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Botts' dots

Botts' dots are small, round, raised pavement markers, typically made of ceramic and measuring about 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter, that are embedded into road surfaces to delineate lanes and provide visual and tactile guidance to drivers, especially at night or in low-visibility conditions.^[1]^[2] Named after Elbert Dysart Botts (1893–1962), a California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) engineer who oversaw their development in the 1950s, these markers were designed to improve road safety by reflecting headlights and producing a distinctive rumbling sound when driven over, alerting drivers to lane departures.^[2]^[3] The invention stemmed from earlier experiments with glass markers that degraded quickly, leading Botts' team to create durable porcelain-ceramic versions that could withstand traffic without adhesives in warmer climates.^[1] First tested in 1965 along Interstate 80 near Vacaville and State Route 99 near Fresno, they became mandatory on California freeways by legislative order in 1966 and spread to other U.S. states as well as countries like Australia.^[4] Available in white for lane edges, yellow for medians, and occasionally black for contrast on light pavements, Botts' dots enhanced visibility in rain and fog while reducing accidents by providing immediate feedback to drifting vehicles.^[1] At their peak, over 25 million were installed across California alone, contributing to safer roadways for decades.^[1] However, concerns over durability—exacerbated by heavy truck traffic reducing their lifespan to as little as two years—installation costs, and compatibility with autonomous vehicles have led Caltrans to phase them out since 2017, replacing them with more resilient thermoplastic painted lines and recessed markers during resurfacing projects.^[4] Despite this transition, as of 2017 an estimated 20 million remained in use on California highways, serving as a lasting innovation in traffic safety engineering.^[5]

Overview and Design

Physical Description

Botts' dots are small, round, reflective markers typically measuring 3 to 4 inches in diameter and 0.7 to 0.8 inches in height, embedded into road surfaces to delineate lane boundaries. These markers are constructed from durable ceramic material, providing a low-profile, dome-shaped protrusion that offers both visual cues and physical feedback to vehicles crossing lane lines. Their design ensures they withstand heavy traffic loads while remaining unobtrusive to tires under normal driving conditions.^[1]^[6] Color variations distinguish their application: white markers indicate standard lane edges, yellow ones denote no-passing zones on two-way roads, and red markers serve as wrong-way indicators, often placed on exit ramps to alert drivers traveling against traffic. These colors enhance visibility during daylight and are complemented by surrounding pavement paint for nighttime recognition, though the markers themselves rely primarily on their raised form for detection in adverse weather.^[7]^[4] In terms of placement, Botts' dots are arranged in a single row along lane lines, with individual markers spaced 1 to 3 feet apart to create continuous guidance, or in double rows for centerlines to emphasize separation between opposing traffic directions. This configuration allows for precise alignment with painted stripes, forming a patterned system that guides drivers effectively. The markers are installed at regular intervals, such as groups of four every 48 feet on highways, optimizing coverage without excessive density. Their positioning provides tactile and visual feedback for drivers, particularly in low-visibility conditions like fog or rain, by creating a rhythmic vibration and outline perceptible through vehicle tires and headlights.^[6]^[4]

Materials and Construction

Botts' dots are primarily composed of ceramic materials, often a dense vitreous compound similar to porcelain, which imparts high durability against environmental weathering, heavy vehicle traffic, and exposure to road chemicals such as de-icing salts.^[8]^[9] This ceramic body ensures long-term structural integrity under demanding conditions, with a glazed surface that resists abrasion and promotes self-cleaning properties.^[9] Standard Botts' dots are non-reflective, with visibility at night provided by interspersed dedicated reflective raised pavement markers containing glass beads or prisms that meet retroreflectivity recommendations of 64–180 millicandelas per lux per square meter.^[6] The manufacturing process involves dry pressing the ceramic mixture into disc shapes, followed by high-temperature firing to form a hard, non-porous shell; this vitrification step typically occurs in kilns to achieve the necessary density and strength.^[9]^[10] Each dot weighs approximately 0.25-0.5 pounds, allowing for installation either via epoxy adhesive on existing pavement or direct embedment into fresh asphalt, positioned flush or slightly raised to reduce hydroplaning risks.^[11]^[12]

