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Visibility

Visibility in meteorology refers to the greatest distance in a given direction at which it is just possible to see and identify with the unaided eye (a) in the daytime, a prominent dark object against the sky at the horizon, and (b) at night, a known, preferably unfocused, moderately intense light source.^[1] This measure quantifies the transparency of the atmosphere, typically expressed in kilometers or miles, and is essential for assessing environmental conditions that affect human perception and safety.^[2] Several factors influence visibility, primarily the presence of atmospheric particles and phenomena that scatter or absorb light. These include aerosols such as haze, smoke, dust, and pollution, as well as hydrometeors like fog, mist, rain, and snow, which reduce the distance at which objects can be discerned.^[2] Visibility is measured using instruments like forward-scattering sensors or transmissometers that assess light extinction in the air, with automated systems providing real-time data limited to a maximum range of about 10 kilometers in some applications.^[1] Conditions are often categorized by severity, such as clear (over 30 km), moderate (10–30 km), low (2–10 km), and very low (under 2 km), guiding operational decisions in affected sectors.^[2] The concept holds critical importance in transportation and public safety, particularly aviation, where reduced visibility—often caused by fog or precipitation—can necessitate instrument flight rules, increase accident risks, and lead to delays or diversions.^[3] In marine navigation and road travel, low visibility similarly impairs judgment and contributes to hazards, prompting the use of weather reports like METARs that include visibility observations.^[1] Beyond meteorology, visibility extends to other domains, such as geodesy, where it involves calculating the distance to the horizon accounting for Earth's curvature and atmospheric refraction, and computational geometry, where visibility graphs are used in applications like computer graphics rendering and robotics path planning.

Visibility in Meteorology

Definition

Visibility in meteorology is defined as the greatest distance in a given direction at which it is just possible to see and identify with the unaided eye (a) in the daytime, a prominent dark object against the sky at the horizon, and (b) at night, a known, preferably unfocused, moderately intense light source.^[1] This definition, established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the American Meteorological Society, quantifies the transparency of the atmosphere affected by scattering and absorption of light by particles and hydrometeors. It differs from geodetic visibility, which is limited by Earth's curvature and covered in a separate context.

Historical Development

The concept of meteorological visibility emerged from early qualitative assessments of atmospheric clarity, particularly in the context of fog and haze. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Swiss naturalist Horace Bénédict de Saussure conducted systematic observations during his Alpine expeditions, documenting how fog and haze reduced visibility by altering air transparency and humidity levels. His work, including inventions like the hair hygrometer in 1783, highlighted the role of moisture in atmospheric obscuration, influencing subsequent meteorologists to view visibility as a key environmental parameter. These early efforts shifted from anecdotal reports to structured field notes, setting the stage for more rigorous study amid growing interest in weather's impact on travel and agriculture.^[4] A pivotal advancement occurred in 1924 with Heinrich Koschmieder's publication of "Theorie der horizontalen Sichtweite," which formalized the contrast threshold—the point at which an object becomes indistinguishable against the horizon—and derived the foundational law linking visibility to atmospheric light extinction. This theoretical framework quantified how scattering and absorption by particles diminish contrast with distance, providing a scientific basis for visibility estimation that addressed limitations in prior empirical methods. Koschmieder's contributions, rooted in optical physics, gained rapid adoption in aviation and environmental monitoring, marking the transition from descriptive to analytical approaches in meteorology.^[5] Post-World War II efforts focused on global standardization to support expanding air traffic, with the 1944 Chicago Convention establishing ICAO's framework for meteorological services. Annex 3, first adopted in 1948 as "Meteorological Codes" and later retitled "Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation," introduced uniform visibility reporting protocols, defining prevailing visibility as the greatest distance at which a black object of suitable size can be seen and requiring observations at aerodromes. Subsequent amendments refined these standards; by the 1970s, the inclusion of Runway Visual Range (RVR)—assessed along the runway centerline—enabled precise assessments for Category II and III instrument approaches, reducing reliance on general visibility reports during fog.^[6]^[7] Instrumental measurement advanced in the 1950s with the deployment of transmissometers, which optically gauge light attenuation to compute extinction coefficients and derive visibility objectively, enhancing accuracy over human judgments. These devices, initially developed for military and civilian aviation, proliferated at airports worldwide by the late 1950s. In parallel, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), established in 1950, incorporated visibility into the SYNOP surface code format during the 1960s, standardizing its reporting in groups like VV for international data exchange and synoptic analysis.^[8]

Derivation and Measurement

The derivation of meteorological visibility stems from the physical principles of atmospheric optics, particularly the attenuation of light due to scattering and absorption. In 1924, Heinrich Koschmieder developed a foundational model relating visibility to the atmospheric extinction coefficient, β, which quantifies the total loss of light per unit distance along the line of sight.^[9] This coefficient β (in units of m⁻¹) encompasses both scattering and absorption processes: Rayleigh scattering by air molecules, Mie scattering by aerosols, and absorption by gases or particles.^[10] Koschmieder's law expresses visibility V (in kilometers) as the distance at which the contrast of a dark object against the horizon reaches a threshold of 0.02, yielding the formula:

