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Immobilization

Immobilization refers to processes or techniques that restrict movement or fix components in place, with applications across various fields including medicine, chemistry, biotechnology, soil science, and industry. In medicine, it is the practice of restricting movement of a body part, joint, or limb to promote healing, reduce pain, and prevent further tissue damage following injuries such as fractures, sprains, or dislocations.^[1]^[2] This technique is a cornerstone of orthopedic care and emergency first aid, particularly in prehospital settings where stabilizing suspected musculoskeletal injuries facilitates safe patient transport and minimizes complications like nerve compression or vascular impairment.^[2] According to the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the American College of Surgeons, there are approximately 42.2 million annual emergency department visits in the US related to injuries, of which about 14% involve musculoskeletal trauma.^[2] Common applications include anterior shoulder dislocations (accounting for 95% of cases), posterior hip dislocations (90%), and knee dislocations (50% of which reduce spontaneously but still demand immobilization to avoid arterial injury).^[2] Methods of immobilization vary by injury location and severity, ranging from rigid supports like plaster or fiberglass casts for complete fixation of fractures to semi-rigid options such as slings, braces, or traction splints for joints like the shoulder, knee, or femur.^[3]^[2] In practice, the procedure begins with manual stabilization, neurovascular assessment, and application of the device above and below the affected area to ensure alignment and comfort, often followed by elevation and ice to control swelling.^[2] While effective, prolonged immobilization carries risks such as muscle atrophy, joint stiffness, or pressure sores, necessitating interprofessional monitoring by physicians, nurses, and physical therapists to balance stability with rehabilitation.^[4]^[2]

In Chemistry and Biotechnology

Enzyme Immobilization

Enzyme immobilization refers to the confinement of enzyme molecules to a solid support or matrix distinct from the reaction medium containing substrates and products, which facilitates enzyme reuse, enhances stability, and simplifies separation from the reaction mixture.^[5] This technique allows enzymes to retain their catalytic activity while being physically or chemically attached to insoluble carriers, such as polymers, inorganic materials, or aggregates.^[6] The historical development of enzyme immobilization began with the first reported instance in 1916, when invertase was adsorbed onto aluminum hydroxide, demonstrating retained enzymatic activity. Significant advancements occurred in the 1960s, including the introduction of gel entrapment methods, such as incorporating enzymes into polyacrylamide gels, which expanded immobilization options for industrial applications.^[7] Physical methods of enzyme immobilization rely on weak, non-covalent interactions and include adsorption, entrapment, and encapsulation. Adsorption involves the attachment of enzymes to support surfaces via van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, or ionic interactions, such as ionic binding of enzymes to ion exchangers like DEAE-cellulose.^[5] Entrapment confines enzymes within a gel matrix, exemplified by inclusion in calcium alginate beads, where the gel network allows substrate diffusion while retaining the enzyme. Encapsulation encloses enzymes in semi-permeable microcapsules, such as those formed from nylon or cellulose nitrate membranes, protecting the enzyme from environmental factors.^[7] Chemical methods form stronger covalent bonds between the enzyme and support, providing greater stability. Covalent binding typically uses activated supports like CNBr-Sepharose, where cyanogen bromide reacts with hydroxyl groups on agarose to create reactive isourea derivatives that link to enzyme amino groups. Cross-linking methods, such as the formation of cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs), precipitate enzymes and stabilize them with bifunctional agents like glutaraldehyde, eliminating the need for a separate carrier. Immobilization offers key advantages, including prolonged enzyme half-life, improved operational stability under harsh conditions, and straightforward recovery of products without enzyme contamination.^[7] However, it can introduce mass transfer limitations, where substrate diffusion to the enzyme active site reduces apparent reaction rates, and the cost of support materials may increase overall expenses. In industrial biocatalysis, immobilized enzymes are widely applied in food processing, such as glucose isomerase bound to DEAE-cellulose for producing high-fructose corn syrup via glucose-to-fructose isomerization, enabling continuous operation and enzyme reuse over thousands of cycles. In pharmaceuticals, immobilized penicillin acylase hydrolyzes penicillin G to 6-aminopenicillanic acid, a precursor for semi-synthetic antibiotics like amoxicillin, reducing production costs and improving purity. A notable example is the immobilization of Burkholderia cepacia lipase on a silica monolith for biodiesel production through transesterification of vegetable oils with methanol. This setup achieves high conversion yields (up to 95%) and allows catalyst reuse for over 100 cycles with minimal activity loss. Immobilization alters kinetic parameters, such as increasing the apparent Michaelis constant (K_m) due to diffusional restrictions; the reaction velocity can be modeled by the inhibited Michaelis-Menten equation:

v = \frac{V_{\max} [S]}{K_m \left(1 + \frac{[I]}{K_i}\right) + [S]}

where [S] is substrate concentration, [I] represents inhibitory species like methanol, and immobilization primarily affects K_m by elevating it through substrate mass transfer limitations. Recent advances as of 2025 include the use of artificial intelligence to optimize immobilization parameters for enhanced efficiency, the development of enzyme nanoflowers for improved stability and activity, and carrier-free methods using covalent organic frameworks (COFs) for co-immobilization of enzymes.^[8]^[9]

Cell Immobilization

Cell immobilization refers to the entrapment or localization of viable whole cells or microorganisms within a defined region of space, such that their viability and metabolic activity are preserved to enable repeated or continuous use in bioprocesses.^[10] This technique confines living cells to supports or matrices, distinguishing it from simpler enzyme immobilization methods applied to non-living biocatalysts.^[10] Common techniques for cell immobilization include entrapment in gels, adsorption onto carriers, encapsulation within membranes, and biofilm formation. In gel entrapment, cells such as yeast are suspended in sodium alginate solution and dropped into calcium chloride to form calcium alginate beads, providing a porous matrix for nutrient diffusion.^[10] Adsorption involves attaching cells to solid carriers like diatomaceous earth through physical or ionic interactions, allowing easy recovery but risking desorption over time.^[10] Encapsulation uses semi-permeable membranes, such as hollow fibers, to enclose cells while permitting substrate and product exchange.^[10] Biofilm formation promotes natural adhesion of microbial communities to surfaces, often in bioreactors for long-term stability.^[10] Compared to free-cell systems, immobilized cells achieve higher densities within reactors, offer protection against shear stress and toxic environments, and support continuous bioprocessing without frequent harvesting.^[10] However, challenges include mass transfer limitations from diffusion barriers in the matrix, which can reduce reaction rates, and potential cell leakage that may contaminate products.^[10] Key applications span environmental, energy, and food sectors. In wastewater treatment, immobilized bacteria facilitate nitrification by converting ammonia to nitrate in packed-bed reactors.^[10] For biofuel production, algal cells immobilized in gels produce hydrogen through photobiological processes, enhancing yield via cell recycling.^[10] In food fermentation, lactic acid bacteria entrapped in matrices accelerate dairy product acidification while maintaining flavor profiles.^[10] A prominent example is the formation of calcium alginate beads through ionic gelation, where a sodium alginate solution containing cells reacts with calcium chloride to yield insoluble calcium alginate gel:

\text{Na-alginate} + \text{CaCl}_2 \rightarrow \text{Ca-alginate gel} + 2\text{NaCl}

Bead size critically influences diffusion rates, with smaller beads (1-2 mm) minimizing substrate gradients but increasing preparation costs.^[10]^[11] Industrial scale-up has been demonstrated in beer production, where yeast immobilized in alginate or porous supports enables continuous fermentation, reducing processing time by approximately 50% compared to batch methods.^[12] Recent developments as of 2025 include co-immobilization of cells and enzymes in COFs for multi-step biocatalysis and novel hydrogel methods like porous thin-film PVA for enhanced fermentation dynamics in vitamin K2 production.^[13]^[14]

In Medicine

Orthopedic Immobilization

Orthopedic immobilization refers to the use of external devices to fixate injured limbs or joints, restricting movement to promote healing, reduce pain, and prevent further damage from instability.^[2] This approach is commonly applied in non-emergency clinical settings for conditions such as fractures, ligament sprains, and post-surgical recovery, allowing tissues to mend without displacement.^[15] The primary goal is to maintain anatomical alignment during the initial healing phases, typically involving rigid or semi-rigid supports that distribute forces evenly across the affected area.^[16] Common methods include plaster casts, fiberglass casts, splints, and braces. Plaster casts, made from plaster of Paris (calcium sulfate hemihydrate, CaSO₄·½H₂O), harden through an exothermic hydration reaction when mixed with water:

$2(\ce{CaSO4 \cdot 1/2 H2O}) + 3\ce{H2O} \rightarrow 2(\ce{CaSO4 \cdot 2 H2O}) + \text{[heat](/page/Heat)}

This process allows molding to the limb's contour before setting, providing excellent conformability but requiring 36-72 hours to fully dry.^[17] Fiberglass casts offer a lighter, more durable alternative, setting in 5-7 minutes and resisting water, while splints—such as posterior or volar types—provide temporary or partial immobilization without full encirclement.^[16] Braces, including functional knee braces, allow controlled motion to support rehabilitation; for instance, these devices reduce joint instability in ligament injuries by applying dynamic forces, such as up to 48 N of anterior loading at 45° flexion.^[18] Indications encompass fractures (e.g., distal radius or metacarpal), sprains, and recovery following orthopedic surgery, with immobilization duration tailored to healing stages—often 4-6 weeks for simple fractures like those in the metacarpal or distal radius, extending to 6-8 weeks for larger bones like the femur.^[16] In Colles' fractures (distal radius fractures with dorsal angulation), a volar slab splint extends from the distal palmar crease to just below the elbow, positioned in slight palmar flexion and ulnar deviation to maintain reduction.^[19] For pediatric patients, immobilization must account for open growth plates (physes), which comprise 15-30% of childhood fractures; conservative casting is preferred for Salter-Harris type I and II injuries (the most common, at 80% combined), but careful monitoring is essential to avoid premature physeal closure leading to growth disturbances or limb-length discrepancies.^[20] Potential complications include muscle atrophy from disuse, pressure sores due to poor padding or tight application, and acute compartment syndrome from elevated intracompartmental pressure exceeding 30 mmHg.^[16] Monitoring involves regular neurovascular checks—assessing pulses, sensation, motor function, and pain levels—to detect early signs like disproportionate pain or pallor, with bivalving the cast reducing pressure by about 50% if swelling occurs.^[21] Historically, immobilization traces to ancient practices around 3000 BCE using wooden splints and palm fibers, evolving with the 1852 introduction of plaster bandages by Antonius Mathijsen; modern advancements, such as thermoplastic materials in the 1960s and fiberglass in the 1970s, have enhanced patient comfort and reduced complications, with further innovations like 3D-printed casts and waterproof liners emerging in the 2010s-2020s to improve fit and hygiene.^[16] Spinal immobilization represents a specialized variant for vertebral injuries, employing rigid collars or boards to stabilize the spine.^[2]

