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Autonomia Operaia

Autonomia Operaia, also known as Workers' Autonomy, was a heterogeneous far-left autonomist movement in Italy that flourished during the 1970s, emphasizing decentralized self-organization among workers, students, and unemployed youth outside the control of traditional political parties, trade unions, and the state.^[1] Rooted in the workerist (operaismo) tradition that prioritized the agency of mass workers in factories over vanguardist leadership, it rejected hierarchical structures and advocated principles such as the refusal of work, self-reduction of commodity prices, and direct appropriation to challenge capitalist exploitation.^[1] The movement originated in the late 1960s amid intense factory struggles involving deskilled migrant labor from southern Italy, evolving by the mid-1970s into a diffuse network of local collectives coordinated through alternative media like free radio stations, like Radio Alice in Bologna, which broadcast calls for autonomous actions.^[1] Key activities included mass protests during the 1977 Movement, occupation of social centers, "proletarian shopping" (collective shoplifting as expropriation), and autoriduzione campaigns where participants forced price cuts at utilities and transport.^[1] Influential intellectuals associated with its ideas, such as Antonio Negri and groups like Potere Operaio, contributed to theoretical works on autonomous Marxism, though the movement lacked formal leadership and prioritized horizontal assemblies over centralized organization.^[2] Autonomia Operaia achieved notoriety for pioneering tactics of cultural and social resistance that inspired later anti-capitalist networks, yet it was marred by controversies over its tolerance of diffuse violence, including clashes with police and fascists, leading to accusations from authorities of ideological complicity with terrorist outfits like the Red Brigades—claims the movement publicly denounced as elitist deviations from mass struggle.^[1]^[3] This culminated in the 1979 "7 April" operation, a sweeping state crackdown with mass arrests, including Negri's, under emergency anti-terror laws, which effectively dismantled the movement despite many charges being dropped for insufficient evidence, highlighting tensions between autonomous militancy and state securitization amid Italy's "Years of Lead."^[3]^[4] By the early 1980s, economic shifts toward post-Fordism and internal fragmentation led to its decline, though its legacy endures in debates on grassroots refusal of wage labor and anti-authoritarian praxis.^[1]

Origins

Roots in Operaismo and Workerism

Operaismo, or workerism, emerged in Italy during the late 1950s as a heterodox Marxist tendency that prioritized the autonomous subjectivity of workers over traditional party and union structures. Raniero Panzieri, a former member of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), played a pivotal role by editing the party's theoretical journal Mondo Operaio from 1957 to 1959, where he began critiquing the integration of labor organizations into capitalist development. Marginalized within the PSI for his insistence on workers' independent power, Panzieri founded Quaderni Rossi in 1961, gathering intellectuals like Mario Tronti and Romano Alquati to analyze factory struggles empirically, emphasizing the "refusal of work" and the mass worker in large-scale industry as antagonists to capital's command.^[5]^[6] This current crystallized with the launch of Classe Operaia in 1964 under Tronti's leadership, which shifted focus from abstract theory to concrete class composition in sites like Fiat's Turin factories, arguing that capitalist development itself generated workers' subversive potential. Operaismo rejected Leninist vanguardism, viewing the working class as the active force reshaping production relations through wildcat strikes and sabotage rather than mediated reforms. By the mid-1960s, these ideas fueled militant interventions, such as Alquati's inquiries into FIAT's labor processes, laying groundwork for a politics of autonomy that bypassed institutionalized left-wing channels.^[7]^[8] Autonomia Operaia's roots trace directly to operaismo's evolution amid the 1968-1969 "Hot Autumn" strikes, where workerist groups like Potere Operaio applied these principles in mass mobilizations exceeding 20 million participants, demanding wage advances without productivity increases and self-management. Dissolving formal organizations post-1973 to evade state repression, autonomists extended workerism beyond factories to the "social factory," encompassing unwaged labor and refusal strategies that informed Autonomia's diffuse networks by 1976. This inheritance privileged empirical class analysis over ideological orthodoxy, influencing tactics like rent strikes and income redistribution amid Italy's economic crisis, though it later fragmented under internal debates and external pressures.^[9]^[10]

Formation from Predecessor Groups (1973)

Autonomia Operaia emerged in 1973 as a decentralized network of workers' collectives and militants, primarily coalescing from the remnants of the workerist group Potere Operaio following its self-dissolution that year.^[11]^[12] Potere Operaio, active since 1969, had emphasized militant factory struggles and class composition analysis but faced internal crises over organizational form and strategic direction amid intensifying state repression and debates within the extra-parliamentary left.^[13] Its collapse marked a rejection of vanguardist structures, with former members like Antonio Negri transitioning to promote "autonomy" as a diffuse, non-hierarchical alternative focused on self-organized refusal of work and mass illegality.^[14] This shift reflected broader disillusionment with centralized groups, prioritizing local assemblies in factories, neighborhoods, and universities over national party-building. While Potere Operaio provided the core cadre and theoretical impetus—drawing from operaismo traditions of analyzing capital's composition—precursors included nascent autonomous committees in northern industrial areas like Milan and Turin, where rank-and-file workers had already experimented with wildcat strikes and wage militancy outside union control.^[3] Elements from other contemporaneous groups, such as early formations around the journal Rosso established in 1972, contributed to the network's ideological pluralism, though Autonomia initially lacked formal unity, operating as an "area" of overlapping tendencies rather than a monolithic entity.^[15] By mid-1973, this amalgamation enabled coordinated actions against capitalist restructuring, including demands for income without work, but tensions persisted over the balance between organized militancy and spontaneous diffusion.^[16] Sources from participants and historians note that this formation avoided the pitfalls of prior groups' bureaucratization, though left-leaning accounts may overemphasize its anti-authoritarian purity while underplaying factional pragmatism.^[17]