V = \frac{3.91}{\beta}

where the constant 3.91 derives from the natural logarithm of the inverse contrast threshold, -ln(0.02) ≈ 3.91, assuming uniform atmospheric conditions and negligible object size effects.^[11] This model assumes that light transmission follows the Beer-Lambert law, with the transmitted intensity I at distance x given by I = I₀ e^{-βx}, where I₀ is the initial intensity.^[12] The components of β reflect distinct atmospheric interactions. Rayleigh scattering, dominant in clear air, arises from molecular interactions and scales inversely with the fourth power of wavelength, contributing a baseline extinction of approximately 0.012 km⁻¹ for green light at sea level.^[13] Mie scattering, from larger aerosol particles, is wavelength-independent and varies with particle size distribution, often dominating in hazy conditions.^[14] Absorption terms include gaseous uptake (e.g., by ozone or water vapor) and particulate effects, though scattering typically accounts for most extinction in visible wavelengths.^[10] Meteorological visibility is quantified as the Meteorological Optical Range (MOR), defined by the World Meteorological Organization as the path length in the atmosphere required to reduce the luminous flux of a collimated beam from a 2,700 K incandescent source to 2% of its original value.^[12] This 2% threshold aligns with human visual perception limits for black objects against a bright background, making MOR equivalent to Koschmieder's V under standard conditions.^[9] Measurement of visibility relies on both instrumental and observational methods to estimate β or MOR. Transmissometers provide direct assessment by projecting a light beam over a fixed path (typically 100–300 m) and measuring the transmitted intensity ratio, from which β is calculated via the Beer-Lambert law; they are highly accurate in uniform atmospheres but require maintenance to prevent lens contamination.^[7] Forward scatter meters, in contrast, infer β by detecting light scattered into the forward direction (typically 30–45°) from an illuminated volume, exploiting the proportionality between forward scattering and total extinction under Mie theory assumptions; these sensors are compact, cost-effective, and suitable for runway applications, with accuracies of ±10–20% up to 30 km.^[8]^[15] Human observers supplement instruments by estimating visibility using calibrated landmarks, charts, or black-target contrasts, though this method introduces subjectivity and is calibrated against instrumental standards for meteorological reporting.^[9]

Types of Reduced Visibility

Reduced visibility in meteorology refers to atmospheric conditions where the horizontal distance at which objects can be discerned is limited by the scattering or absorption of light by suspended particles or droplets. Common types include fog, mist, haze, and certain precipitation forms like freezing drizzle, each characterized by distinct particle compositions, formation mechanisms, and visibility thresholds typically ranging from less than 1 km to around 10 km. These phenomena are quantified through the atmospheric extinction coefficient, which measures light attenuation by particles.^[16] Fog occurs when suspended microscopic water droplets reduce horizontal visibility to less than 1 km at the Earth's surface.^[16] The droplets, typically ranging from 5 to 50 micrometers in diameter, form under conditions of high relative humidity (near 100%) through cooling of moist air to its dew point.^[17] Several subtypes exist based on formation processes: radiation fog develops on clear nights when the ground cools rapidly via longwave radiation, leading to near-surface air cooling and condensation, often in valleys or flat terrain.^[18] Advection fog arises when warm, moist air moves horizontally over a cooler surface, such as cool ocean waters or snow-covered ground, causing the air to cool and saturate; this type is common along coastal areas. Upslope fog forms as moist air is forced upward along sloping terrain, expanding and cooling adiabatically to produce condensation, typically in mountainous regions.^[18] Mist is similar to fog but less dense, with visibility ranging from 1 to 5 km due to finer or fewer suspended water droplets, also under high relative humidity conditions.^[19] The droplets are generally smaller than those in fog, often in the 1-10 micrometer range, resulting in a lighter obscuration that scatters light less effectively.^[20] Mist commonly follows the dissipation of fog as temperatures rise or winds disperse the droplets, transitioning the phenomenon without a sharp boundary. Haze reduces visibility to 2-5 km, or up to 10 km in moderate cases, caused by the suspension of extremely small, dry aerosol particles such as dust, smoke, or pollutants that are invisible individually but collectively impart an opalescent appearance to the air.^[21] These particles, typically submicron in size (less than 1 micrometer), scatter light through Mie scattering and are prevalent in low relative humidity conditions (below 90%), distinguishing haze from hydrologically driven fog or mist.^[22] Photochemical haze, a subtype, results from atmospheric reactions involving pollutants like nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds, forming secondary aerosols that exacerbate urban visibility reduction.^[23] Visibility in haze worsens in low humidity environments where particles remain dry and suspended without evaporating or growing significantly.^[24] Freezing drizzle can reduce visibility to less than 1 km in intense occurrences, as supercooled liquid droplets smaller than 0.5 mm in diameter fall and partially freeze, creating ice particles or combining with existing fog. This precipitation type forms in stable, subfreezing air layers where droplets remain liquid until impacting surfaces or other particles, leading to obscured views particularly when accompanied by rime ice accumulation or light snow.^[25] Unlike fog or haze, its visibility impact is transient and tied to the precipitation rate rather than persistent suspension.^[26] Key distinctions among these types lie in particle size and composition: water-based fog and mist involve larger, liquid droplets dependent on high humidity for formation and persistence, whereas haze relies on smaller, dry aerosols favored by lower humidity.^[20] Freezing drizzle introduces frozen or supercooled elements, bridging precipitation and obscuration effects.