Trauma and Emergency Immobilization

Trauma and emergency immobilization refers to the temporary restriction of spinal movement in patients with suspected injuries to prevent secondary damage to the spinal cord during extrication, transport, and initial evaluation.^[22] This practice, now often termed spinal motion restriction (SMR), aims to minimize unwanted motion of the potentially injured spine without achieving complete immobilization, as no technique fully eliminates movement.^[23] It is primarily applied in prehospital and emergency department settings for blunt trauma victims, guided by mechanisms of injury such as falls from height or motor vehicle collisions (MVCs) that suggest spinal involvement.^[24] Indications for SMR include altered mental status (Glasgow Coma Scale <15), midline spinal tenderness or pain, focal neurologic deficits, spinal deformity, or distracting injuries that could mask symptoms.^[23] Clinical decision rules like the NEXUS criteria facilitate clearance without imaging in low-risk patients, requiring absence of midline cervical tenderness, focal neurologic deficits, altered alertness, intoxication, or painful distracting injuries; this tool demonstrated 99.6% sensitivity for clinically significant cervical injuries in a multicenter study of over 34,000 blunt trauma patients.^[25] SMR is not routinely indicated for penetrating trauma, where it may delay care without benefit.^[24] Standard protocols follow Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) guidelines, emphasizing SMR during the primary survey while prioritizing airway, breathing, and circulation.^[23] The procedure begins with manual in-line stabilization (MILS), where a rescuer maintains neutral alignment of the head and neck by supporting the occiput and mandible without traction.^[26] A rigid cervical collar, such as the Philadelphia collar, is then fitted by measuring from occiput to chin and securing it snugly to limit flexion, extension, and rotation.^[24] For full-body restriction, the patient is log-rolled as a unit—typically by 4-5 providers, with one maintaining MILS—onto a long backboard, followed by securing the torso and extremities with straps and adding lateral head blocks taped in place.^[23] This log-roll technique ensures spinal alignment during repositioning for thoracolumbar assessment or extrication.^[27] Common devices include rigid cervical collars like the Philadelphia model for neck stabilization, the Kendrick Extrication Device (KED) for seated patients during vehicle removal, and vacuum mattresses that conform to the body for reduced pressure compared to rigid backboards.^[24] These tools are selected based on scene accessibility and patient stability, with vacuum splints preferred for prolonged transport due to better comfort and lower motion.^[24] The practice has evolved from routine backboarding in the late 20th century to selective SMR following studies highlighting limited efficacy and harms. The 2013 consensus guidelines from the American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma (ACS-COT), American College of Emergency Physicians (ACEP), and National Association of EMS Physicians (NAEMSP) recommended against universal use, citing risks in penetrating trauma and low evidence for benefit in stable blunt cases; this was updated in a 2022 joint position statement, which further clarified that backboards are not mandatory (allowing removal after secure positioning on an ambulance cot if safe), emphasized the cervical collar's key role, and reiterated no SMR for penetrating trauma.^[23]^[28] A 2019 Scandinavian guideline, based on systematic reviews, issued weak recommendations against rigid collars and backboards for hemodynamically stable patients, favoring vacuum mattresses only in those with neurologic deficits or bony pain, due to very low to moderate evidence from observational data showing no reduction in neurologic worsening but increased complications.^[29] Complications of SMR include iatrogenic pain and discomfort, which affect up to 38% of patients and may prompt unintended movement; respiratory compromise from restricted diaphragmatic excursion, potentially leading to asphyxia in poorly fitted devices; and pressure ulcers from prolonged contact with rigid surfaces, with studies in healthy volunteers showing significant skin ischemia and ulceration risks (P<0.001).^[30] Training emphasizes airway monitoring during application, as collars can hinder ventilation or intubation, and early removal once imaging or clinical clearance confirms no injury.^[24] For long-term care, orthopedic immobilization may follow in confirmed fractures.^[23]

In Soil Science

Nutrient Immobilization Processes

Nutrient immobilization in soil refers to the transformation of soluble inorganic nutrients, such as ammonium (NH₄⁺), into organic forms incorporated into microbial biomass or soil organic matter, thereby reducing their immediate availability to plants. This process is a key component of soil nutrient cycling, where inorganic ions are assimilated by heterotrophic microorganisms to support their growth and metabolic needs. Unlike mineralization, which releases nutrients, immobilization temporarily sequesters them, maintaining soil nutrient balance but potentially limiting short-term plant uptake. The primary mechanism involves microbial assimilation, where bacteria and fungi uptake inorganic nutrients during the decomposition of organic substrates. This is strongly influenced by the carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio of the substrate; immobilization dominates when the C:N ratio exceeds 25:1, as microbes must draw on soil inorganic nitrogen to balance their energy demands from carbon decomposition. For instance, adding carbon-rich residues like straw promotes immobilization by providing labile carbon that stimulates microbial proliferation and nutrient uptake. Key nutrients subject to immobilization include nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. In nitrogen immobilization, ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) are converted into microbial proteins and amino acids, effectively tying up plant-available forms. Phosphorus immobilization occurs when phosphate ions (PO₄³⁻) are incorporated into organic phosphates within microbial cells or bound in organic matter. Sulfur follows a similar path, with sulfate (SO₄²⁻) transformed into organic sulfur compounds through microbial biosynthesis, contributing to the soil's sulfur cycle. Several environmental factors modulate immobilization rates. Soil pH affects microbial community composition and enzyme activity, with neutral to slightly acidic conditions often favoring immobilization; extreme pH values can inhibit it. Temperature influences microbial metabolism, with optimal rates around 20–30°C accelerating the process, while colder soils slow it. Organic matter content provides substrates, and the addition of labile carbon sources, such as simple sugars, enhances immobilization by boosting microbial biomass production. Immobilization is typically quantified using aerobic or anaerobic incubation studies, where soil samples are amended with nutrients and monitored over days to weeks for changes in inorganic pools. Nutrient disappearance indicates uptake into microbial biomass; for nitrogen, the immobilized amount is calculated via the equation:

\text{Organic N} = \text{Initial inorganic N} - \text{Remaining inorganic N}

This method, often involving extraction and analysis of ammonium or nitrate, helps assess potential immobilization under controlled conditions. The concept of nutrient limitations in soils, which underpins immobilization dynamics, was first formalized in the 1840s through Justus von Liebig's law of the minimum, emphasizing how scarcest resources control growth and availability. In modern soil science, immobilization is recognized for its role in fertilizer efficiency, as excessive microbial uptake can reduce the efficacy of applied nutrients, necessitating balanced management strategies.

Ecological and Agricultural Implications

Nutrient immobilization plays a crucial role in ecosystem nutrient cycling by temporarily incorporating inorganic nutrients, particularly nitrogen, into microbial biomass, thereby regulating availability and preventing rapid losses. This process balances nutrient dynamics in soils, where microbial assimilation ties up nutrients that would otherwise be susceptible to leaching during wet periods, maintaining ecosystem fertility over time. However, excessive immobilization can lead to temporary nutrient deficiencies for plants, as microbes outcompete roots for available forms like ammonium and nitrate, potentially slowing primary production in nutrient-limited environments.^[31]^[32] In agricultural systems, nutrient immobilization significantly reduces fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency, especially in no-till practices with high crop residue levels, where 20 to 50 pounds of nitrogen per acre can become temporarily unavailable due to microbial demand. This tie-up is pronounced in soils with abundant carbon-rich residues, such as corn stover, which have high C:N ratios exceeding 30:1, leading to greater nitrogen demands from decomposing microbes and necessitating 10-20% higher fertilizer applications compared to conventional tillage. No-till farming exacerbates this effect by preserving surface residues that stimulate microbial activity, though long-term adoption can enhance overall soil organic matter and eventual nitrogen release.^[33]^[34]^[32] Farmers manage immobilization through targeted strategies, including adding carbon sources like straw or cover crop residues to deliberately stimulate microbial activity and tie up excess nitrogen during vulnerable periods, such as post-harvest fallow. Balancing the C:N ratio of soil amendments to around 20-30:1 minimizes unintended deficiencies, as materials with ratios below 25:1, such as legumes, promote net mineralization rather than immobilization. Nitrification inhibitors like nitrapyrin are also applied to slow the conversion of ammonium to nitrate, indirectly influencing immobilization by keeping nitrogen in forms more readily assimilated by microbes and less prone to losses.^[35]^[36]^[37] Case studies highlight immobilization's ecosystem-specific impacts; in boreal forests, ectomycorrhizal fungi immobilize nitrogen in soil mycelium, sustaining nutrient limitation that restricts tree growth and maintains low primary productivity across vast areas. In rice paddies, incorporation of high C:N straw residues drives nitrogen immobilization while providing labile carbon that boosts methane emissions by 100-266% initially, though long-term applications acclimate soils to lower increases via enhanced methanotroph activity.^[38]^[39] Over the long term, immobilization is reversed through mineralization, where dying microbial biomass releases bound nutrients back into the soil, restoring availability for plants and completing the cycle. Ecosystem models like CENTURY simulate these dynamics by incorporating microbial C:N constraints to predict net mineralization-immobilization turnover under varying environmental conditions, aiding in forecasting nutrient availability over decades.^[32]^[40] Environmentally, immobilization offers benefits by reducing nitrate pollution in groundwater; high C:N amendments can immobilize over 75% of residual soil nitrate, preventing leaching into aquifers and mitigating eutrophication in water bodies. This process enhances nitrogen retention in agricultural landscapes, supporting sustainable nutrient management and lowering contamination risks from fertilizer runoff.^[35]^[41]