Functionality and Visibility

Botts' dots function primarily through tactile and auditory feedback to alert drivers to lane deviations, while their visibility relies on their physical elevation and adjacent reflective elements rather than inherent reflectivity in the dots themselves. The markers, typically 0.75 inches in height and 4 inches in diameter, protrude above the road surface to create a noticeable vibration and humming sound when vehicle tires traverse them, providing an immediate sensory cue for unintentional drifting without the need for electrical or powered systems.^[7] This rumble effect is particularly effective for maintaining lane discipline during periods of driver inattention or fatigue.^[6] Designed with performance in wet conditions in mind, Botts' dots maintain effectiveness in rain and fog by channeling water away from their surfaces and breaking through thin water films that obscure painted lines, ensuring continued tactile contact and partial visual delineation.^[13] Their low profile—approximately 0.75 inches—also reduces vulnerability to damage from snowplows in milder climates where they are deployed, allowing for reliable 24/7 operation in non-snowy regions.^[5] The ceramic composition contributes to their durability, with original installations lasting 5-10 years before degradation from traffic wear, though modern heavy loads have reduced this to 2-5 years in high-volume areas.^[13] As non-retroreflective raised pavement markers, Botts' dots provide daytime visibility and supplemental wet-weather performance but require adjacent retroreflective paint or markers for nighttime use, in full compliance with the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) standards for lane delineation.^[14] This combination ensures consistent sensory feedback across varying environmental conditions, enhancing road safety through passive, mechanical means.^[6]

History and Development

Invention by Elbert Dysart Botts

Elbert Dysart Botts, a chemist and engineer with the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), conceived the idea for Botts' dots in the early 1950s amid growing concerns over road safety on the state's expanding highway network. Having joined Caltrans in 1950 after earning a doctorate in chemistry from the University of Wisconsin, Botts focused on developing more effective lane delineation methods, as traditional painted markings often became invisible during rain, fog, and at night—conditions prevalent on coastal highways like Highway 1, where frequent accidents occurred due to drivers drifting across lanes. His research sought durable alternatives that could withstand weather and traffic while providing both visual reflectivity and tactile feedback.^[15]^[16] Botts' early designs featured small, dome-shaped markers made from glass or ceramic materials, engineered with a low-profile curvature to better interact with vehicle tires, minimizing dislodgement while allowing the markers to embed slightly into the pavement under pressure. These prototypes were intended to supplement or replace painted lines by reflecting headlights for visibility up to 1,000 feet and creating an audible rumble and vibration when crossed, alerting inattentive drivers. Initial attachment methods involved nailing the markers into the road surface, a simple but flawed approach that aimed to ensure stability against high-speed traffic.^[15]^[13] The first prototypes underwent testing in 1955 on a freeway in Sacramento, where they showed promise in enhancing lane guidance during low-visibility conditions, though the nailed fasteners frequently loosened, leading to maintenance issues and potential hazards from exposed metal. Botts oversaw these trials through the late 1950s, refining the concept before retiring on January 1, 1960. He died on April 10, 1962, at age 69, without witnessing the full realization of his work; the markers were later named Botts' dots in his honor as a posthumous tribute.^[15]^[13]

Initial Adoption and Patenting

Following the initial conception by Elbert D. Botts in 1953 while working in the Caltrans materials testing lab in Sacramento, researchers at the California Division of Highways refined the design of the raised pavement markers during the late 1950s and early 1960s.^[5] Botts, as a state employee, did not pursue a personal patent for the invention; instead, the rights to the ceramic composition and embedment method belonged to the state, which protected the technology as public property without issuing a specific U.S. patent in Botts' name.^[3] This approach ensured the markers could be developed and deployed for public use without private licensing barriers. The first experimental installation of Botts' dots occurred in 1955 on a stretch of road in Fresno County, marking an early step toward practical application and allowing for initial assessments of adhesion and visibility under traffic conditions.^[5] Further refinements addressed challenges like scuffing from tires and cracking under pressure, with laboratory tests demonstrating the markers' ability to endure forces up to 8,000 pounds when heated and compressed.^[13] These trials paved the way for broader testing on Southern California freeways in the early 1960s, where the dots proved effective in supplementing or replacing painted lane lines on high-volume routes. A pivotal endorsement came in 1966 when the California State Legislature mandated the use of Botts' dots on all freeways in non-snowfall areas, initiating statewide pilot programs to install them on major highways.^[5] The first large-scale deployments that year occurred along Interstate 80 near Fairfield in Solano County and U.S. Highway 99 near Fresno, where the markers successfully handled daily traffic volumes and provided consistent tactile and visual feedback to drivers.^[3]^[8] This adoption phase highlighted the dots' advantages in durability and low maintenance compared to traditional markings, solidifying their role in California's roadway safety infrastructure.

