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Avoidance coping

Avoidance coping is a psychological strategy for managing stress in which individuals disengage from or avoid confronting a stressor directly, often through denial, distraction, or withdrawal, rather than addressing the problem head-on.^[1] This approach provides short-term relief from emotional discomfort but is generally considered maladaptive over time, as it can perpetuate stress and hinder problem resolution.^[2] Avoidance coping can be categorized into several types, including cognitive avoidance, which involves suppressing or denying thoughts related to the stressor (such as avoiding realistic thinking about a problem), and behavioral avoidance, which entails physically or actively evading situations (like procrastination or escaping through diversion activities).^[2] It may also manifest passively, through resignation or withdrawal from engagement with the stressor, or more actively, via efforts to minimize or redirect attention away from it.^[3] These strategies contrast with approach coping, which focuses on tackling stressors directly to reduce or eliminate them.^[3] Research consistently links avoidance coping to negative mental health outcomes, including increased depressive symptoms, anxiety disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).^[3] For instance, longitudinal studies show that higher use of avoidance coping prospectively generates both chronic and acute life stressors, which in turn mediate elevated depressive symptoms over periods as long as 10 years, even after controlling for initial depression levels.^[2] In PTSD, avoidance is a core diagnostic criterion under DSM-5, where it maintains fear and anxiety by preventing exposure and habituation to the trauma-related cues.^[3] While avoidance may offer temporary benefits, such as reduced immediate distress during acute phases of stress, its overuse is associated with poorer long-term adjustment and well-being.^[4]

Introduction and Definition

Definition

Avoidance coping is a psychological strategy characterized by conscious or unconscious efforts to evade or disengage from stressors, threats, or emotional distress, rather than addressing them directly through problem-solving or confrontation. This approach involves behaviors and cognitions aimed at minimizing immediate discomfort by avoiding the source of stress, often at the expense of long-term resolution.^[3] In contrast to active coping methods that seek to alter the stressor or one's emotional response to it, avoidance coping prioritizes temporary relief through detachment.^[5] Key characteristics of avoidance coping include disengagement techniques such as denial of the problem's existence, distraction through unrelated activities, or withdrawal from the stressful situation.^[6] These strategies manifest in everyday scenarios, for instance, procrastinating on overwhelming work tasks to delay anxiety, using alcohol or other substances to numb emotional pain, or physically leaving a conflict-ridden environment to escape interpersonal tension.^[7] Such responses provide short-term emotional regulation but can perpetuate unresolved issues by preventing adaptive engagement with the stressor.^[8] A closely related concept is experiential avoidance, which specifically involves attempts to suppress or control unwanted internal experiences, such as distressing thoughts, emotions, memories, or bodily sensations, even when this avoidance leads to behavioral restrictions or harm. Defined as an unwillingness to remain in contact with these private events, experiential avoidance functions as a core feature of avoidance coping by focusing on internal evasion rather than external threats.^[9] This process underscores how avoidance coping extends beyond situational escape to broader efforts at experiential control, often reinforcing maladaptive patterns in response to psychological distress.^[10]

Distinction from Approach Coping

Approach coping refers to active strategies that involve direct engagement with a stressor, such as problem-focused efforts like planning and seeking social support, or emotion-focused techniques like cognitive reframing to manage distress. These strategies orient cognitive and emotional activity toward the threat, promoting alertness, self-responsibility, and information-seeking to address the source of stress.^[11] In contrast, avoidance coping entails disengagement from the stressor, characterized by passive or evasive behaviors that turn away from the threat, such as denial or distraction. The primary differences lie in their orientations and outcomes: avoidance provides short-term relief by suppressing immediate emotional discomfort but often prolongs overall stress by preventing resolution, whereas approach coping actively confronts the issue, facilitating long-term adaptation and growth through assimilation of the experience.^[11] Avoidance is inherently disengagement-oriented and passive, minimizing contact with the stressor, while approach is confrontational and active, targeting the stressor directly to alter or manage it.^[12] This distinction forms a theoretical dichotomy in coping literature, rooted in the approach-avoidance model, which posits that coping responses are fundamentally either toward or away from the stressor source, drawing from earlier psychoanalytic and behavioral frameworks. Empirical studies support this framework, showing avoidance strategies correlate with elevated anxiety levels over time due to unresolved threats, whereas approach strategies are associated with improved psychological adjustment and reduced distress.^[12]