Phenomena of Very Low Visibility

Very low visibility in meteorology refers to atmospheric conditions where the horizontal distance at which objects can be discerned drops below 1 kilometer, often due to extreme scattering or absorption of light by particulates, water droplets, or ice crystals. These phenomena pose severe hazards to transportation, particularly aviation and maritime navigation, by eliminating visual references and increasing the risk of collisions or disorientation.^[27] Whiteout occurs primarily in polar or snowy regions when a uniform overcast sky merges optically with a snow-covered surface, creating diffuse illumination that eliminates shadows and the horizon line. This results in visibility reduced to less than 50 meters, as light scatters equally in all directions, rendering depth perception impossible and only dark objects discernible against the white background. The condition arises from flat light under low clouds combined with blowing or falling snow, leading to spatial disorientation for pilots and ground travelers.^[28] Zero visibility represents the most extreme opacity, where no objects are visible beyond a few meters or less, often caused by dense concentrations of volcanic ash, heavy precipitation, or thick fog. In aviation, this heightens risks such as controlled flight into terrain, as pilots lose all external cues and must rely entirely on instruments. For instance, dense volcanic ash clouds can blanket areas completely, while intense snow or rain storms scatter light to near-total blackout.^[29]^[30] Freezing fog forms when supercooled water droplets in fog, with temperatures below 0°C, contact exposed surfaces and instantly freeze, creating rime ice buildup that further impairs visibility to under 400 meters. This phenomenon is prevalent in polar regions during cold, calm conditions, where the ice accretion on aircraft can alter aerodynamics and exacerbate low-visibility hazards. Unlike ice fog composed solely of ice crystals, freezing fog involves liquid droplets that solidify on impact, contributing to rapid deterioration of flight safety.^[31]^[32] The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines injected massive sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, forming sulfate aerosols that increased global optical depth by 10 to 100 times normal levels, reducing surface visibility through widespread haze for over a year. This led to attenuated sunlight and altered weather patterns, with peak effects dispersing the aerosol cloud worldwide within weeks. Similarly, the Great Smog of London in December 1952 trapped coal smoke under a temperature inversion, slashing visibility to less than 1 meter in central areas and persisting for days, demonstrating how localized meteorological stagnation can amplify particulate opacity to extreme degrees.^[33]^[34]^[35]

Warnings and Operational Applications

In aviation, meteorological warnings for low visibility are issued through standardized codes in METAR (Meteorological Aerodrome Report) and TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast) reports, such as FG for fog (visibility less than 1 km) and HZ for haze (reduced visibility due to atmospheric particulates).^[36] These reports trigger alerts when visibility falls below specific thresholds, typically less than 5 km for general aviation advisories and less than 800 m for critical operations requiring enhanced procedures.^[37] Such warnings enable proactive measures to mitigate risks from phenomena like fog or mist. Low Visibility Procedures (LVP) are ICAO-mandated protocols implemented at airports when runway visual range (RVR) drops below 550 m or cloud base below 200 ft above aerodrome level, ensuring safe aircraft movements during approach, takeoff, and ground operations.^[38] These procedures include reduced aircraft spacing to prevent runway incursions, enhanced air traffic control (ATC) guidance for taxiing, and strict rules prohibiting aircraft from crossing illuminated red stop bars without clearance.^[38] For takeoffs, Low Visibility Take-Off (LVTO) operations apply when RVR is below 400 m, further limiting movements and requiring specialized equipment like surface movement guidance and control systems (SMGCS).^[38] In maritime operations, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) provides guidelines through COLREG Rule 19, which governs vessel conduct in restricted visibility conditions such as fog or heavy rain.^[39] Vessels must maintain a safe speed adapted to visibility, use radar to detect and avoid collisions, and reduce speed to a minimum upon hearing fog signals from other ships.^[39] For road transport, low visibility warnings are disseminated via variable message signs (VMS) that display real-time alerts for fog or poor conditions, advising reduced speeds or route changes to enhance driver safety.^[40] Historical incidents underscore the operational importance of these warnings; for instance, the 1977 Tenerife airport disaster, where fog reduced visibility to 300 m, obscured aircraft positions from the control tower and contributed to a fatal runway collision between two Boeing 747s, resulting in 583 deaths.^[41] Real-time monitoring instruments like LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) support these applications by providing remote measurements of horizontal visibility through laser backscattering analysis of atmospheric particles, enabling precise alerts at airports and ports.^[42]

Relation to Air Pollution

Atmospheric pollutants, particularly aerosols, degrade meteorological visibility by scattering and absorbing incoming sunlight, thereby reducing the distance at which objects can be clearly seen. Aerosol optical depth (AOD) serves as a primary measure of this light extinction caused by suspended particles in the atmosphere, with values exceeding 0.5 indicating heavy pollution loads that strongly correlate with diminished visibility.^[43]^[44] The extinction coefficient, which quantifies the overall attenuation of light by these particles and gases, further underscores the direct role of pollution in visibility impairment.^[45] Key pollutants such as fine particulate matter (PM2.5), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) contribute significantly to this degradation by forming secondary aerosols like sulfates and nitrates, which enhance light scattering and absorption.^[46]^[47] These effects create pronounced urban-rural gradients, where urban areas exhibit higher concentrations of these pollutants—and thus lower visibility—due to dense emission sources from traffic, industry, and energy production, compared to cleaner rural environments.^[48]^[49] In response to these impacts, the United States Clean Air Act establishes protections for visibility in Class I areas, including national parks and wilderness regions larger than 6,000 acres, to prevent degradation from regional haze caused by air pollution.^[50] The Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) network supports this by tracking aerosol composition, light extinction, and visibility conditions in these areas, with monitoring efforts ongoing since 1988.^[51]^[52] A notable example of pollution-driven visibility loss is the Asian Brown Cloud, a persistent haze layer over South Asia resulting from biomass burning, fossil fuel combustion, and industrial emissions, which has reduced surface solar radiation—and associated visibility—by 15-20% in regions like central India and Southeast Asia.^[53]