Ideology

Core Principles of Autonomism

Autonomism, as articulated within the Autonomia Operaia movement, prioritized the autonomy of the proletariat from established leftist institutions such as political parties and trade unions, arguing that these entities often subordinated workers' struggles to reformist or statist agendas. Drawing from operaismo's earlier emphasis on worker subjectivity, autonomists contended that the working class possessed an inherent capacity for self-directed organization and revolt, independent of vanguardist leadership. This principle rejected the Leninist model of party-mediated revolution, instead advocating horizontal networks of factory councils, territorial assemblies, and affinity groups to coordinate actions.^[18]^[19] A foundational idea was the refusal of work, which extended beyond demands for higher wages or shorter hours to a fundamental rejection of wage labor as the primary site of capitalist domination. Theorists like Antonio Negri framed this refusal as a strategic sabotage of capital's extraction of surplus value, transforming "free time" into a realm for proletarian experimentation rather than mere reproduction of labor power. In practice, this manifested in tactics such as absenteeism, slowdowns, and wildcat strikes during the late 1960s and 1970s, which autonomists saw as disrupting the capital-labor relation at its core.^[20]^[21] Complementing refusal was the concept of self-valorization, wherein the proletariat actively constructs alternative circuits of value production outside capitalist valorization processes. This involved the invention of new social relations, knowledges, and forms of cooperation—such as self-managed services, underground economies, and cultural practices—that prefigured a post-capitalist society. Autonomists, including Mario Tronti and Sergio Bologna, emphasized that self-valorization emerged from the "mass worker," a broadened proletarian composition encompassing not only industrial laborers but also service workers, students, and the marginalized, reflecting the extension of exploitation into the "social factory."^[20]^[22]^[3] Autonomism also incorporated class composition analysis, a method to dissect how capital reorganized production (technical and political composition) and how workers resisted through decomposition and recomposition. This dynamic view posited struggle as the driver of historical change, critiquing deterministic Marxist economism by centering proletarian agency in reshaping social relations. While influential in Italy's 1977 movement, these principles faced criticism for idealizing spontaneity and underestimating organizational needs, as noted in contemporaneous debates.^[19]^[23]

Refusal of Work and Self-Valorization

The refusal of work constituted a foundational tactic in Autonomist thought, advocating proletarian rejection of capitalist labor discipline to undermine surplus value extraction rather than merely negotiating within it. Originating in operaismo texts like Mario Tronti's Workers and Capital (1966), which inverted traditional Marxist analysis by prioritizing worker antagonism as the driver of capitalist restructuring, the concept evolved in Autonomia Operaia to encompass deliberate disruptions such as absenteeism, slowdowns, and unannounced strikes.^[20] ^[24] Antonio Negri, a key Autonomist theorist, framed this refusal as a strategic proletarian weapon, arguing in his 1970s writings that it exposed work's coercive nature under capital while enabling class recomposition beyond factory confines.^[25] In practice, Autonomia groups applied it during the mid-1970s "hot autumn" aftermath, promoting mass "sick-ins" at factories like Fiat Mirafiori, where up to 20% absenteeism rates in 1973-1974 forced wage concessions without productivity gains, though such actions drew criticism for potentially isolating militants from broader union strategies.^[26] ^[14] Complementing refusal, self-valorization represented the affirmative dimension of Autonomist praxis, denoting the proletariat's capacity to generate value autonomously through self-organized reproduction of needs, culture, and social relations outside capitalist circuits. Negri elaborated this in lectures compiled as Marx Beyond Marx (delivered 1978-1979), interpreting Marx's Grundrisse fragments to posit self-valorization as the counter-tendency to capital's subsumption of labor, where workers seize command over their activity to produce "use values" for communal ends rather than exchange.^[27] ^[28] Within Autonomia Operaia, this manifested in 1976-1977 initiatives like self-reduced utility bills in urban collectives—workers collectively deducting portions from payments to providers, redistributing savings into autonomous funds—and clandestine welfare networks providing childcare and healthcare decoupled from state mediation.^[29] These practices aimed at "exodus" from wage dependency, with Negri estimating in contemporaneous analyses that such autonomous circuits captured up to 10-15% of proletarian income in northern Italian industrial zones by 1977, fostering "social factories" encompassing non-factory labor like housework and migration.^[30] Critics within Marxism, however, contended that self-valorization overlooked capital's adaptive absorptive power, as seen in post-Fordist shifts toward precarious immaterial labor that co-opted refusal into flexible accumulation.^[31] Together, refusal and self-valorization formed Autonomia's dual ontology of class power: negation of imposed work paired with positive invention, rejecting both reformist unionism and Leninist vanguardism in favor of horizontal "self-reduction" and income decoupled from labor time. This framework informed the movement's 1977 mobilization, where demands for "wages for study" and universal basic income echoed self-valorization by positing social wealth as a right derived from collective refusal rather than productivity.^[13] Empirical data from Italian labor statistics indicate a spike in wildcat actions—over 4,000 in 1976 alone—correlating with these ideas, though state repression via emergency laws in 1975 curtailed their scalability.^[32] Autonomist sources like Negri's emphasize these as embryonic communist forms, verifiable against strike records, yet empirical verification remains contested due to the clandestine nature of many self-valorization experiments.^[33]