Evolution and Standardization

Following their initial adoption in California during the 1960s, Botts' dots underwent several technical refinements to improve installation efficiency, durability, and integration with broader roadway delineation systems. In the 1970s, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) incorporated raised pavement markers, including non-reflective types like Botts' dots, into the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) guidelines, standardizing their use for lane delineation on highways to enhance nighttime and wet-weather visibility when paired with reflective elements.^[17] This marked a shift toward national consistency, with MUTCD editions from 1971 emphasizing durable adhesives like epoxy for securing markers to pavement surfaces, extending their service life beyond early manual installations.^[17] By the 1980s, material advancements addressed environmental and performance concerns, including the introduction of water-borne acrylics for pavement markings to reduce volatile organic compounds (VOCs), alongside efforts to enhance overall system reflectivity through FHWA research prompted by a 1985 petition from the Center for Auto Safety.^[17] Installation methods also evolved, transitioning from labor-intensive hand placement to mechanized processes; by 1991, the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) developed an automated truck system capable of applying epoxy adhesive and placing up to 10,000 dots per day, significantly reducing lane closure times compared to prior manual methods of about 2,000 dots daily.^[13] Standardization advanced in the 1990s with FHWA's 1998 guidelines proposing minimum retroreflectivity levels for raised pavement markers (e.g., 30 millicandelas per square meter per lux for white non-freeway markings at 40 mph), though Botts' dots themselves remained non-reflective and relied on complementary retroreflective markers for visibility. ASTM International contributed through standards like E809-81 for measuring photometric characteristics of retroreflectors, influencing updates to marker specifications for longevity and performance.^[18] These developments prioritized compatibility with evolving traffic engineering practices. In the 2000s, adaptations included experimental integration of light-emitting diode (LED) technology in some raised pavement marker variants for active illumination in low-visibility conditions, as outlined in FHWA evaluations of enhanced visibility systems, though such features remained rare for traditional Botts' dots.^[19] By 2010, responses to environmental regulations led to broader adoption of lead-free ceramic and polymer compositions in marker production, aligning with federal sustainability goals for infrastructure materials.

Usage and Implementation

Primary Use in California

Botts' dots have been a cornerstone of lane delineation on California's state highways since their statewide mandate in 1966 by the California State Legislature, applicable to all non-snowfall areas.^[2] This requirement, enforced through Caltrans standards, positioned the markers as a primary supplement to painted lines on freeways and major routes, ensuring consistent visibility and tactile feedback for drivers. By the 2010s, an estimated 20 million Botts' dots were in place across the state's highway system, reflecting decades of widespread deployment.^[5] Under the California Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (CA MUTCD), Botts' dots are required to supplement centerline markings on state highways outside snow-prone regions, with specific spacing and placement standards to align with line patterns—such as groups of three to five markers for broken lines.^[20] These markers are typically installed in combination with thermoplastic paint for enhanced durability and reflectivity, forming hybrid systems where the dots provide auditory and vibratory cues over the painted boundaries.^[4] Although California Vehicle Code Section 21460 governs crossing double parallel lines—treating Botts' dots as equivalent indicators for no-passing zones—their installation standards are primarily dictated by Caltrans via the CA MUTCD rather than direct vehicle code mandates.^[21] Their deployment remains concentrated on high-traffic urban corridors, including Interstate 5 (I-5) through the Central Valley and Interstate 405 (I-405) in the Los Angeles Basin, where heavy volumes accelerate wear and necessitate frequent replacements.^[22] Maintenance challenges from traffic abrasion have driven significant costs, with installation expenses reaching up to $10 per dot, contributing to ongoing Caltrans upkeep efforts amid a gradual phase-out initiated in 2017.^[1] While early evaluations credited Botts' dots with bolstering nighttime visibility and driver awareness, a Caltrans study from the early 2000s found no statistically significant reduction in overall accident rates compared to painted markings alone.^[4]

Adoption in Other U.S. States

While Botts' dots originated and saw widespread implementation in California, their adoption in other U.S. states has been more limited and regionally focused, primarily in the Southwest and Sunbelt areas where snow removal is not a routine concern. States such as Arizona, Nevada, and Texas have incorporated them on select highways, often as supplements to or replacements for painted markings on high-traffic routes like Arizona's Interstate 10, where they have been in use since the 1980s to enhance nighttime and wet-weather visibility.^[23]^[6] The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) permits their use under the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) but does not mandate them, allowing state departments of transportation (DOTs) flexibility based on local conditions.^[6] In northern and snowy states like Minnesota, Botts' dots are rare or prohibited due to vulnerability to snowplow damage, which can dislodge the markers during winter maintenance operations. State DOTs in such regions prefer snowplowable alternatives or flat painted markings to avoid frequent replacements and associated disruptions.^[6] A key barrier to broader adoption nationwide is the higher initial installation costs, estimated at $1.35 to $3.20 per unit including epoxy adhesive, compared to approximately $0.05 per linear foot for standard paint markings, though long-term durability can offset expenses in low-snow environments.^[6] Early pilots, such as those in Oregon during the 1970s, demonstrated promise for visibility but encountered rapid wear issues, leading to limited sustained use outside California.^[6] By the 2020s, Botts' dots account for a small fraction of U.S. lane delineation, concentrated in the Southwest—reflecting preferences for more versatile technologies in diverse climates.^[23]