Other Uses

Molecular Biology Techniques

Solid-phase reversible immobilization (SPRI) is a key technique in molecular biology for the purification and manipulation of biomolecules, particularly nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA, using carboxyl-coated magnetic beads. These beads enable reversible binding under specific conditions, facilitating efficient separation from contaminants without centrifugation. The method relies on paramagnetic beads that respond to magnetic fields for easy handling and automation in workflows like next-generation sequencing (NGS) library preparation. The mechanism of SPRI involves reversible adsorption of nucleic acids to the bead surface, primarily driven by hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions in the presence of high concentrations of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and high-salt conditions.^[42] During binding, DNA or RNA molecules aggregate into globular structures due to the crowding effect of PEG (typically 20%) and high salt (2.5 M NaCl), which promote attachment to the negatively charged carboxyl groups on the beads via screened electrostatic forces and hydrogen bonds. Elution is achieved by disrupting these interactions with low-salt buffers, such as Tris-EDTA (TE), releasing the purified biomolecules while leaving contaminants behind. This reversible nature allows for high recovery rates, often exceeding 80-90% for DNA fragments. Washing steps typically use 70% ethanol to remove salts and primers without eluting the target.^[42] SPRI was originally developed in 1995 by researchers at the Whitehead Institute for the isolation of PCR products and later commercialized by Agencourt as AMPure XP beads around 2006, becoming a cornerstone of modern molecular biology protocols. It is now standard in Illumina NGS library preparation, where AMPure XP beads are used for size selection and cleanup, offering advantages in scalability and automation for high-throughput applications. For instance, in NGS workflows, SPRI enables precise fragment size selection by adjusting bead-to-sample ratios; a 1.8x ratio effectively isolates DNA fragments of 200-500 bp, removing adapters and short oligos. Applications extend to PCR cleanup, where it removes unincorporated primers and dNTPs, yielding clean templates for downstream sequencing or cloning. The technique's automation compatibility has made it indispensable in robotic platforms, reducing hands-on time and variability.^[43]^[44] Variations of SPRI have been adapted for RNA purification using specialized beads like RNAClean XP, which maintain RNA integrity during binding and elution to prevent degradation. For proteins, similar magnetic bead systems employ SPRI-like principles with PEG/salt buffers for reversible immobilization in immunoprecipitation or pull-down assays, though optimized coatings (e.g., protein A/G) are used for specific binding. A typical protocol begins with mixing the sample (e.g., DNA in 50 µL) with beads in binding buffer (20% PEG/2.5 M NaCl) for 5-10 minutes incubation, followed by magnetic separation, two 70% ethanol washes, air-drying for 1-2 minutes, and elution in 20-50 µL TE buffer for 2-5 minutes. These adaptations highlight SPRI's versatility while preserving its core advantages in purity and yield.^[42]

Industrial and Restraint Applications

In industrial contexts, immobilization primarily involves the solidification/stabilization (S/S) process for treating hazardous wastes contaminated with heavy metals, such as lead and cadmium. This method mixes pollutants with cementitious binders like Portland cement to encapsulate contaminants within a solid matrix, chemically binding them to reduce solubility and mobility. The process combines physical encapsulation, which prevents direct exposure, with chemical stabilization, where heavy metals form insoluble compounds like hydroxides or silicates within the cement structure.^[45]^[46] A key advantage of S/S is its ability to lower leachability, as measured by the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test, where regulatory limits for lead are set at 5 mg/L to ensure safe disposal. For instance, lead-contaminated soil from battery waste sites has been effectively stabilized with Portland cement mixtures, reducing leachable lead to below detectable limits and allowing reuse as construction fill, as demonstrated in remediation projects at Utah highways. However, risks include potential matrix degradation over time due to environmental factors like acid rain, which could release bound metals if not properly formulated.^[45]^[47] In restraint applications, electro-immobilization is used for livestock handling, applying pulsed low-frequency electric currents (typically 50 Hz) to temporarily disrupt neuromuscular function without causing death, facilitating procedures like veterinary examinations. For sheep, currents of 40-60 mA applied via electrodes to the body achieve effective immobilization, minimizing stress compared to mechanical restraints while avoiding cardiac arrest at higher levels. This technique, developed in the late 20th century, offers advantages in animal welfare by reducing aversion and injury risk, though overuse can lead to muscle damage or welfare concerns if currents exceed recommended thresholds.^[48]^[49] Pressure immobilization is another restraint method, particularly for envenomation from snakebites, where firm bandaging slows venom dissemination through lymphatic and vascular systems. Originating from Australian protocols in the 1970s and developed in the 1980s by Struan Sutherland at the University of Melbourne,^[50] it involves wrapping the affected limb with elastic bandages at 40-70 mmHg pressure over the bite site and immobilizing the area to prevent the "pumping" action of muscles. This approach avoids the dangers of proximal tourniquets, such as tissue ischemia, but carries risks of lymphatic compression if applied too tightly, potentially complicating antivenom delivery; examples include its use in first aid for elapid snakebites with crepe bandages to buy time for medical evacuation.^[51]^[52] In financial systems, immobilization refers to the practice of holding securities in electronic or centralized physical form to prevent physical transfer, enabling efficient dematerialized trading. Euroclear, established in 1968 by Morgan Guaranty Trust in Brussels, pioneered this by immobilizing Eurobonds and other instruments in vaults, allowing book-entry transfers that reduced settlement delays from days to hours. This system has immobilized trillions in assets, minimizing risks of loss or forgery associated with paper certificates, though it introduces dependencies on depository integrity and regulatory compliance for asset recovery.^[53]^[54]