Prevailing and Runway Visibility

In aviation meteorology, prevailing visibility refers to the greatest distance at which an object can be seen and identified throughout at least half of the horizon circle, not necessarily in contiguous sectors.^[54] This value is determined by evaluating visibility in multiple sectors around the observation point and selecting the highest consistent range that applies to at least 180 degrees of the horizon.^[54] It is reported in METAR observations as an average derived from sensor data over a 10-minute period, expressed in statute miles (SM) with fractions, such as 2 1/2SM for 2.5 miles.^[54] For automated systems like AWOS, the visibility is calculated using a 10-minute harmonic average of sensor outputs to account for fluctuations.^[54] Runway Visual Range (RVR) is a specialized metric providing the horizontal distance a pilot on the runway centerline can see runway markings or lights, specifically tailored for low-visibility landing and takeoff operations.^[55] It is measured instrumentally using transmissometers—devices that quantify light transmittance across a fixed path length (typically 250 feet) at key points: touchdown, midfield, and rollout.^[55] RVR values guide aircraft approach categories under ICAO standards, with thresholds including 550 meters for Category I operations, 300 meters for Category II, 200 meters for Category IIIA, and down to 50 meters or less for Category IIIB in severe conditions. These categories ensure safe minima based on equipment and lighting availability.^[56] Unlike prevailing visibility, which assesses general surface conditions across the airport, RVR incorporates runway lighting intensity and background luminance to simulate pilot perception along the runway path.^[55] The calculation follows Koschmieder's law for daytime conditions, where visual range V = \frac{-\ln(0.02)}{\sigma}, with extinction coefficient \sigma = \frac{-\ln(T)}{L} (T is transmittance, L is path length), yielding V \approx \frac{3.91 \cdot L}{-\ln(T)}.^[57] At night, Allard's law adjusts for light contrast, enhancing accuracy in fog or precipitation.^[57] RVR and prevailing visibility are reported through METAR/SPECI, with automated systems providing baseline data via sensors, but human augmentation is required in low-visibility conditions (e.g., prevailing visibility ≤1 mile or RVR ≤6,000 feet) for verification and precision at air traffic control towers.^[54] Certified observers may override automated readings if discrepancies arise, ensuring operational safety during events triggering low-visibility warnings.^[54]

Visibility in Geodesy

Definition

In geodesy, visibility refers to the maximum line-of-sight distance an observer can achieve to a target on Earth's surface, primarily limited by the planet's curvature, which causes the surface to drop away beyond the horizon. This geodetic visibility defines the furthest extent to which direct optical observation is possible without obstruction from terrain or the Earth's ellipsoidal shape, making it essential for precise positioning and measurement over large areas. Unlike meteorological visibility, which measures the clarity of the atmosphere through scattering and absorption of light, geodetic visibility focuses on geometric constraints independent of weather-induced haze or fog.^[58] Key terms distinguish between the geometric horizon, the theoretical boundary calculated assuming no atmospheric interference and a spherical Earth, and the optical horizon, which incorporates the slight extension of visibility due to light refraction in the atmosphere. These horizons are fundamental in surveying, where they determine intervisibility between control points for triangulation and leveling, and in navigation, where they guide estimates of observable sea or land features from a given elevation.^[59] Geodetic visibility is expressed in units such as kilometers or nautical miles, reflecting its applications in both scientific and maritime contexts. For a typical human observer at sea level with an eye height of 1.7 meters, the distance to the horizon approximates 4.8 kilometers under standard conditions.^[58]

Horizon Distance Calculation

The distance to the horizon in geodesy is calculated geometrically by considering the Earth's curvature under ideal conditions, assuming a spherical Earth and a tangent line of sight from the observer's eye to the horizon point. This derivation begins with the Pythagorean theorem applied to the right triangle formed by the Earth's center, the observer's position, and the tangent point at the horizon. Let R denote the Earth's mean radius, approximately 6371 km, and h the observer's eye height above the surface in km. The exact distance d satisfies (R + h)^2 = R^2 + d^2, which expands to d = \sqrt{2Rh + h^2}.^[60] For typical eye heights where h \ll R, the h^2 term is negligible, yielding the approximation d \approx \sqrt{2Rh}. Substituting R = 6371 km and converting h to meters for practical use gives d \approx 3.57 \sqrt{h} km, where h is in meters. This formula provides the geometric horizon distance without atmospheric effects.^[59]^[60] When both the observer and a target (such as a lighthouse or mountain peak) are elevated, the total visible distance is the sum of the individual horizon distances from each height. Thus, d_{\text{total}} \approx 3.57 (\sqrt{h_1} + \sqrt{h_2}) km, where h_1 is the observer's eye height and h_2 the target's height, both in meters. This additive approach accounts for the extended line of sight over the curvature.^[61] Atmospheric refraction bends light rays downward due to the density gradient in the lower atmosphere, effectively increasing the Earth's radius and extending the visible horizon by about 8% under standard conditions. A common correction uses an effective radius R' = kR with refraction coefficient k = 7/6 \approx 1.167, leading to d \approx 3.86 \sqrt{h} km for eye height h in meters. This adjustment assumes a standard lapse rate and is widely applied in surveying and navigation.^[59]^[62] Practical computations often rely on precomputed tables in nautical almanacs, such as Table 12 in the American Practical Navigator (Bowditch), which lists horizon distances in nautical and statute miles for various eye heights in feet and meters, incorporating a refraction factor of approximately 0.8279 for standard conditions. These tables facilitate quick lookups, with distances ranging from about 1 nautical mile at 1 foot to over 20 nautical miles at 100 feet.^[63]