Types of Avoidance Coping

Behavioral Avoidance

Behavioral avoidance refers to tangible, overt actions individuals take to physically or situationally escape or minimize direct contact with a stressor, thereby reducing immediate exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli. This form of coping involves deliberate behavioral maneuvers, such as altering one's environment or routine to sidestep the source of stress, distinguishing it from more passive or internal strategies. For instance, in response to overwhelming work demands, an individual might quit their job abruptly to eliminate the pressure, providing temporary relief but potentially at the cost of financial stability. Common examples of behavioral avoidance include staying home to evade social interactions in cases of social anxiety, avoiding specific locations associated with traumatic events, or engaging in escapist activities like excessive shopping or substance use to divert attention from stressors. In interpersonal conflicts, a person might repeatedly cancel plans or relocate to distance themselves from a contentious relationship, thereby limiting opportunities for confrontation. These actions are often instinctive responses aimed at immediate threat reduction, as seen in everyday scenarios where individuals skip appointments or procrastinate on tasks to postpone discomfort. The underlying mechanism of behavioral avoidance frequently aligns with principles of operant conditioning, where the act of evasion serves as a reinforcer by delivering short-term anxiety relief, thereby increasing the likelihood of future avoidance behaviors. This reinforcement cycle can perpetuate the pattern, as the temporary escape strengthens the association between avoidance and reduced distress, even if it does not address the root cause of the stressor. Research highlights how this process is particularly evident in conditioned fear responses, where repeated avoidance prevents habituation to the feared stimulus. Behavioral avoidance is prevalent in various psychological contexts, including phobias where individuals steer clear of feared objects or situations, such as avoiding public transportation due to claustrophobia, which can progressively restrict daily activities and mobility. In post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), survivors may avoid places, people, or conversations reminiscent of the trauma, leading to social isolation and diminished quality of life. Similarly, in interpersonal conflicts, such as marital discord, partners might physically withdraw or separate to evade arguments, resulting in narrowed social networks and limited personal growth opportunities. These patterns underscore how behavioral avoidance, while providing momentary respite, often constrains lifestyle choices and adaptive functioning over time.

Cognitive Avoidance

Cognitive avoidance refers to internal mental strategies employed to evade or minimize emotional confrontation with stressors by altering thoughts or perceptions, such as denial, wishful thinking, and mental disengagement.^[13] These efforts aim to shield individuals from aversive emotional stimulation, often by inhibiting the processing of threatening information through redirection of attention.^[14] Unlike behavioral avoidance, which involves observable actions to escape situations, cognitive avoidance operates covertly within the mind to reduce immediate anxious arousal.^[15] Common examples include denial, where individuals reject the reality of a stressor; wishful thinking, involving unrealistic hopes that the problem will resolve itself; and mental disengagement, such as distracting oneself with unrelated thoughts or suppressing unwanted memories.^[16] For instance, minimizing the severity of a problem by telling oneself "It's not that bad" represents a form of cognitive evasion that downplays potential threats.^[2] Self-distraction might manifest as ruminating on neutral or unrelated topics to avoid confronting painful emotions, while thought suppression actively pushes traumatic memories out of awareness.^[17] These strategies are mechanistically linked to cognitive distortions, such as overgeneralization or selective abstraction, which warp perceptions to avoid distress but ultimately hinder adaptive processing of emotions.^[18] By providing short-term emotional numbing through disengagement, cognitive avoidance prevents deeper reflection and resolution, potentially reinforcing maladaptive patterns over time.^[19] Cognitive avoidance is particularly prevalent in contexts like anxiety disorders, where it sustains fear by blocking exposure to corrective information; depression, where denial and wishful thinking exacerbate feelings of helplessness; and grief, especially complicated grief, where mental disengagement prolongs unresolved mourning.^[20]^[21] In these conditions, individuals often rely on such tactics to sidestep acknowledging painful realities, though this can impede long-term psychological adjustment.^[22]