International Applications and Variations

In Australia, retro-reflective raised pavement markers, similar to Botts' dots, have been adopted on motorways and high-volume roads to supplement painted lines and improve nighttime visibility, with mandatory use on routes carrying over 4,000 vehicles per day in rural areas or 10,000 in urban settings.^[24] These markers often feature larger profiles for enhanced durability on undivided highways.^[24] New Zealand employs reflective raised pavement markers to supplement centrelines and lane lines on fine-textured surfaces, particularly on rural roads.^[25] Similarly, South Africa utilizes raised pavement markers, including ceramic variants, on rural and low-traffic roads to delineate lanes and edges under the South African Road Traffic Signs Manual standards.^[26] In Europe, plastic retroreflecting road studs predominate for lane guidance, classified under Type 2 in the EN 1463 standard, which specifies performance for abrasion-resistant bodies compliant with EU directives on road marking materials.^[27] Adoption in Canada remains limited due to harsh winter conditions, where snow and ice accumulation obscures reflectors and snowplow blades frequently dislodge or damage markers, leading to high failure rates on shoulder lines.^[28] Beyond Japan, widespread use of such markers is minimal across Asia owing to preferences for alternative delineation methods in varying climates. International safety analyses, including those on raised markers, report reductions in injury-level crashes by approximately 15% in regions with consistent implementation.^[29] The U.S. standardization of Botts' dots has indirectly shaped these global adaptations through shared principles of tactile and visual feedback.^[30]

Performance and Maintenance

Advantages Over Traditional Markings

Botts' dots provide superior safety benefits compared to traditional painted lane markings by delivering consistent visual, auditory, and tactile feedback to drivers regardless of weather conditions. Painted lines often fade, crack, or become obscured by rain, fog, or debris, reducing their effectiveness, whereas the raised, retroreflective design of Botts' dots remains visible at night and protrudes above surface water during wet weather, ensuring reliable lane delineation. This enhances driver awareness and reduces lane departure risks, with studies on pavement markings indicating overall crash reductions of approximately 21% on marked roadways.^[31] The tactile vibration and noise generated when vehicle tires cross the dots particularly aid drowsy or distracted drivers by providing an immediate alert, promoting better attention and lane discipline on highways.^[32]^[4] In applications like wrong-way ramps, red Botts' dots serve as a visual and tactile deterrent, alerting drivers to incorrect entry and supporting broader prevention strategies. Caltrans pilot programs incorporating reflective markers, including raised types like Botts' dots, have demonstrated reductions in wrong-way driving incidents by enhancing ramp visibility and feedback.^[33]^[34] Their longevity further bolsters safety, as Botts' dots maintain delineating performance for 5 to 10 years under initial conditions, far outlasting painted lines that typically require replacement every 1 to 2 years due to wear. National safety analyses link such durable markers to 10-15% fewer nighttime crashes through improved visibility, aligning with NHTSA emphases on effective roadway delineation.^[35]^[3] Cost-effectiveness is another key advantage, with Botts' dots minimizing long-term maintenance expenses associated with frequent repainting. While in the 1990s installation costs were around $0.50 per dot plus labor, their extended service life offsets this by eliminating annual repaint cycles, which can exceed $2,000 per mile for traditional paint on high-traffic roads. This approach reduces operational disruptions and labor needs, making it a practical solution for state departments of transportation. Additionally, by curtailing repaint frequency, Botts' dots decrease the environmental impact from paint solvents and chemicals, promoting a more sustainable alternative to ongoing surface applications.^[3]^[13]