Influencing Factors

Atmospheric refraction significantly influences geodetic visibility by bending light rays through variations in air density, often extending the apparent horizon beyond geometric predictions. Under standard conditions, refraction causes light to curve downward at about one-seventh the rate of Earth's curvature, effectively increasing the planetary radius in calculations and adding roughly 8% to the horizon distance. Temperature inversions, where warmer air overlies cooler air near the surface, intensify this effect by creating steeper density gradients that bend rays more sharply, sometimes allowing visibility over the true horizon. This phenomenon produces superior mirages, where distant objects appear elevated or inverted, and looming, where objects are raised above the horizon, potentially extending views by tens to hundreds of kilometers in extreme cases, such as observing San Clemente Island from 125 km away under inversion conditions.^[64]^[65] Terrain features like mountains and hills profoundly alter geodetic visibility by obstructing lines of sight and defining viewsheds, the areas visible from a specific vantage point. In rugged landscapes, intervening elevations block distant horizons, reducing visibility to localized segments rather than uniform distances; for instance, a hill may create a shadowed zone behind it while exposing elevated targets beyond. Digital elevation models (DEMs), which represent terrain heights in raster or vector formats, are essential for computing these viewsheds, enabling simulations of visibility polygons by tracing lines of sight across gridded elevation data. Advanced methods, such as those using LiDAR-derived DEMs, account for fine-scale topography to delineate precise visible and invisible regions, improving applications in landscape analysis and site planning.^[66]^[67] Observer elevation above sea level directly amplifies geodetic visibility by increasing the baseline height in horizon calculations, allowing farther reaches before Earth's curvature intervenes. For an observer at sea level, the horizon lies about 5 km away, but at higher altitudes, this distance scales approximately with the square root of height; from the summit of Mount Everest at 8,848 meters, the geometric horizon extends roughly 336 km, while atmospheric refraction pushes it to about 370 km under clear conditions. This effect underscores why high-altitude observatories or peaks provide expansive panoramas, though practical visibility remains constrained by other factors. The horizon formula can be adjusted for such elevations by incorporating the observer's height parameter.^[64]^[68] Geodetic visibility faces key limitations from meteorological conditions and Earth's non-spherical shape. Weather phenomena such as fog, precipitation, and haze reduce effective sight lines by scattering or absorbing light, tying geodetic limits to meteorological visibility; for instance, light precipitation can reduce visibility to 4–8 km. In polar regions, Earth's oblateness—its equatorial bulge of about 21 km—necessitates adjustments to spherical horizon models, as the local radius of curvature varies by latitude, slightly altering distances (up to 1 part in 600 difference) and requiring ellipsoidal computations for precision, particularly in meridional versus equatorial directions.^[69]^[70]^[71]

Visibility in Computational Geometry

Core Concepts

In computational geometry, the visibility problem involves determining the regions or surfaces that are observable from a given viewpoint amidst a set of obstacles, such as polygons or polyhedra, where visibility is defined by the existence of an unobstructed line segment between the viewer and the point in question.^[72] This contrasts with hidden surface removal techniques in computer graphics, which focus on rendering visible surfaces by eliminating occluded ones during image synthesis rather than computing the full visible region.^[73] The problem is foundational for analyzing line-of-sight in planar or spatial environments, often modeled using simple polygons to represent obstacles or free space.^[74] A key structure in solving the visibility problem is the visibility polygon, which for a viewpoint inside a simple polygon P with n vertices, comprises the subset of P's interior points that are mutually visible from the viewpoint via straight-line segments lying entirely within P.^[75] The boundary of this visibility polygon consists of portions of P's edges along with "window" extensions—line segments from the viewpoint to obstacle vertices that bound the visible region.^[73] Computing the visibility polygon enables the identification of observable areas, such as in environmental mapping where obstacles like walls limit sightlines, analogous in a discrete sense to the geometric horizon's obstruction of distant views over terrain.^[74] The art gallery theorem provides a theoretical bound on visibility coverage, stating that for any simple polygon with n vertices, at most \lfloor n/3 \rfloor stationary guards—positioned at vertices and observing via 360-degree vision—are sufficient to see the entire interior, with this number sometimes necessary as demonstrated by comb-shaped polygons.^[74] Proved by Václav Chvátal in 1975 using graph triangulation, the theorem reduces the problem to vertex coloring, ensuring one color class covers all triangles.^[74] This result highlights the efficiency of strategic placements for full visibility, influencing guard positioning in polygonal domains. Efficient algorithms for computing visibility polygons in simple polygons achieve O(n) time complexity, such as the rotational plane-sweep method by Joe and Simpson (1985), which processes vertices in angular order around the viewpoint to construct the boundary incrementally.^[73] Earlier approaches, like ElGindy and Avis's (1981), ran in O(n log n) time but laid groundwork for linear-time solutions by handling reflex vertices and ray casting.^[74] These algorithms assume a simple, non-self-intersecting polygon and a viewpoint in general position, avoiding degeneracies like collinear points. Visibility polygons find applications in robot sensing, where they model the observable environment from a robot's position to support tasks like obstacle avoidance and localization by identifying free-space boundaries detectable via onboard sensors.^[76] For instance, in mobile robotics, computing the visibility polygon from a robot's pose allows real-time mapping of surroundings, enabling path planning around detected obstacles without full environmental knowledge.^[76] This computational tool enhances autonomy in constrained spaces, such as indoor navigation, by quantifying sensor-limited perception.

Visibility Graphs

A visibility graph is a fundamental data structure in computational geometry used to model line-of-sight connectivity among points in an environment obstructed by polygons. It consists of nodes representing vertices of the obstacles, along with designated start and goal points, and edges connecting pairs of nodes if the straight-line segment between them does not intersect any obstacle interior. This graph encodes unobstructed paths, enabling efficient queries for navigation in two-dimensional spaces.^[77] The concept of visibility graphs emerged in the late 1960s as part of early motion planning efforts, notably in the Shakey robot project at Stanford Research Institute, where Nils Nilsson and colleagues developed methods for pathfinding among obstacles using visibility-based graphs to achieve deliberate navigation at speeds up to 2 meters per hour. Formalized in the 1970s for broader applications, the structure was detailed by Tomás Lozano-Pérez and Michael A. Wesley in their 1979 algorithm for collision-free paths among polyhedral obstacles, establishing visibility graphs as a cornerstone for Euclidean shortest path computation in polygonal domains. Constructing a visibility graph naively involves checking line-of-sight for every pair of nodes, yielding O(n²) time complexity for n vertices, where edges are added only for unobstructed pairs. Improved algorithms achieve O(n log n + k) time, where k is the output size (number of edges), by leveraging rotational sweeps and output-sensitive techniques to efficiently detect visible pairs without exhaustive checks; a seminal such method was proposed by Subhash Suri and John Hershberger for vertex visibility among segments.^[78] For shortest paths amid polygonal obstacles, the visibility graph serves as a roadmap: apply Dijkstra's algorithm on the graph, using Euclidean distances as edge weights, to find the optimal collision-free path from start to goal in O((n + k) log n) time overall.^[73] Extensions to three dimensions construct visibility graphs for polyhedra, where nodes are vertices or edges, and edges represent unobstructed lines between them, often used in hidden surface removal and terrain navigation; early work includes aspect graphs for convex polyhedra in O(n²) time for orthographic views.^[73] For dynamic environments with moving obstacles, updates to the visibility graph maintain connectivity by incrementally recomputing affected edges upon obstacle motion, as in algorithms using visibility complexes to handle insertions and deletions in O(log n) per update amortized.^[79]