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[36]
Long-term organic farming may prevent nitrate leaching by ...
Long-term organic farming may prevent nitrate leaching by enhancing the abundance and co-occurrence of nasA-type nitrate assimilatory bacteria · Highlights.
[37]
[PDF] SPRI Protocol - Bangs Laboratories
The addition of NaCl and PEG forces the negatively charged backbone to aggregate into globular structures that are attracted to the positively charged surface ...Missing: mechanism | Show results with:mechanism
[38]
AMPure XP Beads | PCR & NGS Library Cleanup - Beckman Coulter
AMPure XP beads utilize SPRI technology for NGS library cleanup and to deliver superior quality DNA that requires no centrifugation or filtration.Product No: A63881 · Product No: A63880 · Read the AMPure XP Protocol · A63882
[39]
SPRIselect & AMPure XP Bead Ratio | Size Selection & Cleanup
The Bead to Sample Ratio, also known as the Bead Ratio, is an essential factor in DNA cleanup and size selection using SPRI bead-based reagents such as AMPure ...
[40]
[PDF] Solidification/Stabilization Resource Guide - EPA
This Solidification/Stabilization Resource Guide is intended to inform site cleanup managers of recently-published materials such as field reports and ...
[41]
Immobilization mechanisms in solidifiction/stabilization of cadmium ...
Immobilization mechanisms in solidifiction/stabilization of cadmium and lead salts using portland cement fixing agents | Environmental Science & Technology.
[42]
[PDF] Solidification/Stabilization of Lead-Contaminated Soil at a Utah ...
Soil contaminated with waste from lead/acid battery debris was successfully treated by portland cement-based S/S. S/S treatment was demonstrated as a cost- ...Missing: example | Show results with:example
[43]
Effects of electroimmobilisation on blood gas and pH status in sheep
... current strengths of 0 mA (control), 40 mA and 60 mA in 17 Merino ewes (36.3 +/- 1.0 kg) previously prepared with unilateral ca …
[44]
Aversion of sheep to electro-immobilization and physical restraint
These results suggest that sheep find electro-immobilization more aversive than physical restraint. Push-up time was increased if a high current was used.
[45]
Emergency treatment of a snake bite: Pearls from literature - PMC
Promptly transfer of victim to hospital. Pressure immobilization method (PIM) was developed by the Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne ...
[46]
Pressure Immobilization Technique - eMedicineHealth
The idea of pressure immobilization was initially introduced in Australia in the 1970s to prevent the dissemination of the neurotoxin released by snakes from ...Missing: 1980s | Show results with:1980s
[47]
Our history - Euroclear
Before Euroclear, settlement required the physical delivery of certificates and cash. Trading was hampered by long delays in the delivery of securities, ...
[48]
Euroclear was created in 1968 to hold securities for ... - SEC.gov
These links allow securities to be issued, held and transferred among the clearing systems without the physical transfer of certificates. Special procedures to ...