Theoretical Foundations

Historical Development

The concept of avoidance coping traces its early roots to behaviorist traditions in the late 1930s and 1950s, where researchers like O.H. Mowrer integrated Pavlovian conditioning with instrumental learning to explain how organisms acquire avoidance behaviors to escape or prevent aversive stimuli.^[23] B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning framework further influenced this area by emphasizing reinforcement mechanisms in avoidance learning, portraying it as a learned response that strengthens through the reduction of fear or discomfort.^[23] Concurrently, psychoanalytic ideas from Sigmund Freud on repression as a defense mechanism against anxiety provided a foundational influence, later recast in behavioral terms to describe unconscious or deliberate evasion of distressing thoughts and emotions.^[23] In the 1970s, Rudolf Moos advanced coping typologies by developing frameworks to classify responses to stress, including avoidance strategies such as denial and escape, which he examined in contexts like chronic illness and life transitions to highlight their role in short-term adaptation.^[24] This period also saw the emergence of emotion-focused coping research, building toward more structured models of avoidance as a way to manage overwhelming emotions rather than directly addressing stressors.^[24] A pivotal milestone came in 1984 with Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman's transactional model of stress and coping, which formalized avoidance as a maladaptive emotion-focused strategy involving denial, escapism, or behavioral disengagement, often exacerbating stress by preventing problem resolution.^[25] The late 1980s introduced Charles Carver's COPE inventory in 1989, which operationalized avoidance coping through subscales like denial, mental disengagement, and behavioral disengagement, enabling empirical assessment of its links to personality and outcomes in stressful situations.^[26] In the 1990s, Steven Hayes integrated avoidance into the Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) framework, conceptualizing experiential avoidance as a core process in psychological suffering—defined as rigid attempts to suppress or alter internal experiences—and advocating acceptance as an alternative.^[27] Post-1980, avoidance gained prominence in PTSD literature, where it was recognized as a defining symptom cluster involving persistent evasion of trauma reminders, influencing diagnostic criteria and treatment models.^[28]

Relation to Stress Theories

Avoidance coping is conceptualized within the transactional model of stress and coping as a primary form of emotion-focused coping, employed when individuals appraise a stressor as uncontrollable or unchangeable, thereby shifting focus from altering the situation to managing the associated emotional distress.^[29] In this framework, developed by Lazarus and Folkman, primary appraisal evaluates the threat posed by the stressor, while secondary appraisal assesses coping options; avoidance strategies, such as denial or withdrawal, emerge when problem-focused efforts seem futile, aiming to reduce immediate psychological strain rather than resolve the underlying issue. This approach highlights avoidance's adaptive short-term role in uncontrollable contexts but underscores its limitations in promoting long-term resolution.^[30] Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, proposed by Hobfoll, frames avoidance coping as a maladaptive response that exacerbates resource depletion rather than conserving them, leading to escalating loss spirals under stress.^[31] According to COR, individuals are motivated to acquire, protect, and build resources (e.g., emotional, social, or material); however, avoidance prevents engagement with threats, failing to replenish or safeguard resources and instead fostering further losses, such as diminished self-efficacy or social support, which intensify stress over time.^[32] For instance, by evading problem confrontation, avoidance can initiate cycles where initial resource threats compound into broader psychological strain, contrasting with resource-gain strategies that mitigate such spirals.^[33] From the perspective of polyvagal theory, avoidance coping aligns with autonomic shutdown responses, particularly dorsal vagal activation, which serves as an evolutionarily conserved emotion regulation mechanism to suppress fight-or-flight engagement during overwhelming stress. This theory posits that the vagus nerve modulates social engagement and threat responses; in high-threat scenarios, avoidance manifests as immobilization or withdrawal, conserving energy by downregulating arousal but potentially hindering adaptive social connection and emotional processing.^[34] Such responses, while protective against immediate danger, can perpetuate emotion dysregulation if chronically relied upon, linking avoidance to broader patterns of autonomic imbalance.^[35] In diathesis-stress models of psychopathology, avoidance coping functions as a key vulnerability factor that amplifies the impact of chronic stress on mental health outcomes, transforming latent predispositions into clinical disorders.^[36] These models suggest that while genetic or temperamental diatheses provide baseline susceptibility, avoidance exacerbates stress reactivity by avoiding resolution, thereby increasing risks for conditions like anxiety or depression through sustained hypervigilance or emotional suppression. For example, habitual avoidance under prolonged stress can interact with vulnerabilities to erode resilience, fostering a pathway to psychopathology that underscores the need for targeted interventions to shift toward more approach-oriented strategies.^[37]