Activities

Factory and Workplace Struggles

Autonomia Operaia's factory struggles primarily unfolded in large-scale industrial settings like FIAT's Mirafiori plant in Turin, where autonomous collectives rejected mediation by established unions such as the CGIL and pursued direct, self-organized actions against management.^[3]^[34] A landmark episode took place in March 1973, when workers launched a wildcat strike and occupation at Mirafiori, blockading the facility with mass pickets and using red bandannas to mask identities during internal clashes with foremen, scabs, and supervisors.^[3]^[35]^[34] These efforts embodied the refusal of work principle, manifesting in tactics like deliberate production sabotage—such as blocking assembly lines or subtracting components—and high rates of absenteeism to erode capitalist productivity and valorization processes.^[35]^[3] Notable examples include absenteeism levels of 16 percent at Alfa Romeo's Portello facility in 1974 and 31 percent at the Innocenti plant in Milan by June 1974, alongside similar disruptions at Pirelli.^[35] Autonomous worker assemblies provided the organizational backbone, convening in factories like Alfa Romeo and Sit-Siemens to facilitate rank-and-file decision-making, wage equalization demands, and resistance to Fordist discipline without deference to party or union hierarchies.^[35]^[34] Such militancy peaked in the early 1970s amid broader cycles of unrest but faced erosion by mid-decade due to employer countermeasures, including expulsions, and mounting state intervention, prompting a partial pivot toward non-factory terrains.^[3]^[19]

Urban and Student Campaigns (1977 Movement)

The 1977 Movement in Italy marked a peak in autonomist activities, extending factory-based struggles into urban and student spheres through decentralized protests against institutional left politics and state authority. Autonomia Operaia collectives, emphasizing self-organization outside traditional unions and parties, mobilized students and precarious youth in universities across cities like Bologna, Rome, and Turin, rejecting the Italian Communist Party's (PCI) "historic compromise" with Christian Democrats. On February 17, 1977, approximately 50,000 demonstrators, including autonomist groups, marched in Rome to oppose bureaucratic mediation and demand direct action.^[36] These campaigns framed universities as sites of social reproduction, where students challenged curricula and hierarchies via occupations and assemblies promoting "self-valorization" over waged labor.^[19] Urban campaigns amplified these efforts, with Autonomia Operaia advocating tactics like price self-reduction in services and goods, housing squats, and the creation of autonomous social centers to sustain community self-management. In Bologna, initial university disputes escalated into widespread unrest on March 11, 1977, when police gunfire killed 25-year-old student Francesco Lorusso during clashes near the anatomy institute, sparking three days of citywide riots involving barricades and mass demonstrations.^[37] The incident, amid tensions with a Communion and Liberation assembly, highlighted autonomists' role in bridging student radicalism with proletarian youth, leading to further occupations and radio broadcasts like Radio Alice for coordinating actions.^[38] Protests spread nationally, with riots in multiple cities by mid-March shaking the government and PCI influence, as autonomist networks prioritized diffuse conflict over centralized leadership.^[39] Autonomia's urban-student initiatives also incorporated cultural subversion, such as the "Metropolitan Indians" in Bologna—masked protesters using irony and carnival tactics to mock institutional figures—extending refusal of work into everyday life against commodification.^[40] These campaigns fostered networks linking feminists, unemployed, and migrants, though they faced internal debates over escalating confrontation versus sustainability, contributing to the movement's zenith before intensified state response.^[41] By late 1977, such activities had organized tens of thousands in extra-institutional struggles, redefining autonomy as urban insurgency.^[42]

Political Conflicts

Clash with the Italian Communist Party (PCI)

Autonomia Operaia emerged as a direct ideological antagonist to the Italian Communist Party (PCI), particularly criticizing its adoption of the "Historic Compromise" strategy in 1973, under which PCI leader Enrico Berlinguer sought collaboration with the Christian Democrats to form a national unity government, drawing lessons from the 1973 coup in Chile against Salvador Allende.^[38] Autonomists viewed this as a capitulation to bourgeois institutions, diluting revolutionary potential by prioritizing parliamentary reform over class struggle and worker self-organization, thereby reinforcing state mediation rather than autonomous refusal of work.^[9] In contrast to the PCI's Eurocommunist orientation, which emphasized gradual integration into democratic processes, Autonomia rejected any party-led hegemony over the proletariat, advocating decentralized networks of militants that bypassed traditional unions like the PCI-affiliated CGIL.^[3] This rivalry intensified competition for influence among industrial workers and youth, as Autonomia drew support from those disillusioned with the PCI's perceived immobilism and control over labor disputes, positioning itself as an "instrument against the Communists' pretense of hegemony over the labor movement."^[9] By the mid-1970s, with the PCI boasting around two million members, autonomist groups like precursors to Autonomia (e.g., Potere Operaio) had smaller bases under 5,000 but gained traction through militant tactics in factories, outbidding PCI-linked unions by promoting wildcat strikes and self-reduction of prices, which the PCI sought to channel into negotiated settlements.^[9] Autonomists accused the PCI of betraying the 1968-1969 "Hot Autumn" worker rebellions by aligning with capital's reformist operations, fostering a schism where PCI youth sections hemorrhaged members to radical alternatives amid the broader crisis of the revolutionary left.^[43] Tensions escalated into physical confrontations during the 1977 Movement, particularly in Rome, where autonomi clashed violently with PCI supporters and CGIL stewards; a notable incident occurred when militants disrupted and chased away CGIL leader Luciano Lama during a speech, symbolizing rejection of union-party authority.^[36] These street battles, including anti-PCI demonstrations, prompted state intervention under Christian Democrat Interior Minister Francesco Cossiga, who exploited the disorder to justify crackdowns on the far left, further alienating Autonomia from the PCI's institutional path.^[44] The PCI, having shifted from neutrality toward 1968 unrest to outright opposition by 1977 under the Historic Compromise, condemned autonomist violence as adventurism that undermined the left's electoral prospects, culminating in mutual accusations that exacerbated fragmentation within Italian communism.^[3]

