saṃsāra—marking irreversible progress toward the complete cessation of suffering.^[31] The first stage, sotāpanna, is attained by breaking the three lower fetters: self-identity view (sakkāyadiṭṭhi), doubt (vicikicchā), and attachment to rites and rituals (sīlabbataparāmāsa). This breakthrough ensures no future rebirth in the lower realms of existence, such as hells, hungry ghosts, or animals, and guarantees full enlightenment within at most seven lifetimes, typically in the human or heavenly realms.^[20]^[32] The second stage, sakadāgāmī, builds upon the sotāpanna by further weakening the next two lower fetters: sensual desire (kāmacchanda) and ill will (vyāpāda). Although these are not fully eradicated, their influence is significantly diminished, leading to only one more rebirth in the sensuous realms, either as a human or a divine being, before advancing to higher stages.^[31]^[33] At the third stage, anāgāmī, the five lower fetters are completely eliminated, uprooting all attachments to the sensuous sphere. This attainment precludes any return to the lower or sensuous realms. Non-returners are destined for rebirth solely in the pure abodes (suddhāvāsa)—the five highest Brahmā heavens reserved for non-returners—unless they attain arahantship in this life through continued practice, in which case final enlightenment is realized without further rebirth.^[31]^[20]^[34] The culminating stage, arahant, involves the total destruction of all ten fetters, including the five higher ones: lust for form (rūparāga), lust for the formless (arūparāga), conceit (māna), restlessness (uddhacca), and ignorance (avijjā). This complete liberation achieves parinibbāna, the unconditioned state free from all rebirth and suffering.^[35]^[31]

Attainments and Qualities of an Arhat

An Arhat achieves the complete and irreversible cessation of the three poisons—greed (lobha), hatred (dosa), and delusion (moha)—which serve as the root causes of all unwholesome mental states, fetters, and the cycle of rebirth. This eradication eliminates every trace of mental defilements (kilesa) and outflows (āsava), rendering the Arhat utterly free from craving, aversion, and ignorance, and thereby realizing nirvana as an unshakeable liberation in the present life.^[10]^[18] Essential to the Arhat's attainment is the sixth higher knowledge (abhiññā), the knowledge of the destruction of mental effluents (āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa), which confirms the end of all rebirth-causing tendencies. The other five higher knowledges—profound cognitive faculties arising from deep concentration and wisdom in those who have developed the jhānas—may also be attained: (1) various psychic powers (iddhi-vidhā), (2) the divine ear (dibba-sota), enabling hearing distant or subtle sounds, (3) knowledge of others' minds (cetopariya-ñāṇa), (4) recollection of past lives (pubbenivāsānussati), and (5) the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu), perceiving beings' rebirths and karma. However, not all Arhats possess these five; paññāvimutta Arhats, liberated through wisdom alone, achieve enlightenment without prior jhāna development and thus without these knowledges, as detailed in early discourses like the Susīma Sutta. The āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa verifies the Arhat's enlightenment and distinguishes it from lesser realizations.^[36]^[37]^[38] While the first five higher knowledges encompass supernatural abilities—such as levitation, passing through solid objects, or mind-reading—these are mere manifestations of a purified mind and are explicitly secondary to the Arhat's core liberation, as emphasized in suttas where the Buddha cautions against their pursuit or display. Such powers emerge effortlessly from mastery of the jhānas but do not define enlightenment; the true attainment lies in freedom from suffering. The Arhat's abiding mental states reflect perfect equanimity (upekkhā), free from bias or disturbance, coupled with constant mindfulness (sati) that maintains clear awareness amid phenomena. This is underpinned by direct, irreversible insight into the three marks of existence—impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anattā)—ensuring the mind remains unentangled by sensory experiences or conceptual proliferations. These qualities manifest as the fourth and final stage of enlightenment, where all preparatory insights culminate in total release.^[18]