Psychological and Health Effects

Short-Term Effects

Avoidance coping can provide immediate psychological relief by temporarily reducing anxiety and distress levels through mechanisms such as distraction or denial, allowing individuals to experience a brief sense of control over overwhelming emotions.^[38] For instance, engaging in behavioral avoidance, like postponing a difficult conversation, may lead to short-term mood improvement by shifting attention away from the stressor, though subtle unresolved tension may persist.^[39] This relief is often short-lived, as suppression of unwanted thoughts can result in a rebound effect, where the avoided emotions intensify shortly afterward.^[40] Physiologically, avoidance strategies such as distraction have been shown to facilitate better recovery of cortisol levels following acute stress exposure, potentially lowering immediate spikes in this stress hormone and aiding a quicker return to baseline.^[41] Similarly, in response to psychosocial stressors, avoidance coping may attenuate short-term elevations in sympathetic nervous system activity, including heart rate, by promoting disengagement from the threat, though this can sometimes lead to subsequent hyperarousal if the stressor intrudes.^[42] These responses highlight avoidance's role in modulating the body's acute fight-or-flight activation during imminent threats.^[43] Behaviorally, avoidance enables quick disengagement from the stressor, permitting focus on neutral or pleasurable activities that reinforce immediate calm, such as watching television or engaging in hobbies.^[39] However, this pattern can foster early habituation to evasion tactics, making individuals more reliant on avoidance for handling minor pressures in the short term.^[43]

Long-Term Consequences

Reliance on avoidance coping over extended periods is associated with heightened risk for various mental health disorders, as unaddressed stressors accumulate and exacerbate emotional dysregulation. Longitudinal research has demonstrated that adolescents employing avoidant strategies experience significantly elevated depressive symptoms two years later, independent of gender or initial symptom levels, with consistent avoidant copers showing the highest persistence of symptoms.^[44] Similarly, avoidance coping mediates the relationship between trauma-related shame and PTSD symptom severity in survivors of interpersonal violence, accounting for a substantial portion of the indirect effect on chronic PTSD outcomes.^[45] This pattern extends to anxiety disorders, where avoidant responses to imminent threats correlate with sustained high anxiety levels over time.^[46] Furthermore, avoidance coping predicts poorer substance abuse treatment outcomes and increased risk for alcohol use disorders persisting up to 16 years, as it facilitates escape motives that perpetuate dependency cycles.^[47]^[48] Recent 2025 research further indicates that avoidance-based strategies contribute directly and indirectly to poorer long-term outcomes and impaired meaning-making in response to stress.^[49] The prolonged use of avoidance coping contributes to physical health declines by fostering chronic stress, which suppresses immune function and heightens vulnerability to illness. Experiential avoidance, a core component of avoidance coping, is linked to impaired immune responses and reduced pain tolerance, leading to poorer adjustment in conditions like chronic pain and cancer over time.^[43] This chronic stress accumulation also elevates cardiovascular risks, as sustained avoidance prevents resolution of stressors that would otherwise mitigate physiological strain on the heart and vascular system.^[43] Additionally, avoidance strategies disrupt sleep patterns, resulting in persistent disturbances that compound fatigue and overall health deterioration in longitudinal observations.^[43] Socially, habitual avoidance coping leads to isolation and strained relationships, as individuals evade interpersonal conflicts, diminishing social support networks essential for resilience. Longitudinal studies indicate that avoidance generates interpersonal stressors, fostering withdrawal and conflict that erode relational quality over years.^[2] Functionally, it contributes to career stagnation and broader impairments, with avoidant copers exhibiting lower adaptive functioning and higher perceived constraints that hinder professional and daily goal attainment.^[50] Evidence from trauma-exposed cohorts shows avoidance predicts poorer long-term adjustment, including reduced occupational engagement and increased disability in survivors.^[20]