Internal Factions and Divisions

Autonomia Operaia encompassed a spectrum of tendencies rather than a monolithic structure, characterized by significant internal heterogeneity that reflected its origins in diverse predecessor groups like Potere Operaio, which dissolved in 1973 amid debates over organizational form and strategic direction.^[3] This lack of centralization fostered divisions between more structured elements and spontaneous networks, with the former often clustered around intellectual leaders in regions such as Veneto and Rome.^[34] The primary fault line emerged between organized Autonomia (Autonomia Organizzata), which sought to build a revolutionary vanguard through factory assemblies and publications like Rosso, and diffused or creative Autonomia, a broader, decentralized constellation of local collectives, counter-cultural initiatives (e.g., Metropolitan Indians and Radio Alice), and social movements emphasizing the "autonomy of the social" over hierarchical power seizure.^[45]^[3] Organized factions, led by figures including Antonio Negri, Oreste Scalzone, and Franco Piperno—known as the "Padovani" and "Volsci"—advocated "mass illegality" and confrontational tactics to challenge state and capital directly, drawing from operaismo's focus on the operaio sociale (socialized worker).^[34] In contrast, diffused elements prioritized creative refusal of work, youth subcultures, and non-vanguardist practices, often critiquing organized Autonomia's perceived Leninist tendencies and macho violence.^[3] These differences manifested in regional variations, with Milan and Turin collectives leaning toward workplace militancy, while Bologna and student groups emphasized urban experimentation.^[45] Additional rifts included theoretical disputes, such as Negri's expansive operaio sociale concept versus Sergio Bologna's emphasis on the operaio massa (mass worker), and strained relations with autonomous feminist groups alienated by Autonomia's endorsement of aggressive tactics.^[45]^[3] Post-1977 Movement, escalating debates over armed struggle—intensified by the 1978 Aldo Moro kidnapping—further fragmented the movement, with some organized sectors tolerating "parallel structures" for self-defense while diffused actors rejected terrorism outright, contributing to vulnerability during the 1979 state crackdown.^[34] This internal pluralism, while enabling widespread mobilization, ultimately hindered coordinated resistance and accelerated dissolution.^[3]

Violence and Tactics

Adoption of Confrontational Methods

During the mid-1970s, Autonomia Operaia collectives shifted toward confrontational tactics amid escalating state repression and perceived betrayals by established left-wing unions and parties, emphasizing proletarian self-defense and direct action over institutionalized negotiation. These methods included mass demonstrations defended with improvised weapons such as stones and molotov cocktails, as well as targeted sabotage against exploitative firms, framed as extensions of "diffuse illegality" to challenge capitalist and state authority without adopting the centralized guerrilla warfare of groups like the Red Brigades.^[46]^[47] A pivotal early instance occurred on May 1, 1976, in Rome, where a march organized by Autonomia Operaia faced a police attack; participants responded by hurling stones and molotovs, resulting in numerous injuries and 24 arrests, marking a public assertion of militant self-protection.^[46]^[48] Similar clashes erupted on June 28, 1976, at the Parco Lambro festival in Rome, where thousands of autonomists confronted police forces attempting to impose control, rejecting oversight by traditional political organizations.^[46] By 1977, these tactics integrated into broader urban mobilizations, such as the refusal of work and self-reduction campaigns that often provoked evictions and street battles, with groups donning helmets and clubs for "piedi piatti" (flat feet) attacks on officers symbolizing state power. Sabotage actions, like the May 12, 1978, devastation of a contracting firm's offices by the Zane collective affiliated with Autonomia Operaia in response to sweatshop exploitation, exemplified offensive extensions beyond mere defense.^[46] This repertoire, while decentralized and tied to immediate proletarian needs, drew criticism for blurring lines between self-defense and indiscriminate violence, contributing to heightened tensions with authorities.^[49]

Specific Incidents and Associations

One notable incident involving Autonomia Operaia occurred on March 11, 1977, in Bologna, where the police shooting of left-wing student Francesco Lorusso—a sympathizer of extra-parliamentary groups—triggered riots participated in by autonomi, leading to intense street clashes, arson, and a near-insurrectional standoff with authorities that lasted several days and injured dozens.^[50]^[37] These events exemplified the movement's tactic of "diffused" violence through mass confrontation rather than isolated terrorist acts, with autonomi employing helmets, sticks, and improvised weapons against police lines.^[51] In Rome and Milan, autonomi engaged in similar violent disruptions during 1977 assemblies and protests, such as the forcible ejection of union leader Luciano Lama from a university speech on February 17, 1977, where clashes with CGIL stewards escalated into brawls involving hundreds, underscoring tensions with institutional left organizations.^[38]^[52] Reports from the period document autonomi using these confrontations to assert refusal of mediated labor politics, resulting in arrests and property destruction but no fatalities directly attributed to their actions in these cases.^[34] Autonomia Operaia maintained ideological distance from centralized terrorist outfits like the Red Brigades (BR) or Prima Linea, criticizing their vanguardism while endorsing "mass illegality" that blurred into sabotage and self-defense; however, fringes from the Autonomia "area" spawned or overlapped with smaller armed formations, including Proletari Armati per il Comunismo (PAC), which conducted kidnappings and shootings in the late 1970s as extensions of autonomous militancy.^[53]^[54] This peripheral radicalization contributed to state perceptions of Autonomia as a breeding ground for violence, culminating in the 1979 "7 April" arrests of leaders like Toni Negri, charged with BR ideological complicity in the Aldo Moro kidnapping (March 16–May 9, 1978) but largely acquitted on direct ties, revealing prosecutorial reliance on circumstantial networks over concrete evidence.^[55]^[56] Such associations fueled accusations of indirect enabling of over 4,000 violent acts linked to the extra-parliamentary left in 1977 alone, though Autonomia's core emphasized collective refusal over targeted assassinations.^[46]