Applications in Graphics and Robotics

In computer graphics, visibility computations are essential for hidden surface determination, which resolves which parts of a 3D scene are occluded from the viewpoint to produce realistic renderings. The Z-buffer algorithm, introduced in the mid-1970s, efficiently solves this by maintaining a depth buffer alongside the color buffer, comparing the z-depth of each pixel during rasterization to discard hidden fragments in real-time applications like video games and simulations. Ray tracing, a more computationally intensive method originating from the 1980s, traces rays from the camera through each pixel to intersect scene geometry, determining visibility through recursive reflections and refractions for high-fidelity offline rendering in films and animations. Occlusion culling techniques further optimize rendering by precomputing potentially visible sets (PVS), which approximate the visible portions of complex environments to avoid processing hidden geometry. Developed in the early 1990s, PVS methods partition scenes into cells and calculate visibility portals between them, drastically reducing draw calls in large-scale virtual worlds. A landmark example is the Doom engine (1993), which employed binary space partitioning (BSP) trees to traverse scene sectors in back-to-front order, enabling efficient visibility sorting and rendering on limited 1990s hardware without full Z-buffering. In modern virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) systems, visibility-based occlusion ensures virtual objects integrate seamlessly with real environments, such as masking holograms behind physical obstacles using depth sensors and real-time culling. In robotics, visibility concepts underpin motion planning by identifying obstacle-free paths and maintaining line-of-sight to targets or sensors. Visibility graphs, which connect unobstructed vertices, provide shortest paths in polygonal environments and are briefly referenced in sampling-based planners like probabilistic roadmaps for efficient exploration. Visibility-based potential fields extend artificial potential methods by incorporating sightline constraints, generating repulsive forces from occluding obstacles to guide mobile robots through cluttered spaces while preserving target observability. These approaches enhance navigation in applications like autonomous drones and warehouse robots, where real-time visibility ensures collision avoidance and task completion. Beyond graphics and robotics, computational visibility supports line-of-sight analysis in architectural design, evaluating viewsheds from building interiors to optimize natural lighting and privacy in urban planning. In wireless networks, visibility determines antenna placement by ensuring clear line-of-sight propagation paths, minimizing signal attenuation in microwave links and 5G deployments through terrain-based viewshed computations.^[80]