Role and Significance

Arhats in the Monastic Community

In the early Buddhist communities, arhats formed the foundational core of the sangha following the Buddha's parinirvana, providing leadership and continuity to the monastic order. Senior arhats, exemplified by Mahākassapa, assumed responsibility for organizing the sangha, convening the First Buddhist Council to recite and preserve the Dhamma and Vinaya, thereby ensuring the teachings' transmission without the Buddha's physical presence. This structure emphasized collective reliance on the Dhamma-Vinaya as the guiding authority, with arhats directing communal practices such as the Uposatha recitation and resolving disputes to maintain harmony. Arhats served as principal teachers and exemplars within the vinaya framework, embodying the monastic precepts through their enlightened conduct and instructing novices in ethical discipline and meditative practice. The Vinaya Pitaka depicts them as liberated individuals who demonstrate the precepts' efficacy, guiding others toward enlightenment by clarifying rules, resolving ethical dilemmas, and modeling detachment in daily observance.^[14] Their attainments of insight and freedom from defilements enabled this instructional role, allowing them to expound the path with precision and inspire adherence among the community.^[39]

Famous Arhats in Buddhist Lore

In Buddhist scriptures, several arhats stand out for their exemplary roles as chief disciples of the Buddha, each embodying distinct qualities of enlightenment while contributing uniquely to the preservation and dissemination of the Dharma. Sāriputta (Pāli: Sāriputta), often regarded as the foremost in wisdom among the Buddha's monastic followers, was declared by the Buddha himself as second only to him in analytical insight and doctrinal understanding. Born into a brahmin family in Nālaka village near Rājagaha, Sāriputta initially practiced asceticism under the saṃkhya teacher Sañjaya Belatthiputta alongside his friend Moggallāna. A pivotal encounter with the arhat Assaji, one of the first five disciples, led Sāriputta to grasp the essence of dependent origination through the simple verse on impermanence, prompting his ordination under the Buddha. He attained arhatship shortly thereafter through profound analytical meditation on the Dhamma, excelling in expounding complex teachings and serving as the Buddha's "general of the Dhamma" by instructing thousands of monks.^[40] Moggallāna (Pāli: Mahāmoggallāna), Sāriputta's close companion and the Buddha's chief disciple foremost in supernormal powers (iddhi), complemented his friend's wisdom with extraordinary psychic abilities that aided in teaching and verifying the Dhamma. Like Sāriputta, he was born in a wealthy brahmin family near Rājagaha and shared the initial ascetic pursuits, but his conversion followed Sāriputta's, leading to his ordination and rapid attainment of arhatship through insight into the body's impermanence during meditation. Renowned for feats such as divine ear, mind-reading, and recollecting past lives, Moggallāna used these powers to illustrate the Buddha's teachings, such as revealing karmic consequences to skeptical audiences or retrieving forgotten relics. His life ended tragically near Maddakucchi, where he was stoned and beaten by rivals incited by the heretic brahmin Ciñcāmaṇḍava, fulfilling a prophecy of retribution from a past-life misdeed; even then, he demonstrated equanimity by supernaturally returning to Jetavana to pass away in the Buddha's presence.^[40] Mahākassapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa), epitomizing the ascetic ideal among the Buddha's disciples, was praised for his strict adherence to vinaya discipline and profound meditative absorption, earning him the distinction of being foremost in ascetic practices. Born Pipphali into a wealthy family in Magadha, he renounced worldly life after encountering the Buddha and attained arhatship through insight into the futility of sensual pleasures during his ordination. As the Buddha's attendant during his final journey, Mahākassapa led the First Buddhist Council at Rājagaha shortly after the parinirvāṇa, presiding over the recitation of the Dhamma and Vinaya to safeguard the teachings, a role that solidified his legacy as the "father of the Sangha." The Buddha prophesied that Mahākassapa would realize full Buddhahood as Kāśyapa Buddha in a future aeon, underscoring his enduring spiritual stature.^[40] Ānanda (Pāli: Ānanda), the Buddha's beloved cousin and personal attendant for the last 25 years of his life, was renowned for his unparalleled memory, which preserved the vast corpus of the Buddha's discourses. Born into the Sakyan clan in Kapilavatthu, Ānanda ordained at age 25 and, upon becoming the Buddha's constant companion at his own request, committed to memory thousands of suttas without attaining enlightenment during the Buddha's lifetime due to lingering attachments. Following the parinirvāṇa, facing initial criticism at the First Council for his delayed attainment, Ānanda entered deep meditation and realized arhatship by contemplating the impermanence of the body and mind. His recitation at the council formed the basis of the Sutta Piṭaka, ensuring the oral transmission of the teachings.^[40] In Mahāyāna traditions, the Sixteen Arhats (Skt.: Ṣoḍaśa-śrāvaka; Ch.: Shílìliù Luóhàn) hold a prominent place in iconography as immortal guardians vowed by the Buddha to remain in the world until the advent of Maitreya Buddha, protecting the Dharma from decline. Originating in Indian texts like the Mahāyāna Sūtra of the Tathāgata's Final Teaching and elaborated in Chinese sources such as the Liudu ji jing, these arhats— including figures like Kuṇḍadhāna, Rāhula, and Pārśva— are depicted in temple art as ascetic elders with distinctive attributes (e.g., a lion for Dhṛtaka or a mendicant staff for Kaṇṭhaka), symbolizing their ongoing vigilance over the sangha and laity. Their ensemble, often shown flanking the Buddha in paintings and sculptures from the Tang dynasty onward, embodies the Mahāyāna emphasis on collective enlightenment and the enduring relevance of early disciples.^[41]