Repression and Dissolution

State Crackdown and 1979 Arrests

On April 7, 1979, Italian judicial authorities executed a coordinated nationwide operation, arresting approximately 80 leading figures and militants associated with Autonomia Operaia, including philosopher and organizer Antonio Negri, economist Luciano Ferrari Bravo, and activist Oreste Scalzone.^[57]^[58] The warrants, issued by substitute prosecutor Pietro Calogero of the Padova Public Prosecutor's Office, targeted individuals accused of forming a subversive association under Article 270-bis of the Italian Penal Code, with claims that the group promoted "diffuse armed spontaneity" as a strategy for overthrowing the state through factory sabotage, urban violence, and theoretical endorsement of insurrection.^[59]^[60] This crackdown, dubbed the "7 April theorem" by critics, framed Autonomia Operaia as an ideological and operational hub for left-wing extremism, linking it to over 1,000 incidents of workplace disruptions, street clashes, and alleged ties to terrorist acts during the Years of Lead (1969–1980s), though direct evidence of organizational command over bombings or assassinations like the 1978 Aldo Moro kidnapping was often circumstantial or later disproven in court.^[61]^[62] Operations spanned major cities including Padova, Milan, Rome, and Bologna, detaining academics, factory delegates, and student leaders in simultaneous raids that dismantled Autonomia's national coordination structures.^[63] The state's rationale emphasized preventing escalation from autonomist tactics—such as mass picketing, self-reduction of prices, and confrontations with police—into full-scale insurgency, amid a surge in political violence that claimed over 400 lives in the prior decade; however, the broad application of emergency anti-terrorism laws allowed pretrial detention without individualized proof for many, leading to accusations of judicial overreach targeting dissent rather than proven crimes.^[60]^[59] Initial arrests numbered around 22 high-profile targets, expanding to hundreds of searches and seizures of documents, publications like A/traverso, and materials interpreted as incitements to rebellion.^[61]

Immediate Aftermath and Fragmentation

Following the mass arrests initiated on 7 April 1979, which targeted approximately 20 leading figures of Autonomia Operaia including Antonio Negri, the movement encountered severe operational disruptions as charges of insurgency, armed banditry, and association with groups like the Red Brigades were leveled primarily on ideological grounds rather than direct evidentiary links.^[64] Immediate responses included large-scale protests across Italian cities, bolstered by petitions from international intellectuals such as Michel Foucault and Jean-Paul Sartre decrying the criminalization of political dissent, alongside Negri's election to the European Parliament in June 1979—though his parliamentary immunity was swiftly revoked, leading to re-arrest.^[64] These events, framed under emergency anti-terrorism legislation like the 1975 Legge Reale, amplified social tensions but failed to produce substantive evidence against many detainees even months later, resulting in prolonged preventive detention for up to four years.^[64] Subsequent arrest waves in 1979 and 1980 extended to intermediate militants and sympathizers, detaining thousands and employing fascist-era laws such as the Codice Rocco to justify isolation and restrictions on defense rights, effectively decapitating the movement's de facto leadership and logistical networks.^[15] This repression compounded pre-existing internal fractures exacerbated by the 1978 Aldo Moro kidnapping aftermath, where Autonomia's diffuse structure—lacking formal hierarchy—proved vulnerable to targeted strikes, prompting burnout, exile, or imprisonment among activists.^[15] Fragmentation intensified as micro-factions splintered, with significant member attrition to "diffuse terrorism" outfits or established armed organizations like the Brigate Rosse, while southern branches opted for self-dissolution of autonomous assemblies to evade further crackdowns.^[15] Localized collectives persisted in low-profile workplace and cultural resistances, but the overarching cohesion dissolved into a patchwork of subcultural experiments and theoretical retreats, signaling the defeat of the 1976–1979 contention cycle by the early 1980s.^[9] Negri's 1983 flight to France amid ongoing trials further symbolized this dispersal, redirecting autonomist energies toward exile-based intellectual production rather than mass mobilization.^[9]

Legacy

Intellectual and Theoretical Influence

Autonomia Operaia drew its intellectual foundations from operaismo (workerism), a Marxist current that emerged in Italy during the late 1950s and early 1960s, emphasizing the autonomy of the working class from traditional party structures and focusing on the concrete behaviors of workers rather than abstract economic laws.^[10] Pioneering texts like Mario Tronti's Operai e capitale (1966) argued that capitalist development was driven by worker antagonism, inverting traditional Marxist views by prioritizing class struggle as the motor of history over economic base determinism.^[65] This approach rejected Leninist vanguardism, advocating instead for horizontal organization based on the "class composition"—the technical and political makeup of the proletariat—as analyzed through empirical studies of factory struggles, such as those at Fiat and Olivetti.^[66] By the mid-1970s, Autonomia extended operaismo beyond the factory to the "social factory," conceptualizing society itself as a site of production where unwaged labor, including that of students, women, and the unemployed, formed the operaio sociale (social worker). Antonio Negri, a central theorist, elaborated this in works like Proletari e Stato (1976) and interviews such as "Dall'operaio massa all'operaio sociale" (1979), positing a transition from the mass worker of Fordist industry to a diffuse, immaterial labor force capable of "refusal of work" and self-valorization outside capital's command.^[67] Negri's ideas, developed amid the movement's peak in 1977, critiqued the Italian Communist Party (PCI) for subordinating workers to parliamentary reformism, instead promoting diffuse networks of councils and sabotage as means to recompose class power.^[68] The movement's theoretical legacy persists in autonomist Marxism, influencing analyses of post-Fordist capitalism, precarity, and the "multitude" as a non-sovereign counterpower to empire, as seen in Negri's later collaborations with Michael Hardt, including Empire (2000).^[69] Steve Wright's Storming Heaven: Class Composition and Struggle in Italian Autonomist Marxism (2002) documents how these concepts shaped subsequent anti-globalization tactics and immaterial labor theories, though critics like Aufheben argue that autonomist frameworks risk oversimplifying class relations by conflating diverse struggles under a singular "autonomy" paradigm.^[70] ^[10] Empirical studies of 1970s Italian strikes, with over 4,000 wildcat actions recorded between 1969 and 1973, underscore the causal role of worker insubordination in prompting capital's restructuring, validating operaismo's refusal-centered praxis over state-mediated unionism.^[9]