Common Issues and Durability Challenges

Botts' dots are susceptible to cracking and crumbling due to the increased weight and volume of heavy truck traffic on modern highways, particularly in high-traffic areas of Southern California.^[1] This mechanical stress has significantly reduced their lifespan from nearly 10 years in earlier decades to about 2 years in recent installations, necessitating more frequent replacements in demanding environments.^[1] In regions with freeze-thaw cycles, such as parts of the northern U.S. where similar raised markers are used, water infiltration into micro-cracks can exacerbate brittleness and lead to premature failure, though this is less common in California's milder climate.^[36] Environmental factors further compromise Botts' dots, with snowplows in winter climates routinely shearing them off during clearing operations, rendering them impractical for substantial snowfall areas.^[1] The ceramic material's exposure to road salts and occasional oil spills can also contribute to surface degradation over time, though specific reflectivity loss metrics vary by installation conditions.^[34] As of 2017, Caltrans maintained approximately 20 million Botts' dots statewide, but durability challenges result in substantial annual replacement needs on freeways; historical data from 1991 indicated around 864,000 units repaired or replaced in a single year at a cost exceeding $3.8 million.^[5]^[13] Since 2017, Caltrans has phased out new installations of Botts' dots, replacing them with thermoplastic lines and recessed markers during resurfacing projects, which reduces overall maintenance requirements.^[4] Additionally, the audible "clicking" sound produced when vehicles pass over the raised markers has prompted noise complaints from residents near highways, contributing to local pushback against their widespread use.^[37] The material composition, primarily ceramic, influences this wear pattern but offers limited resistance to prolonged abrasion.^[16]

Installation and Upkeep Procedures

Botts' dots are typically installed on existing pavement by first cutting shallow grooves, approximately 1-2 inches deep, using specialized machinery to prepare the surface for embedding.^[38] The ceramic dots are then placed into these grooves and held in place by the pavement's compression without adhesive, flush with the road surface to withstand traffic loads while allowing snowplow blades to pass over without damage.^[38] Installation occurs during periods of low traffic volume, such as nighttime hours, to reduce disruption, with the setup requiring a curing period for the pavement before full lane reopening.^[39] Automated equipment ensures alignment perpendicular to the roadway centerline and adherence to spacing standards, such as groups spaced approximately every 48 feet for lane delineation, with individual dots within groups about 1 foot apart.^[39] Upkeep begins with regular inspections to assess the condition and intactness of the dots, often conducted annually using automated survey vehicles equipped to detect presence and surface integrity through visual and laser scanning technologies.^[40] These inspections focus on ensuring adequate coverage for safety, with damaged or missing dots identified for prompt replacement to maintain effective lane guidance. For replacements, crews use diamond saws to precisely cut out deteriorated sections, including any embedded material, minimizing pavement disturbance.^[39] The removed materials, primarily ceramic fragments, are crushed and recycled as aggregate for road base or other construction uses, promoting sustainable practices.^[6] Caltrans guidelines emphasize maintaining high levels of dot integrity through these procedures, with replacement costs in the 1990s averaging about $4.40 per dot, translating to roughly $5,000 per mile for a full lane line redo depending on the number of lines and extent of work.^[13] Emerging technologies, such as drone-based surveys, are increasingly integrated for more efficient monitoring, allowing rapid aerial assessment of large highway segments to identify upkeep needs without extensive ground crews.^[41] These methods address durability challenges like wear from traffic by enabling proactive repairs, though specific issues such as plow damage or weathering influence the frequency of interventions.^[39]

Alternatives and Comparisons

Comparison to Raised Pavement Markers

Botts' dots, as discrete ceramic domes, differ from rumble strips in design and function, offering a subtle humming sound and mild vibration when crossed, in contrast to the continuous milled grooves of rumble strips that generate a pronounced rumbling noise and stronger vehicle vibration to alert drivers. This quieter profile makes Botts' dots more appropriate for urban lane delineation where excessive noise could disturb residents, while rumble strips excel at preventing run-off-road incidents on rural shoulders by providing a more aggressive warning. Rumble strips are also less effective for precise lane-keeping in multi-lane urban settings due to their typical placement along edges or centerlines rather than between lanes.^[16]^[42]^[34] Compared to plastic raised pavement markers (RPMs), such as 4-inch button-style units, ceramic Botts' dots demonstrate superior durability in high-heat environments, as they do not melt or deform under prolonged exposure to temperatures common in arid regions like California. Plastic RPMs, while more affordable to manufacture and simpler to install or replace individually, are prone to thermal degradation and require more frequent maintenance in hot, dry climates where Botts' dots have historically been favored. Installation costs for rumble strips range from $500 to $6,000 per mile, often lower than for individual raised markers like Botts' dots or plastic RPMs, though exact figures vary by material and labor.^[43]^[13]^[42] Studies on wet-night visibility indicate that raised pavement markers, including non-reflective types like Botts' dots when paired with reflective elements, outperform flat painted lines in rain by maintaining elevation above water films, thus enhancing detectability for drivers. However, Botts' dots' higher initial installation expenses—stemming from adhesive application and precise spacing—contrast with the lower upfront costs of plastic RPMs, influencing their selection based on regional climate and budget priorities.^[44]^[13]