Measurement and Assessment

Common Instruments

The Brief COPE (Carver, 1997) is a widely used self-report measure designed to assess coping strategies in response to stressful events, including avoidance-oriented subscales such as behavioral disengagement (e.g., giving up efforts to solve the problem) and denial (e.g., refusing to believe the stressor has occurred). It consists of 28 items rated on a 4-point Likert scale, with two items per subscale across 14 coping dimensions, allowing for efficient identification of avoidance tendencies in both research and clinical contexts. The Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988) provides a more comprehensive assessment of coping responses to specific stressors, incorporating avoidance-oriented strategies such as escape-avoidance (e.g., wishing the situation would go away) and confrontative coping elements that may overlap with avoidance.^[51] This 66-item self-report instrument uses a 4-point frequency scale to evaluate thoughts and actions employed during a particular stressful encounter, facilitating detailed profiling of avoidance in situational analyses.^[51] The Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II; Bond et al., 2011) is a 7-item self-report measure assessing experiential avoidance and psychological inflexibility, key components related to avoidance coping. Items such as "I'm afraid of my feelings" are rated on a 7-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating greater avoidance. It is widely used due to its brevity and strong correlations with avoidance strategies in mental health research.^[52] Other notable tools include the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960), a 33-item true-false questionnaire employed to detect and adjust for social desirability bias in self-reports of avoidance coping, as respondents may underreport undesirable avoidance behaviors to appear more socially acceptable.^[53] The Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire (AFQ; Gámez et al., 2011), an adaptation of the youth version for adults, is a 17-item self-report scale targeting experiential avoidance—characterized by fusion with thoughts and suppression of internal experiences—through items like "I try to avoid thinking about things that make me anxious."^[54] These instruments are typically administered as self-report surveys in laboratory, clinical, or online environments, often taking 10-20 minutes to complete, with scoring derived from subscale means or sums to quantify avoidance coping levels.^[55]

Psychometric Properties

Instruments assessing avoidance coping, such as the Brief COPE, demonstrate generally high internal consistency for their avoidance-related subscales (e.g., denial, behavioral disengagement), with Cronbach's alpha values typically ranging from 0.50 to 0.80 across multiple studies, though often lower for two-item avoidance subscales like denial and behavioral disengagement.^[56] Test-retest reliability for these subscales is satisfactory, ranging from 0.60 to 0.80 over intervals of weeks to months, indicating moderate temporal stability.^[57] Validity evidence is robust, with convergent validity established through moderate positive correlations (r ≈ 0.20–0.50) between avoidance coping scores and established measures of anxiety and depression.^[58] Predictive validity is supported by findings that higher avoidance coping predicts subsequent maladjustment and poorer psychosocial outcomes.^[2] Construct validity is confirmed via factor analytic studies that delineate distinct avoidance dimensions, separate from other coping strategies.^[59] Despite these strengths, limitations include susceptibility to self-report biases, such as social desirability, which may lead respondents to underreport avoidance behaviors.^[60] Cultural variations in response styles can affect measurement equivalence, with less validation in non-Western populations.^[61] Additionally, these instruments are less effective at capturing implicit or unconscious avoidance, relying instead on explicit self-perception.^[62] Systematic reviews and meta-analyses corroborate the overall utility of generic avoidance coping measures in diverse populations, though they recommend adjustments for clinical versus non-clinical samples to enhance applicability.^[61]^[63]

Treatment and Management

Therapeutic Interventions

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a primary evidence-based intervention for addressing avoidance coping, particularly through techniques such as exposure therapy, which systematically confronts avoided stimuli to reduce fear and avoidance behaviors associated with conditions like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).^[64] In exposure therapy, individuals gradually engage with trauma-related memories or situations in a controlled manner, diminishing the reinforcing effects of avoidance and promoting habituation.^[65] Cognitive restructuring complements this by identifying and challenging maladaptive beliefs that sustain denial and evasion, fostering more adaptive interpretations of stressors.^[64] Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) targets avoidance coping by encouraging acceptance of uncomfortable thoughts and emotions rather than attempting to suppress or evade them, thereby enhancing psychological flexibility.^[66] Core components include mindfulness exercises to observe internal experiences non-judgmentally and commitment to value-driven actions that counteract avoidance patterns.^[66] This approach views experiential avoidance—defined as efforts to alter distressing private events—as a key maintainer of psychopathology, and ACT interventions aim to undermine it through defusion techniques and behavioral activation aligned with personal values.^[67] Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) incorporates skills training in distress tolerance to replace avoidance-based evasion with strategies for enduring emotional pain without resorting to maladaptive coping.^[68] Modules focus on acceptance-based practices, such as radical acceptance and distraction techniques, which build capacity to tolerate distress while maintaining engagement with life challenges.^[69] Originally developed for borderline personality disorder, DBT adaptations for PTSD emphasize integrating these skills to interrupt cycles of avoidance that exacerbate trauma symptoms.^[70] Randomized controlled trials demonstrate the efficacy of these therapies in reducing avoidance coping and improving symptoms.^[64] For instance, meta-analyses of CBT exposure protocols show significant symptom remission, with 61% to 82% of participants losing their PTSD diagnosis post-treatment.^[64] Similarly, ACT outperforms treatment-as-usual in alleviating avoidance-related distress, while DBT yields superior outcomes in emotion regulation and avoidance reduction compared to standard care.^[67]^[69]