Criticisms, Failures, and Long-Term Assessments

Autonomia Operaia faced criticism for its theoretical emphasis on worker subjectivity and autonomy at the expense of material economic analysis, which led to an overreliance on spontaneous action without addressing broader capitalist dynamics.^[71] Critics argued that this voluntarism substituted militant elites for genuine class initiative, fostering a "ceto politico" disconnected from the working class and reverting to cadre-style leadership despite anti-vanguard rhetoric.^[72] Such flaws were evident in the movement's rejection of traditional party forms, resulting in fragmented micro-factions unable to coalesce into effective organization.^[19] Practically, the movement's adoption of confrontational tactics, including endorsement of armed struggle, alienated potential mass support and invited severe state repression.^[19] After the 1977 student and youth mobilizations devolved into widespread street violence, such as the Rome battles, police escalation dismantled autonomous assemblies, marking the onset of decline.^[73] The 1979 Fiat Mirafiori defeat, with 23,000 workers sacked, underscored failures in sustaining factory gains amid the post-1973 economic crisis, while over 3,000 arrests that year, including key figures like Antonio Negri, fragmented the network.^[19] These outcomes stemmed from a narrow focus on factory struggles without extending analysis to societal reproduction or countering reformist unions effectively.^[71] Internal divisions exacerbated these issues, as the dissolution of precursors like Potere Operaio in 1973 into the looser "Area of Autonomy" prioritized interclassist alliances over proletarian centrality, diluting militancy into marginal activism.^[71] Groups boycotted emerging factory councils in 1975, ceding ground to PCI-influenced structures and isolating themselves from the 32,000 councils formed that year.^[19] Long-term assessments view Autonomia as a cautionary example of how anti-organizational impulses, while challenging PCI hegemony, contributed to the revolutionary left's broader defeat in Italy by the late 1970s, paving the way for neoliberal consolidation without proletarian alternatives.^[73] Theoretically, it influenced post-workerist ideas on the "social factory," but practically fostered lifestylism and substitutionist tactics with limited enduring impact beyond academic autonomism.^[19] Healthier elements required radical self-critique to avoid repeating interclassist errors, emphasizing the need for grounded class strategies over elite-driven autonomy.^[71]