Other Lane Delineation Technologies

Thermoplastic road marking materials, often incorporating glass beads for reflectivity, provide a flat, durable alternative to raised markers like Botts' dots, forming continuous lines that withstand heavier traffic volumes compared to standard paints. These markings are heated and applied as a molten compound, bonding to the pavement for longevity of several years, though they require specialized equipment for installation.^[45]^[46] In contrast, for short-term or temporary applications, waterborne paints embedded with glass beads offer quick-drying, cost-effective lane delineation with good initial retroreflectivity, though they degrade faster under weather and traffic exposure, necessitating reapplication every few months to a year.^[47]^[48] Audio-tactile profiled (ATP) lines, also known as rumble strips in some contexts, use continuous raised thermoplastic ribs along lane edges to generate auditory and vibratory alerts when vehicles cross them, enhancing driver awareness without relying on discrete markers. These profiles provide visual, audio, and tactile cues simultaneously, improving safety on high-risk roads like rural highways, and are designed for long-life performance with minimal height to avoid excessive noise in adjacent lanes.^[49]^[50] Emerging technologies include phosphorescent road markings trialed in the Netherlands, where a 500-meter stretch of the N329 highway near Oss used light-absorbing paint to glow green at night, offering visibility equivalent to streetlights without energy consumption and reducing the need for external illumination.^[51]^[52] LED-embedded markers, such as illuminated tiles or solar-powered reflectors, are under development for dynamic lighting in low-visibility conditions, with pilots focusing on bike paths and highways to guide traffic adaptively.^[53]^[54] Inductive loop systems, embedded as wire coils in the pavement, detect vehicle presence and movement across lanes to support dynamic lane guidance, enabling real-time adjustments to traffic signals, variable message signs, or automated vehicle communications for optimized flow and safety.^[55]^[56] In smart road initiatives, such as Michigan's I-94 Connected and Automated Vehicle (CAV) corridor project launched in the early 2020s, wireless sensors and roadside units integrate with inductive loops to provide digital lane information to connected vehicles, potentially supplementing physical markers and lowering long-term maintenance needs through predictive alerts rather than constant physical replacements.^[57]^[58]

Transition Trends in Road Safety

In California, the use of Botts' dots is being phased out during resurfacing projects, with replacements using painted or thermoplastic striping to enhance visibility while addressing maintenance challenges, though new standalone installations have declined significantly since 2017.^[59] This shift is driven by the rise of autonomous vehicles, whose sensors and cameras often misinterpret the raised ceramic dots as obstacles or lane deviations, prompting Caltrans to phase them out during resurfacing projects affecting an estimated 20 million existing dots.^[60]^[16] The integration of advanced driver assistance systems, such as lane-keeping technologies in vehicles like Tesla's Autopilot, further reduces reliance on physical raised markers by prioritizing clear, flat pavement lines for machine vision detection.^[61] Federal recommendations emphasize eliminating Botts' dots in favor of standardized 6-inch-wide longitudinal markings to support automated driving systems across all road classes.^[60] Looking ahead, the Federal Highway Administration's MUTCD 11th Edition (phased updates through 2025) promotes sustainable pavement marking practices, including low-VOC thermoplastics and updated retroreflectivity standards for highways, favoring low-profile options over raised ceramics to minimize environmental impact and improve durability.^[62] Climate adaptation efforts are accelerating the shift to recyclable plastic-based markers, such as thermoplastics, which offer better recyclability and reduced microplastic pollution compared to non-degradable ceramics like those in Botts' dots.^[63]^[64] The global market for raised pavement markers is projected to grow at a compound annual rate of approximately 5.7% from 2024 to 2033, reaching USD 2.3 billion, but the share of Botts' dots is diminishing in key regions like California as smart infrastructure and flat delineation technologies expand.^[65] Caltrans' ongoing pilots, including 2024-2025 tests of bidirectional thermoplastic markings and wider reflective stripes, explore alternatives like enhanced visibility paints to replace dots without compromising safety.^[66]^[67]