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Feb 28, 2013 · This edition incorporates all amendments adopted by the Council prior to 28 February 2013 and supersedes, on 14 November 2013, all previous.
[10]
[PDF] A clearer approach to RVR: Principles and solutions for accuracy ...
ICAO documented the importance of RVR as far back as the 1970s, and today it requires automated RVR assessment at all CAT II and CAT III airports. ICAO also ...Missing: standardization | Show results with:standardization
[11]
[PDF] Development and Calibration of the Forward Scatter Visibility Meter
Mar 18, 1974 · DEVELOPMENT OF THE FORWARD SCATTER VISIBILITY MK'ER. During the 1950's and 1960's, transmissometers were deployed at more and more airfields ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[12]
[PDF] measurement of visibility - Plymouth State Weather Center
In 1924, Koschmieder established a relationship, which later become known as Koschmieder's law, between the apparent contrast (C) of an object, seen against ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[13]
WMO Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project
The scattering processes divide conveniently into scattering by molecules of the air (Rayleigh scattering), by aerosols (particles of approximately 0.05 to 5µ ...
[14]
Visibility: How Applicable is the Century-Old Koschmieder Model? in
Nov 1, 2016 · Koschmieder proposed that visibility is inversely proportional to the extinction coefficient of air, and this model has been widely adopted ...Introduction · Derivation and discussion of... · Law of contrast reduction of...
[15]
[PDF] Introduction to atmospheric visibility estimation - Biral
The Runway Visual Range (RVR) has been calculated for different extinction coefficients using both the. “day” (Koschmieder's Law) and “night” (Allard's Law) ...Missing: 1924 seminal work
[16]
Extinction Coefficient - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The Rayleigh scattering extinction coefficient for particle-free air is 0.012 km−1 for “green” light (γ = 0.05 μm) at sea level. This permits a visual range of ...
[17]
[PDF] Scattering and absorption of light by aerosol particles
We give the basic definition of extinction, scattering coefficient factors, complex refractive indices and, describe different approximations of light-aerosol ...
[18]
VISIBILITYl - AMS Journals - American Meteorological Society
The Model 207 Forward Scatter Meter, developed by EG&G, utilizes an entirely new technique for measuring visibility. Extensive tests in air-.
[19]
Fog | International Cloud Atlas
Definition: Fog: A suspension of very small, usually microscopic water droplets in the air, reducing visibility at the Earth's surface.
[20]
Fog Classification by Their Droplet Size Distributions - MDPI
All the studies show that fog droplet size ranges from a few tenths of a micron to a few tens of microns [1,20,21]. Many of the previous studies use ...
[21]
Fog Definitions
Freezing Fog: Freezing fog occurs when the temperature falls at 32°F (0°C) or below. This fog produces drizzle and these tiny droplets freeze when they come ...Missing: visibility haze
[22]
Fog compared with Mist | International Cloud Atlas
The term “fog” is used when microscopic droplets reduce horizontal visibility at the Earth's surface to less than 1 km, while the term “mist” is used when ...
[23]
Fog, Haze, Mist - What's The Difference? - WeatherBug
Sep 1, 2024 · Fog has water droplets, mist has higher visibility with water particles, and haze has dry pollutant particles. Fog visibility is less than 5/8 ...
[24]
Haze | International Cloud Atlas
Definition: Haze: A suspension in the air of extremely small, dry particles invisible to the naked eye and sufficiently numerous to give the air an opalescent ...
[25]
Distinction of two kinds of haze - ScienceDirect.com
Feb 15, 2020 · According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) standard (WMO, 2014), haze is defined as the suspension in the air of extremely small ...
[26]
Chapter: 4 Haze Formation and Visibility Impairment
Haze affects the quality and quantity of air light because absorption and scattering are wavelength dependent. That dependence accounts for the deep blue color ...
[27]
[PDF] Analysis of the formation of fog and haze in North China Plain (NCP)
Aug 11, 2011 · The measurement also shows that a large amount of aerosol particles can act as condensation nuclei to enhance the for- mation of fog droplets.<|control11|><|separator|>
[28]
[PDF] Inferring the Presence of Freezing Drizzle Using Archived Data from ...
If the ice accretion. (and reduction in visibility) is due to precipitation (e.g., freezing drizzle), then the observer is missing it or mis- classifying it ...
[29]
Winter Weather Terms
Freezing Drizzle is liquid precipitation that reaches the surface in the form of drops that are less than 0.5 millimeters in diameter. The drops then freeze on ...
[30]
Fog Safety Overview
### Summary of Very Low Visibility Phenomena (Fog, Freezing Fog, Zero Visibility)
[31]
White-Out—A Polar Weather Phenomenon - U.S. Naval Institute
Most dangerous conditions arise with a low ceiling, a solid overcast, and a sort of diffuse stratiform mist reducing visibility and whitening the sky. Less ...
[32]
What does visibility mean? - FOX Weather
Apr 23, 2024 · Visibility is defined as the greatest distance in a ... And sometimes visibility can be zero - like in cases of thick fog or super fog.<|separator|>
[33]
Obstructions to Visibility - Weather & Atmosphere - CFI Notebook
As defined in meteorological terms, white out occurs when a person becomes engulfed in a uniformly white glow · The glow is a result of being surrounded by ...
[34]
Freezing Fog - National Weather Service
Tiny, supercooled liquid water droplets in fog can freeze instantly on exposed surfaces when surface temperatures are at or below freezing.
[35]
Glossary - NOAA's National Weather Service
Freezing Fog: A fog the droplets of which freeze upon contact with exposed objects and form a coating of rime and/or glaze. Freezing Fog Advisory: This ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[36]
Global Effects of Mount Pinatubo - NASA Earth Observatory
Jun 14, 2001 · The Pinatubo eruption increased aerosol optical depth in the stratosphere by a factor of 10 to 100 times normal levels measured prior to the ...
[37]
The atmospheric impact of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption
Nov 6, 1999 · The aerosol cloud spread rapidly around the Earth in about 3 weeks and attained global coverage by about 1 year after the eruption. Peak local ...
[38]
The impact of the 1952 London smog event and its relevance for ...
In 1952, domestic and industrial coal fires blanketed thick smoke across London for just over four days, contributing up to 12,000 deaths in the immediate weeks ...
[39]
This is how you read a METAR - Metar-Taf.com
Fog FG or mist BR : fog is less than 1000 meters visibility. Mist BR or haze HZ : if the humidity is more than 80% it is mist. Hail GR or small hail GS ...Missing: thresholds <5km <800m
[40]
METAR explanation | IVAO Documentation Library
50 m when visibility is less than 800 m;; 100 m when visibility is 800 m or more but less than 5 km;; 1 km when visibility is 5 km or more but less than 10 km.
[41]
Low-Visibility Procedures (LVP) | SKYbrary Aviation Safety
Low-visibility operations (LVO) means approach or takeoff operations on a runway with a runway visual range less than 550 m or with a decision height less than ...
[42]
COLREG - Preventing collisions at sea
Section III - Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility (Rule 19) Rule 19 states every vessel should proceed at a safe speed adapted to prevailing ...Missing: low | Show results with:low
[43]
[PDF] Variable Message Sign Guidelines - nysdot
Dec 1, 2018 · This document provides guidance for the use of Variable Message Signs (VMS). NYSDOT personnel should use this document when making decisions ...