References

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The central figure in the councilist movement was the craft worker (operaio di mestiere), considered to be better than the bosses at keeping the factory going.
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Autonomia Operaia - Manicastri - Major Reference Works
Apr 16, 2012 · Autonomia Operaia (Workers' Autonomy) was a workerist organization founded by Antonio Negri in 1973 upon the collapse of both Potere Operaio and subsequently ...
[12]
Great thinkers of our time - Antonio Negri - New Statesman
Jul 14, 2003 · In 1973, Potere Operaio dissolved and Negri joined a movement known as Autonomia Operaia, a decentralised network of local organisations ...Missing: founded | Show results with:founded<|control11|><|separator|>
[13]
Lessons from defeat: Antonio Negri, autonomist Marxism and ...
Aug 23, 2009 · By the time Autonomia Operaia was formed hundreds of thousands of Italian workers had taken part in collective direct action within this social ...Missing: predecessor | Show results with:predecessor
[14]
Italy: Autonomia (9) – Antonio Negri - Autonomies
Feb 21, 2023 · Potere Operaio disbanded in 1973 and gave rise to the Autonomia ... dissolution of theory into a technique of power, bring closer the ...
[15]
Italy: Autonomia (2) - Autonomies
Feb 19, 2023 · This chapter seeks to explore, in a critical manner, the debate over the party-form played out within and around the groups of Autonomia Operaia ...Missing: achievements controversies
[16]
Autonomia Operaia - ResearchGate
Autonomia Operaia (Workers' Autonomy) was a workerist organization founded by Antonio Negri in 1973 upon the collapse of both Potere Operaio and subsequently ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[17]
Italy 1973 - Potere Operaio - Libcom.org
May 28, 2024 · This article is taken from the newspaper Potere Operaio, in 1973 (before that organisation's self-dissolution). It looks at some of the facts ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
[18]
Autonomist Marxism: three themes, three critiques | Workers' Liberty
Dec 27, 2003 · Autonomists have reinterpreted autonomy as meaning autonomy from unions and parties, or even autonomy from other sectors of the working class. " ...
[19]
Workerism and autonomism in Italy's “Hot Autumn”
Mar 27, 2023 · This new movement, dubbed Autonomia Operaia (Workers' Autonomy) privileged local autonomous organising, alternative lifestyles and ...
[20]
Work Refusal and Self-Organization - UT liberal arts
Autonomist Marxism and Self-valorization. It was my discovery of a recurrent insistence by some Marxists on the autonomy of working-class self-activity, not ...
[21]
5. The Refusal of Work - Libcom.org
Jul 24, 2005 · The refusal of work has been continually and violently outlawed, suppressed and mystified by the traditions and the ideology of socialism.
[22]
The Politics of Revolution - Upping the Anti
Oct 8, 2009 · Autonomist Marxists argued that the working class is not reducible to labour power (a commodity); instead, it is the active force producing ...
[23]
Class Composition and Struggle in Italian Autonomist Marxism
The recent publication of two books on operaismo and autonomia and their theoretical heritage testify to the continued interest in this current. Harry Cleaver's ...
[24]
A new revolutionary practice: operaisti and the 'refusal of work' in ...
A new revolutionary practice: operaisti and the 'refusal of work' in 1970's Italy ... In response, Antonio Negri developed an influential and controversial ...
[25]
The Philosophy of Antonio Negri, Volume One: Resistance in Practice
The refusal of work is a central concept both in Antonio Negri's writings and in the larger autonomist theoretical tradition within which his work can be ...
[26]
One Step Forward, Two Steps Back... Toni Negri (1973) - Libcom.org
May 28, 2024 · Capitalist domination and working class sabotage - Antonio Negri. Antonio Negri on capitalism, working class sabotage and the refusal of work ...<|separator|>
[27]
Antonio Negri: Marx Beyond Marx - Autonomies
Dec 18, 2023 · The refusal of work becomes the planned abolition of work as the ... Autonomist Marxism remains a fundamental text on Italian operaista ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[28]
[PDF] The Inversion of Class Perspective in Marxian Theory - UT liberal arts
Negri's concept of self-valorization thus designates what I find useful to characterize as the positive moments of working class autonomy --where the ...
[29]
Digging Up Autonomia - Upping the Anti
Oct 26, 2009 · Consequently, for Negri, “proletarian self-valorisation is the power to withdraw from exchange value and the ability to reappropriate the ...
[30]
[PDF] tronti, negri and the subjeCt of antagonism - Cosmos and History
the self-valorization of capital through command is thus confronted by the self-valorization of the working class via practices of autonomy aimed at ...
[31]
Autonomism: cutting the ground from under Marxism | libcom.org
Sep 2, 2017 · Negri claims the working class refuses capitalist valorisation and instead self-valorised itself 15 . What does this mean? If it means labour is ...Missing: valorization | Show results with:valorization
[32]
Negri's Journey: A Roadmap | Law and Critique
Mar 15, 2024 · Negri develops the refusal of work into a demand that encompasses critical and strategic opportunity. 'Our task is the theoretical reinstatement ...
[33]
The Multitude and the Many-Headed Hydra: Autonomist Marxist ...
Aug 1, 2013 · Autonomist Marxism does not, as some might argue, replace the determinism of capital with the determinism of labor. Autonomist Marxist theory ...
[34]
[PDF] Autonomia in the 1970s - UTS ePress
The Italian new social movement of the 1970s, Autonomia (Autonomy), was a key collective actor in late twentieth–century Italian protest and social conflict. It ...<|separator|>
[35]
A new revolutionary practice: operaisti and the 'refusal of work' in ...
This article focuses on the notion of 'refusal of work' and the ancillary concept of 'appropriation' and examines how these theoretical tools emerged out of ...
[36]
There's no way to delay that trouble coming every day: Italy '77
May 25, 2025 · Feb 17 1977. 50 000 Young people come out on the streets to demonstrate their refusal to accept any "historic compromise", any bureaucratic ...
[37]
[PDF] Post/autonomia - SAS-Space
More than 30 years ago the violent death - on 11 March 1977 - of a left-wing student in the. Italian city of Bologna brought an end to a student protest ...
[38]
Italy: Autonomia (4) – Franco “Bifo” Berardi - Autonomies
Feb 19, 2023 · What they have in common is their participation, until 1973, in the group Workers' Power (Potere Operaio) which then dissolved and became an ...
[39]
Riots Across Italy Shake Government And Communists
Mar 15, 1977 · The weekend riots by students in several Italian cities have deeply shaken the governing Christian Democrats and the Communists and have left politicians ...
[40]
''A laughter that will bury you all'': Irony as protest and language as ...
A paper by Patrick Cuninghame reassessing the Italian 1977 movement and its use of irony to ridicule the institutional old and vanguardist new lefts.Missing: campaigns | Show results with:campaigns
[41]
Autonomia in the 1970s: The Refusal of Work, the Party and Power
One of my aims is to unpack the myths and conspiracy theories surrounding Italian Autonomia and the 1970s to clarify better its role as a movement involved ...
[42]