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Feb 1, 2006 · The effectiveness of the Raised Pavement Markers in winter can be substantially reduced when snow and ice is built-up on the reflectors. 8 ...
[30]
Safety of Raised Pavement Markers in Freeway Tunnels Based on ...
Raised pavement markers (RPMs) are among the common safety features of roads, playing an important role in preventing and reducing traffic crashes.
[31]
[PDF] Guidelines for the Use of Raised Pavement Markers
These guidelines are intended to be used by field traffic engineers, though future research ideas are included for the use of transportation researchers. For ...Missing: Botts' | Show results with:Botts'
[32]
PAVEMENT MARKING SAFETY STUDIES | FHWA
He found, using studies deemed credible, an average crash reduction of 21 percent that could be attributed to pavement markings. One of the reports he reviewed ...
[33]
[PDF] Raised Pavement Markers | CABQ.gov - Effectiveness
Retroreflective raised pavement markers (RRPMs) are typically 4 inch- square raised markers that have one- or two-way retroreflective faces that make them ...
[34]
Caltrans, UC Davis Research Deters Wrong Way Drivers on State ...
Jul 13, 2020 · One of the prevention measures included in the three-year pilot program—reflectors that alert drivers they are entering the roadway in the wrong ...
[35]
BOTT'S DOTS - R. Ann Siracusa
May 21, 2021 · The first raised markers were made of glass and nailed to the pavement, and degraded and faded quickly. Botts' and his team not only developed ...Missing: usage | Show results with:usage
[36]
Those White 'Botts' Dots' On The Freeway Are Being Retired | LAist
May 21, 2017 · When tested in the 1950s, they were shown to have a lifespan of about 10 years. Today, they're believed to last only 6 months before they ...Missing: durability | Show results with:durability
[37]
Pavement Distress Summary - Asphalt Institute
Cut wet material out, clean and fill with asphalt mix. Allow an extra 25% of volume for compaction. Use a straight edge to restore patch to existing roadway ...
[38]
Rumbling Botts' Dots Are Freeway Lifesavers - Los Angeles Times
Oct 6, 1985 · The reflective dots, which cost $3.50 each including ... The non-reflective dots, which cost $1.50 installed, last 10 to 15 years, he said.
[39]
[PDF] Use of Cold-Applied Adhesive for Raised Pavement Marker ...
Oct 3, 2017 · Cold-applied adhesive is used to install RPMs on all concrete roadways, and the work is done by contractors. Cold-applied adhesive is not used ...Missing: per | Show results with:per
[40]
Chapter 4: Construction Details, Section 81: Miscellaneous Traffic ...
Verify that delineators, pavement markers, and adhesive material are listed on Form DOT CEM-3101, “Notice of Materials to Be Used.” Refer to Section 6-202 ...Missing: Botts' | Show results with:Botts'
[41]
[PDF] Commercial Pavement Marking Management Systems - Caltrans
May 12, 2016 · The recommended reflectivity levels for highways without retroreflective raised pavement markers (RRPMs) end up being 150 mcd/m2/lux for white ...
[42]
[PDF] Pavement Condition Survey using Drone Technology
Caltrans is using drones to improve public safety by monitoring slide areas, traffic accident scenes, and even a geyser in a median area. It is expected that ...
[43]
Frequently Asked Questions | FHWA - Department of Transportation
Jul 9, 2024 · How much does it cost to install rumble strips? Unit prices have been estimated to range between $0.10 and $1.20 per linear foot (about $500 to ...Safety Benefits · Practices, Policies, and... · Costs · Noise
[44]
Raised Pavement Markers - Sacramento - Capitol Barricade
Botts' dots are small, raised dots spaced out along the roadway to provide a tactile cue to drivers. They are often used alongside other road edges markings ...
[45]
Wet night visibility of pavement markings. - ROSA P
The results show that two of the marking technologies, raised retroreflective markers and wet retroreflective tape, outperformed the group under all conditions.
[46]
ENNIS-FLINT® by PPG Hot-Applied Thermoplastic
Our hot-applied thermoplastic pavement marking material is a 100% solid compound containing pigments, glass beads, binder, and filler, which becomes liquid ...
[47]
Glass Beads for Thermoplastic Road Markings - RoadSky
Nov 15, 2023 · One of the primary advantages of using glass beads in thermoplastic road markings is the significant improvement in visibility. These beads act ...
[48]
What is the Difference Between Paint and Thermoplastic? - RoadSky
May 31, 2023 · While paint offers versatility and cost-effectiveness for temporary or smaller-scale applications, thermoplastic excels in durability, longevity ...Missing: lane | Show results with:lane