Comparisons and Contrasts

Arhat versus Bodhisattva

In Mahayana Buddhism, the Arhat ideal is often critiqued as centered on personal liberation, aiming for individual nirvana by extinguishing one's own suffering and the cycle of rebirth, which is viewed as potentially selfish for prioritizing self over the welfare of all beings.^[42] In contrast, the Bodhisattva path emphasizes a universal vow to attain full Buddhahood not just for oneself but to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, delaying entry into nirvana until that goal is achieved, with a primary focus on compassion (karuna) alongside wisdom (prajna).^[43] This doctrinal difference underscores the Mahayana elevation of altruistic action over solitary enlightenment, portraying the Bodhisattva as embodying boundless empathy in service to others.^[42] This contrast emerged historically as Mahayana sutras developed, marking a shift from the early Buddhist emphasis on the Arhat to the Bodhisattva as the superior ideal. For instance, the Vimalakirti Sutra depicts Arhats like Shariputra as limited in understanding non-duality and compassion, with the lay Bodhisattva Vimalakirti instructing them that true liberation involves engaging with the world to benefit others, rather than retreating into isolation like "dead trees" devoid of further growth.^[44] Such texts urge Arhats to progress toward the Bodhisattva path, criticizing their attainment as incomplete and inferior, as it lacks the expansive merit and skillful means (upaya) needed for universal salvation.^[25] Later Buddhist traditions, particularly in the Lotus Sutra and Vajrayana lineages, attempt reconciliation by viewing Arhatship as a provisional stage on the broader Bodhisattva journey, where even accomplished Arhats can awaken to their latent Bodhisattva potential and continue toward full Buddhahood.^[25] This integrative approach bridges the divide, affirming the value of personal liberation while subordinating it to the compassionate aspiration for collective enlightenment.^[45] Theravada traditions, however, maintain an exclusive focus on the Arhat without emphasizing the Bodhisattva ideal.^[43]