Promotion of Adaptive Coping

Self-help techniques offer accessible ways to foster adaptive coping by encouraging individuals to confront stressors gradually rather than avoiding them. Journaling, for instance, facilitates emotional processing through positive cognitive restructuring, where individuals reframe negative experiences, which is strongly associated with self-compassion and reduced reliance on avoidance strategies.^[71] Setting small confrontation goals, such as breaking down overwhelming tasks into manageable steps or practicing gradual exposure to feared situations, promotes approach-oriented behaviors and diminishes avoidance tendencies over time.^[72] Building support networks by actively seeking emotional or instrumental support from others further enhances resilience, as self-compassionate practices indirectly encourage recognition of shared human experiences, leading to more effective engagement with challenges.^[71] Educational programs provide structured opportunities to develop approach skills and prevent the entrenchment of avoidance coping. Stress management workshops, such as those focused on coping with academic or professional pressures, teach techniques like cognitive appraisal and problem-solving, resulting in significant reductions in stress (effect size d = -0.33) and burnout components like emotional exhaustion (d = -0.27) among participants compared to controls.^[73] Similarly, training in stress management skills over 10 sessions has been shown to boost psychological well-being (eta squared = 0.848) and academic vitality (eta squared = 0.545) in college students by promoting components like personal growth and positive relations.^[74] For youth, school-based interventions emphasize non-clinical strategies, including positive reinforcement for attendance and social skills training to navigate peer interactions, which improve school engagement and reduce avoidance behaviors like refusal, with gains maintained at follow-ups of 5-24 months.^[72] Lifestyle factors play a key role in building resilience and curtailing avoidance by integrating daily practices that support emotional regulation. Regular exercise contributes to better stress adjustment in college students by enhancing overall coping efficacy alongside other techniques.^[75] Mindfulness practices, often delivered via apps or guided sessions, foster acceptance of difficult emotions and shift toward approach coping, with dispositional mindfulness linked to decreased avoidant strategies and improved adjustment in populations facing chronic stress, such as cancer patients.^[76] Routine-building activities, like consistent scheduling of self-care, further reinforce these habits to sustain long-term resilience. Evidence from preventive studies underscores the efficacy of these strategies in reducing avoidance. For example, an 8-week mindfulness-based training program for high school students led to a significant decrease in avoidant coping (F = 27.41, P < 0.05), accounting for 60% of the variance in improved coping styles, alongside increases in problem-oriented approaches.^[77] Such programs demonstrate that accessible interventions can effectively promote adaptive shifts without requiring clinical involvement.

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The Factor Structure and External Validity of the COPE 60 Inventory ...
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Cognitive–behavioral therapy for management of mental health and ...
Oct 3, 2021 · Cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) helps individuals to eliminate avoidant and safety-seeking behaviors that prevent self-correction of faulty beliefs.
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Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: A Transdiagnostic ...
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A meta-analysis of the efficacy of acceptance and commitment ...
Our findings indicate that ACT is more effective than TAU and untreated groups in treating anxiety, depression and other mental and behavioral disorders.
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Dialectical Behavior Therapy: Current Indications and Unique ...
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is a comprehensive, evidence-based treatment for borderline personality disorder (BPD).
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Dialectical behaviour therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (DBT ...
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Self-Compassion, Stress, and Coping - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Among the five coping categories discussed here—positive cognitive restructuring, problem solving, seeking support, distraction, and escape/avoidance—self- ...
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A review of the effectiveness of stress management skills training on ...
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May 31, 2021 · Based on the results of the present study, it can be said that mindfulness training is an effective intervention to improve coping styles, test anxiety, and ...