20. The generation of year nine: youth revolt and the movement of '77
Jan 7, 2012 · At the height of the movement in 1977, tens of thousands of young people were involved in mass protest and street battles with the police. From ...
[43]
Italy on the Brink of Revolution - Lessons from the 70's
Sep 22, 2017 · The question is: where did these tens of thousands of Young Communists go and why did they abandon the Communist Party precisely in the period ...
[44]
Tobias Abse, Judging the PCI, NLR I/153, September–October 1985
### Summary of Clashes Between Autonomia Operaia and the PCI
[45]
Italy: Autonomia (1) - Autonomies
Feb 18, 2023 · Autonomia Operaia emerged as a less structured network of local factory and social collectives in the mid 1970s, bound together by “free” radio ...
[46]
Armed struggle in Italy, 1976-1978 - Libcom.org
Sep 19, 2010 · ... armed struggle ... 12 Zane: A group of comrades from Autonomia Operaia devastate the offices of a contracting firm that exploits sweat labour.
[47]
(PDF) The Politics of Incivility: Autonomia and Tiqqun - Academia.edu
These forms of diffuse illegality converged and were synthesized under the slogan “Let's take the city!,” which identified the city at large as a site of ...<|separator|>
[48]
Armed Struggle in Italy 1976–78 | The Anarchist Library
1 Rome: A march organised by Autonomia Operaia is attacked by the police. Comrades defend themselves with stones and molotovs. Many are wounded. 24 arrests. 27 ...
[49]
Autonomia Operaia - The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
Jul 6, 2011 · Autonomia Operaia. From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia ... Autonomia and armed struggle. From then on, many Autonomi activists ...
[50]
Memories of a Metropolitan Indian- Italian Autonomia | Void Network
Aug 29, 2021 · Each assembly was supported by theatrical events staged by groups of people ridiculing the daily pontificating of “politicians”, inventing ...Missing: achievements controversies
[51]
Memories of a Metropolitan Indian | libcom.org
1977: Bologna. Francesco Lorusso is killed by the police. On the same day the comrades revolt, an unbelievable confrontation, a semi-insurrectional situation.
[52]
A historical background for the party building debate - Angry Workers
Apr 28, 2025 · Among the defence lawyers were Sergio Spazzali and Giuliano Spazzali, who were prominent figures in the defence of communist militants and ...
[53]
[PDF] Autonomia and the political: an Italian cycle of contention, 1972-79
Feb 10, 2015 · Potere Operaio disintegrated in 1973, under pressure from the nascent 'area of Autonomia'; Lotta Continua survived until 1976 but then ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[54]
[PDF] An Historical Case Study of the Italian Red Brigades
The Red Brigade initially directed their efforts in the larger Italian cities of Milan and Turin where they viewed themselves as offshoots of the Autonomia ...
[55]
The failed amnesty of the 'years of lead' in Italy - Sage Journals
Apr 16, 2021 · During the 1970s, Italian institutions dealt with the widespread use of violence ... Autonomia Operaia, including Toni Negri. The ...Missing: incidents | Show results with:incidents
[56]
[PDF] A Study of the Restructured Italian Intelligence and Security Services
over 300 bombings of power lines, railroad stations and tracks, newly built ... Workers' Autonomy (Autonomia Operaia, AlITOP): 15, 40: formation of, 15 ...
[57]
Gli arresti del 7 aprile, 40 anni fa - Il Post
Apr 7, 2019 · Il 7 aprile del 1979, quarant'anni fa, decine di persone, appartenenti o simpatizzanti o considerate vicine alla formazione di sinistra ...Missing: Repressione | Show results with:Repressione
[58]
Apocalypse Soon | Alexander Stille | The New York Review of Books
Nov 7, 2002 · On April 7, 1979, he and about eighty of his followers were arrested in a major crackdown on the movement he then headed, called Autonomia ...
[59]
7 aprile 1979 PCI, Autonomia Operaia, emergenza terrorismo
Apr 7, 1979 · A Padova, il giorno 7 aprile 1979 il sostituto procuratore Calogero emise un ordine di cattura nei confronti di Antonio Negri, Luciano Ferrari ...
[60]
Il processo "7 aprile" e il nodo del garantismo penale
Apr 7, 2024 · Il processo del 7 aprile 1979, ero giudice istruttore a Padova da 4 anni, arriva alla fine di un decennio carico di contraddizioni e ...Missing: Repressione | Show results with:Repressione<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
Quaranta anni fa il blitz del 7 aprile.La stagione della repressione di ...
Apr 7, 2019 · Il 7 aprile del 1979, di cui oggi ricorrono i quaranta anni, venivano arrestati con un blitz della polizia su mandato del giudice Calogero, ...
[62]
Open Memory sul 7 Aprile 1979 - Autonomia Operaia - Global Project
Apr 6, 2022 · È la storia di un “teorema giudiziario” che si trasforma in un vero e proprio laboratorio di emergenza permanente, in una repressione senza ...
[63]
7 aprile 1979 – La grande repressione - MilanoInMovimento
Apr 6, 2019 · Nella mattinata di sabato 7 aprile 1979, su ordine della Procura di Padova vengono eseguiti i primi 22 ordini di cattura contro esponenti ...
[64]
April 7: Repression in Italy - CARI - Libcom.org
Oct 26, 2019 · On April 7, 1979 the police arrested about 20 people claiming ... as well as other groups related to “Autonomia Operaia.” A POLITICAL ...Missing: clashes | Show results with:clashes
[65]
Italy: Autonomia (8) – Mario Tronti - Autonomies
Feb 20, 2023 · In an eloquent, incisive and auto-biographical text, Mario Tronti looks back at the development of Italian operaismo during the 1950s/60s.Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
[66]
Class composition and struggle in Italian Autonomist Marxism
Wright uses the concept of 'class composition' as an explanatory thread that runs through the peculiar political and intellectual affairs of Italian operaismo.<|separator|>
[67]
7. Toni Negri and the Operaio Sociale - Libcom.org
Aug 17, 2023 · By 1975 the self-defined 'organised' components of Autonomia, stretching from the group around Negri or the remnants of Oreste Scalzone's wing ...
[68]
The limits of Negri's class analysis: Italian autonomist theory in the ...
Dec 8, 2005 · ... FIAT's Mirafiori plant in March 1973. At the same time, his ... ll , and 'Autonomia operaia organizzata: rapporto da Milano', Autonomia Operaia, ...Missing: 1970s | Show results with:1970s
[69]
Autonomism: The Politics of Antonio Negri - socialist.ca
Jan 1, 2003 · Empire builds on the ideas of the autonomists that arose during the huge upturn in struggle a quarter of a century ago in Italy.
[70]
The Word Made Struggle: Notes on Steve Wright's The Weight of the ...
Oct 25, 2021 · In this now classic work, Wright traces the development of practices central to the operaismo movement in the post-war era as it developed forms ...
[71]
The rise and fall of Autonomia Operaia
Jan 16, 1979 · This article deals essentially with Workers' Autonomy in Italy, since it's there that the movement has really developed. But its conclusions ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[72]
A Party of Autonomy? | communists in situ - WordPress.com
Mar 27, 2019 · Autonomia operaia is a party, from the phenomenal, organisational and structural point of view—Judge Pietro Calogero (La Repubblica 1979: 120).
[73]
The crisis of the Italian revolutionary Left (Autumn 1979)
Jul 4, 2013 · In Rome the Movimento del 1977 saw the emergence of Autonomia Operaia as the dominant force on the far left. The PDUP sided with the PCI. DP ...Missing: achievements controversies