Arhat in Relation to Other Concepts

The pratyekabuddha, often translated as "solitary buddha" or "private buddha," represents an independent path to enlightenment distinct from that of the arhat. Unlike the arhat, who attains nirvana as a disciple within a Buddhist community under the guidance of a fully awakened Buddha, the pratyekabuddha realizes the truth through self-reliant insight without a contemporary teacher and does not establish or propagate the dharma for others.^[46] This solitary nature emphasizes personal realization over communal teaching, positioning the pratyekabuddha as less socially engaged than the arhat, who actively participates in the sangha and instructs fellow practitioners.^[46] In early Buddhist texts, such as the Ekottarika-āgama, the pratyekabuddha is depicted as achieving a profound but isolated awakening, often symbolized by realizing the dharma through natural signs like a turning wheel or blooming lotus.^[46] In relation to the Buddha, specifically the sammāsambuddha or "fully and perfectly awakened one," the arhat embodies disciple-level enlightenment, having eradicated all defilements through adherence to the Buddha's teachings. The arhat, however, does not possess the unique qualities of a sammāsambuddha, such as the ten powers (including knowledge of past lives and the consequences of actions), complete omniscience, or the ability to independently rediscover and proclaim the dharma to establish a new dispensation.^[47] This distinction underscores the arhat's role as a worthy follower who achieves personal liberation but relies on the Buddha's foundational insight, lacking the supreme pedagogical and visionary capacities that define the sammāsambuddha's universal mission.^[47] Within Vajrayana Buddhism, the arhat serves as an intermediate stage on the path to full buddhahood, integrated into tantric practices rather than as an ultimate goal. Practitioners view arhatship as a foundational attainment of freedom from afflictions, which is then transcended through advanced methods like deity yoga, where arhats may be invoked as meditational figures or protectors to facilitate higher realizations.^[48] This integration aligns the arhat's qualities of insight and detachment with Vajrayana's emphasis on rapid enlightenment via ritual and visualization, positioning it as a stepping stone toward the non-dual awareness of a fully awakened tantric practitioner.^[48] Modern scholarly interpretations often frame the arhat as a psychological archetype symbolizing self-actualization and the transcendence of ego-driven suffering, particularly in the context of 20th- and 21st-century mindfulness movements. Drawing from early Buddhist ideals, this view portrays the arhat's liberation as a model for individual psychological integration and resilience, influencing secular adaptations that prioritize personal insight over doctrinal adherence.^[7] For instance, in contemporary Buddhist psychology, the arhat represents the culmination of introspective practices that foster emotional freedom, akin to achieving a state of non-reactive awareness in therapeutic settings.^[49] In eclectic traditions blending Theravada and Mahayana elements, the arhat path occasionally overlaps with bodhisattva aspirations, allowing practitioners to pursue personal enlightenment while cultivating compassion.^[7]