[49]
MMA vs. Thermoplastics for Pavement Marking - Aexcel Corporation
Mar 26, 2021 · MMA paint lasts as much as five years longer than most thermoplastic road marking solutions. Safety. Thermoplastic powders require heating to ...Missing: short- | Show results with:short-
[50]
Audio tactile profiled road markings
These road markings include rumble strips and provide all three of audio and tactile (vibratory) and visual information to road users. ATP road markings used on ...Missing: lines | Show results with:lines
[51]
[PDF] The usability and safety of audio tactile profiled road markings
Audio Tactile Profiled (ATP) road markings (also known by road users as rumble strips) have been used at selected locations on New Zealand roads in recent ...
[52]
Glow in the dark road unveiled in the Netherlands - BBC News
Apr 14, 2014 · Streetlights on a 500m stretch of highway in the Netherlands are replaced by glow in the dark road markings in a pilot project.Missing: embedded | Show results with:embedded
[53]
First highway with glow-in-the-dark markings opens in the Netherlands
Oct 22, 2014 · A road in the Netherlands has had glow-in-the-dark marking painted · The N329 in Oss is being used to pilot the Glowing Lines concept.Missing: trials | Show results with:trials
[54]
Light Tile - Illuminated Road Markings - simmonsigns
The Light Tile panel is a 7mm multilayer compound with embedded LEDs that are bonded to the road surface. Installation is with a patented and non-toxic ...Missing: trials | Show results with:trials
[55]
Why LED Road Reflectors Are Becoming Essential in Modern Traffic ...
Jul 31, 2025 · Unlike conventional road studs that rely on vehicle headlights for reflection, LED road reflectors actively emit light using embedded LEDs. This ...
[56]
Traffic Detector Handbook:Third Edition—Volume II - FHWA-HRT-06 ...
The inductive-loop detector system is composed of one or more wire loops embedded in the pavement (the sensing element), a splice between the lead-in wire and ...
[57]
[PDF] Dynamic Lane Management - European ITS Platform
Local control stations equipment with data input/output devices, connection to energy and data supply. •. Inductive loops, magnetic sensors, microwave radars, ...<|separator|>
[58]
I-94 Connected and Automated Vehicle (CAV) Corridor Project
Aiming to mitigate traffic, Michigan's smart highway pilot completes construction | Fox Business video · Michigan is building the nation's first smart highway ...Missing: CROW | Show results with:CROW
[59]
Cavnue Smart Roads
Cavnue, in partnership with the Michigan Department of Transportation, built the world's first connected and automated vehicle (CAV) corridor on Interstate 94.Missing: CROW | Show results with:CROW
[60]
Changes in California Road Lane Markers Aid Autonomous ...
The estimated 20 million Botts Dots won't disappear in mass exodus, but will undergo removal over time as crews tend to California roadway resurfacing projects.
[61]
[PDF] Impacts of Automated Vehicles on Highway Infrastructure
The NCUTCD has approved recommendations for the MUTCD to tighten national pavement-marking uniformity designed to increase safety for human-driven vehicles ...
[62]
[PDF] Assessing Pavement Markings for Automated Vehicle Readiness
• Non-reflective pavement markers (Botts Dots) should be eliminated or only used when supplementing pavement markings. • Contrast striping should be ...
[63]
New Federal Highway Administration Guidelines for Pavement ...
Jul 28, 2025 · The new guidelines establish stricter retroreflectivity requirements for pavement markings, with minimum levels increased by 15% for highway ...
[64]
Recovery methods, material characterization, and performance ...
This study presents a novel investigation of the feasibility of recycling thermoplastic road marking materials by comparing two removal techniques.
[65]
[PDF] Road Markings and Microplastics
Dec 12, 2022 · Cold plastic road marking (thick layer) renewed twice with paint (thin layer). Glass beads visible at the top of each layer indicate that the ...
[66]
Raised Pavement Marker Market Research Report 2033
Ceramic raised pavement markers are valued for their robustness and long service life, particularly in regions with extreme weather conditions. They are less ...
[67]
Wrong Way Pilot Projects - Caltrans - CA.gov
Press Release: Caltrans, UC Davis Research Deters Wrong Way Drivers on State Highways. Reports. Wrong Way Pilot Projects for Prevention of Wrong Way ...
[68]
New Road Striping in California Meant to Help Self-Driving Vehicles
The 4-inch-wide stripes with Botts dots will someday be replaced with 6-inch-wide stripes. The new stripes may look like paint, but they are tape or thermal ...Missing: hybrid | Show results with:hybrid