[44]
B742 / B741, Tenerife Canary Islands Spain, 1977 - SKYbrary
The very poor visibility at the time of the accident "prevented the collision from being immediately and directly visible from the Control Tower" where they ...
[45]
Novel Lidar algorithm for horizontal visibility measurement and sea ...
Dec 21, 2018 · Experimental showed that the proposed algorithm and scanning Lidar system provide very high stability and accuracy, can work in different ...
[46]
[PDF] Visibility-derived aerosol optical depth over global land from 1959 to ...
Jul 12, 2024 · When there is heavy pollution, the AOD value is large (AOD > 0.5). Compared with clear sky, the AOD sequence will show “abnormal” large ...
[47]
Assessment of relationship between aerosol optical depth (AOD ...
Aug 8, 2025 · AOD is a measure of aerosol loading in the atmosphere, which means a higher AOD shows a higher aerosol loading and thus lower visibility.
[48]
Relationship of extinction coefficient, air pollution, and ... - PubMed
Annual correlation analysis shows that there is a positive correlation between the extinction coefficient and RH, CO, PM10, SO2, and NO2 concentration, while ...
[49]
Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review
The World Health Organization (WHO) reports on six major air pollutants, namely particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen ...
[50]
PM2.5 Concentrations & Chemical Species in China: CARE-China
The major PM2.5 constituents across all the urban sites are organic matter (OM, 26.0 %), SO2-4 (17.7 %), mineral dust (11.8 %), NO-3 (9.8 %), NH+4 (6.6 %), ...
[51]
Rural and Urban Differences in Air Quality, 2008 - CDC
Jun 23, 2017 · The mean average annual PM2.5 concentration decreased from 11.15 μg/m3 in large central metropolitan counties to 8.87 μg/m3 in noncore counties.
[52]
The Urban–Rural Heterogeneity of Air Pollution in 35 Metropolitan ...
Aerosols reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the ground and influence horizontal visibility due to their scattering and absorption. A variety of ...
[53]
Class I - Air (U.S. National Park Service)
Nov 30, 2023 · The Clean Air Act gives special air quality and visibility protection to national parks larger than 6,000 acres and national wilderness ...
[54]
Visibility in Parks and Wilderness Areas | US EPA
Feb 7, 2025 · Since 1988, the EPA, States, and Federal land management agencies have conducted monitoring of air pollution and visibility impairment at a ...
[55]
IMPROVE Program
The IMPROVE program establishes current visibility and aerosol conditions in mandatory Class I areas; identifies chemical species and emission sources.
[56]
Atmospheric brown clouds: Impacts on South Asian climate and ...
South Asian emissions of fossil fuel SO2 and black carbon increased≈6-fold since 1930, resulting in large atmospheric concentrations of black carbon and ...
[57]
Meteorology - Federal Aviation Administration
... visibility conditions, are defined as follows: LIFR (Low IFR). Ceiling less than 500 feet and/or visibility less than 1 mile. IFR. Ceiling 500 to less than ...
[58]
[PDF] 6560.10C Runway Visual Range (RVR)
Jan 20, 2011 · RVR, in contrast to prevailing or runway visibility, is based on what a pilot in a moving aircraft should see looking down the runway. RVR is ...
[59]
[PDF] Visual range: concepts, instrumental determination, and aviation ...
The development and application of the visual range concept in the. United States is not well documented. Very little work was reported in.
[60]
Distance to the Horizon - PWG Home - NASA
Apr 1, 2014 · If now R2 is subtracted from both sides and the remaining terms on the left are rearranged. h(2R + h) = D2. The diameter 2R of the Earth is ...Missing: derivation | Show results with:derivation
[61]
Calculating Distance To The Horizon - Astro Navigation Demystified
The formula for calculating the distance from the top of an object to the horizon becomes: √(2rh)<|control11|><|separator|>
[62]
Deriving Equations for Atmospheric Refraction
### Summary of Refraction Coefficient k=7/6 for Horizon Distance
[63]
[PDF] EXPLANATION OF NAVIGATION TABLES - The Nautical Almanac
Distance of the Horizon – This table gives the distance in nautical and statute miles of the visible sea horizon for various heights of eye in feet and meters.
[64]
Distance to the Horizon
### Definitions and Distances to Horizons
[65]
Atmospheric Optics Glossary - A Green Flash Page
GEOMETRIC HORIZON: Where the apparent sea horizon would be if there were no refraction; equivalently, where the cone with vertex at the observer's eye and ...
[66]
[PDF] Viewshed Creation: From Digital Terrain Model to Digital Surface ...
Jul 12, 2010 · Viewsheds are usually created with using DEM (digital elevation model) datasets as the input elevation dataset. Most publically available DEMs ...
[67]
Generating viewsheds based on the Digital Surface Model (DSM ...
Dec 31, 2024 · This study explores viewshed generation using two distinct datasets: Digital Surface Model (DSM) and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) point cloud data.
[68]
How far away is the horizon? - Live Science
Sep 12, 2012 · Here's how it works. horizon, distance to the horizon. The ... For example, if you stood atop Mount Everest (which is 29,029 feet ...
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[PDF] PDF - National Geodetic Survey - NOAA
--Limits at which weather elements interrupt field operations. Weather element. General conditions under which work cannot proceed. Precipitation. 0.02 or more ...
[70]
Earth Curvature for Highpointers
For the oblate spheroid volume V = 4/3 πa2b and for the sphere V = 4/3 πr3. Thus r = (a2b)1/3, a quantity well approximated by Equation (20) recalling that b ≈ ...
[71]
[PDF] Visibility and Intersection Problems in Plane Geometry - cs.Princeton
Visibility and intersection problems are among the most fundamental topics in computational geometry. In this paper we investigate the following type of.
[72]
[PDF] 33 VISIBILITY - CSUN
In a geometric context, two objects are “visible” to each other if there is a line segment connecting them that does not cross any obstacles. Over 500 papers ...
[73]
[PDF] ART GALLERY THEOREMS AND ALGORITHMS
Art gallery theorems and algorithms is a topic in both combinatorial and computational geometry, covering the best-developed aspects of the topic.
[74]
Computing a visibility polygon using few variables - ScienceDirect
The visibility polygon of a simple polygon P from a viewpoint q is the set of all points of P that can be seen from q, where two points p and q can see each ...
[75]
Visibility techniques applied to robotics - IEEE Xplore
The visibility polygon of a point or of an edge can be used in different robot tasks, i.e. obstacle avoidance, path planning and localization.
[76]
Visibility Graphs (Chapter 5) - Visibility Algorithms in the Plane
The visibility graph is a fundamental structure in computational geometry; some early applications of visibility graphs include computing Euclidean shortest ...Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[77]
New methods for computing visibility graphs - ACM Digital Library
The visibility graph GS of S is the graph that has the endpoints of the segments in S as nodes and in which two nodes are adjacent whenever they can “see” each ...Missing: seminal papers
[78]
Dynamic visibility in polygonal scenes with the visibility complex
Computational geometry. Recommendations. Visibility polygons and visibility graphs among dynamic polygonal obstacles in the plane. Abstract. We devise an ...
[79]
[PDF] Automated Antenna Positioning for Wireless Networks
Abstract— This article addresses a real-life problem - obtaining communication links between multiple base stations sites, by positioning a minimal set of ...Missing: placement | Show results with:placement