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The word “arahant” was not coined by the Buddha but was current even before he appeared on the Indian religious scene. The word is derived from a verb arahati, ...
[18]
[PDF] Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) - Access to Insight
... arhat, etc., as is sometimes done (even though ”karma” and “nirvana” are in the Concise Oxford Dictionary), and no reason against absorbing the Pali words.
[19]
The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering
The essence of the Buddha's teaching can be summed up in two principles: the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
[20]
Life's Highest Blessings: The Maha Mangala Sutta - Access to Insight
Freedom from all the ten fetters makes one an arahant, a Perfect One, a Fully Liberated One. He has attained to the Highest, that is to Nibbaana after death ...<|separator|>
[21]
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soni/wheel254.html
[22]
[PDF] Sympathy and Empathy - the University of Divinity Repository
The Arhat, in short, was seen to lack compassion (karuna; see Nakamura 1987: 266). As a model of selfless love, the Bodhisattva ideal only makes sense when.
[23]
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[24]
Can Arhats Attain Buddhahood? An Issue in the Interpretation of the ...
In this commentary, Fayun also argues that arhats are capable of achieving buddhahood since they are still encumbered by defilements. However, in making his ...
[25]
[PDF] THE PERFECTION OF WISDOM IN EIGHT THOUSAND LINES & ITS ...
In this book the reader finds the same text presented in two versions, once in verse and once in prose. For early Mahayana 1 Sutras that was quite a normal.
[26]
Verses on the Perfection of Wisdom: Chapter II
Aug 17, 2014 · Prajnaparamita Ratnagunasamcayagatha Translated by Edward Conze (Taisho Tripitaka 0229)... ... That of an Arhat, a Single Buddha, a Buddha ...
[27]
the bodhisattva ideal in theravada buddhist theory and practice - jstor
In the academic study of Buddhism the terms "Mahayana" and "Hina- yana" are often set in contradiction to each other, and the two vehicles.
[28]
Arhats in East Asian Buddhism - Brill Reference Works
Taken together, these citations suggest that all disciples of the Buddha were arhats, but add some limitations to their status as enlightened beings. By ...Missing: Arakan | Show results with:Arakan
[29]
[PDF] Chan Buddhism in Guanxiu's Eighteen Luohan (Arhats)
Clearly, the arhats played an essential mediating role for aspiring Buddhist masters, offering up good deeds on their behalf and ensuring proper heavenly ...
[30]
The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation - Access to Insight
Although early Buddhism acknowledges the possibility of a dry-visioned arahatship, the attitude prevails that jhanas are still desirable attributes in an ...
[31]
Into the Stream: A Study Guide on the First Stage of Awakening
The Pali Canon recognizes four levels of Awakening, the first of which is called stream entry. This gains its name from the fact that a person who has ...
[32]
The Dhammapada: The Buddha's Path of Wisdom - Access to Insight
The Dhammapada is the best known and most widely esteemed text in the Pali Tipitaka, the sacred scriptures of Theravada Buddhism.
[33]
The Thirty-one Planes of Existence - Access to Insight
These are the five Pure Abodes (suddhavasa), which are accessible only to non-returners (anagami) and arahants. Beings who become non-returners in other ...
[34]
Sanyojana Sutta: Fetters - Access to Insight
Passion for form, passion for what is formless, conceit, restlessness, & ignorance. These are the five higher fetters. And these are the ten fetters." How to ...
[35]
The Six Deep Knowledges - Ancient Buddhist Texts
1. Iddhividha · 2. Dibbasota · 3. Cetopariyañāṇa · 4. Pubbenivāsānussati · 5. Dibbacakkhu · 6. ĀsavakkhayanāṇaMissing: Arhat Pali Canon suttas
[36]
Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life
This discourse is one of the masterpieces of the Pali canon. At heart, it is a comprehensive portrait of the Buddhist path of training.Missing: abhiññā | Show results with:abhiññā
[37]
Personality Differences of Arahants and the Origins of Theravada
Oct 16, 2005 · A reader of the Pali canon tends to get the idea that arahants are basically a homogeneous group of people. This is not hard to understand in ...
[38]
The Development and Elaboration of the Arahant Ideal in the ... - jstor
A pre ous generation of Buddhist scholars thought that an "early Buddhism could be identified in the Pdli texts through etymological and doctri criteria. As ...
[39]
https://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebsut061.htm
[40]
The Arhats in China and Tibet - jstor
' Their function was to protect the. Dharma, or Buddhist law, until the coming of Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future. When worship of the arhats first appeared ...
[41]
Arhat and Bodhisattva: Roles and Aspirations with Reference to the ...
This essay explores the critical doctrines of arhat and bodhisattva within Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, respectively. It outlines the paths taken by ...
[42]
Between Arhat and Bodhisattva – Ajahn Amaro - buddhism
This essay by Ajahn Amaro will analyse the arguments for and against the arhat and bodhisattva ideals that devide too often Buddhist practitioners.Missing: Progression Prajnaparamita
[43]
Vimalakirti Sutra
### Summary of Vimalakirti Sutra on Arhats vs. Bodhisattvas
[44]
[PDF] Arhats Who Became Bodhisattvas - The Minding Centre
Of all the early arhats, Piṇḍola is clearly the most popular across the major. Buddhist traditions. As we have noted, a whole discourse—the Pīṇḍola Bhāra,dvāja ...
[45]
[PDF] Pratyekabuddhas in the Ekottarika-āgama* Anālayo
In the present article I study material related to Pratyekabuddhas that is ... The placing of the Pratyekabuddha between the arahant and the Buddha recurs ...
[46]
[PDF] Can Arhats Attain Buddhahood? An Issue in the Interpretation of the ...
Feb 7, 2023 · By availing himself to this theory, Fayun argues that arhats are indeed capable of attaining buddhahood since they still possess the defilements ...
[47]
[PDF] THE INTRODUCTION TO THE TANTRIC BUDDHISM (VAJRAYANA ...
This article is a brief study of the transmission, introduction, and development of Tantric Buddhism in Vietnam. Through the historical documents of ...
[48]
(PDF) New Horizons in Buddhist Psychology - Academia.edu
This volume, a sequel of Horizons in Buddhist Psychology: Practice, Research & Theory, is for all who wish to read about cutting-edge developments in Buddhist ...