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Bracteate

A bracteate is a thin, single-sided gold pendant or medallion, typically 2–4 cm in diameter though some exceptional pieces reach up to 14 cm, produced primarily during the Migration Period (c. 400–550 AD) in Scandinavia and adjacent regions of northern Europe. These artifacts, often suspended from a loop for wearing as jewelry, feature stamped or incised designs on one face only, with the reverse left plain or showing a faint impression, and were crafted from high-purity gold typically weighing 1–7 grams each though exceptional pieces can exceed 100 grams. Influenced by late Roman imperial coinage, bracteates depict motifs such as human heads, equestrian figures, animals, and mythical scenes, serving as elite status symbols and possibly amulets imbued with protective or ritual significance.^[1]^[2] Bracteates are classified into four main types based on their iconography: A-bracteates, which imitate Roman emperor portraits with radiate crowns and inscriptions; B-bracteates, showing one or more standing human figures in dynamic poses; C-bracteates, featuring a large male head above a quadruped (often interpreted as Odin on Sleipnir); and D-bracteates, dominated by serpentine or dragon-like creatures. Over 1,000 examples have been found, mostly in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Germany, frequently in female graves or hoards, indicating their association with high-status women and possible roles in funerary or votive rituals. Many incorporate runic inscriptions—among the earliest in the Germanic world—containing magical formulas, personal names, or references to deities like Odin; for example, a bracteate from the Vindelev hoard bears the earliest known runic inscription referring to Odin.^[3] The gold was often recycled from Roman solidi or medallions obtained through trade or plunder, highlighting extensive cultural and economic interactions between the declining Roman Empire and emerging barbarian elites during a time of mass migrations and societal upheaval. Recent discoveries, such as the Vindelev hoard in Denmark, discovered in 2020 and announced in 2021, containing 13 bracteates weighing a total of 576 grams (part of a hoard exceeding 790 grams including Roman medallions), underscore their rarity and ongoing archaeological importance.^[1]^[4]^[2]

Definition and Characteristics

Etymology and Terminology

The term "bracteate" derives from the Latin bractea, denoting a thin metal leaf or foil, a meaning that underscores the delicate, hammered construction of these artifacts. This linguistic root entered English usage in the early 19th century, initially within numismatic contexts but rapidly adopted in archaeological discourse to characterize the thin, single-sided gold pendants produced during the Migration Period in Northern Europe.^[5]^[6] Archaeological bracteates must be distinguished from late Roman gold coins and medallions, which featured imperial portraits and influenced their design through formal similarities in uniface stamping and motifs, and from medieval bracteate coins, lightweight single-sided silver denominations prevalent in Central Europe from the 12th to 14th centuries and minted using a technique that impressed designs through a thin blank. The application of the term to Migration Period gold pendants highlights their similarity to these types, particularly in their uniface stamping and minimal thickness, though the pendants served primarily as jewelry rather than currency.^[7] In 19th-century scholarly literature, particularly German numismatic catalogs, the terminology evolved to encompass these gold artifacts, drawing parallels between their foil-like quality and contemporary understandings of bracteate coinage to facilitate classification within broader studies of ancient and medieval metalwork. This extension of the term facilitated systematic cataloging and analysis, emphasizing shared technical features across periods despite divergent cultural roles.^[8]

Physical Features and Materials

Bracteates from the Migration Period were predominantly crafted from high-purity gold, typically hammered into extremely thin sheets measuring 0.1 to 0.5 mm in thickness to allow for lightweight yet durable construction.^[9] These sheets were formed into flat, disc-shaped pendants with diameters generally ranging from 1.5 to 5 cm and weights between 1 and 20 grams (typically 1-5 grams, though exceptional examples like those from the Vindelev hoard, discovered in 2021, exceed 20 grams), enabling them to be worn comfortably as jewelry without excessive bulk.^[10]^[11] For instance, a Scandinavian gold bracteate in the Metropolitan Museum of Art collection measures approximately 4.8 cm in diameter and weighs 8 grams, exemplifying the scale and material economy of these artifacts.^[12] The designs on bracteates were executed on a single side, often through stamping or repoussé techniques, leaving the reverse plain or slightly concave, which contributed to their delicate, medal-like appearance. A small suspension loop, typically made of gold wire and soldered or cast integrally near the edge, or occasionally a punched hole, facilitated attachment to necklaces or chains.^[12] This construction underscores their role as pendants, with archaeological evidence such as micro-abrasions on loops and edges indicating prolonged wear around the neck or as amulets suspended from clothing.^[13] While gold dominated production due to its prestige and availability from Roman sources, variations exist, including rare silver examples from the Migration Period, which mimic gold forms but in a more affordable material. In later periods, bronze imitations appeared, often gilded to imitate the luster of gold bracteates, reflecting their cultural significance extending beyond the 6th century.^[14]

Historical Context

Origins and Influences

Bracteates emerged in the mid-5th century AD, primarily in Scandinavia and northern Germany, as a distinctive form of gold jewelry influenced by Roman imperial medallions and Byzantine solidi that arrived through trade routes and tribute payments. These imported items, often presented as diplomatic gifts by Roman and Byzantine emperors to barbarian leaders, provided both the raw gold and iconographic inspiration for local artisans. The thin, single-sided design of bracteates echoed the lightweight construction of these medallions, allowing for repoussé stamping techniques that adapted classical motifs to Germanic contexts.^[12]^[15] The upheavals of the Migration Period, particularly the Hunnic invasions from circa 375 to 450 AD, played a key role in stimulating local goldworking traditions by flooding Germanic regions with Roman gold through tribute demands and conquest spoils. As the Huns extracted escalating payments—reaching up to 2,100 Roman pounds of gold annually under Attila—this wealth was redistributed among allied Germanic tribes, who recycled the metal from solidi and medallions into prestige items like bracteates. This influx of material, often from hoards such as the Szikáncsi deposit containing over 1,400 solidi, enabled northern craftsmen to develop sophisticated production centers, transforming imported bullion into symbols of elite status and cultural identity.^[16] Archaeological evidence from mixed coin hoards demonstrates how Germanic artisans adapted Roman imperial portraits into stylized representations resonant with local mythology and social structures. For instance, the authoritative profile of emperors on Constantinian medallions was reinterpreted as divine figures, such as Odin, with added elements like captives or beasts to fit Scandinavian narratives, as seen in bracteates from Danish and Jutlandic finds. This selective borrowing, rather than direct imitation, reflects a deliberate cultural translation, where Roman prototypes were understood and modified to align with Germanic notions of power and the supernatural.^[15]^[17]

Migration Period Production

The production of gold bracteates reached its peak during the Migration Period, approximately from 450 to 550 AD, primarily in southern Scandinavia, including Denmark and Sweden, as well as in Anglo-Saxon England. This timeframe aligned closely with the broader Germanic migrations across Europe, a era marked by upheaval following the decline of Roman authority. Influenced briefly by Roman coin designs, bracteate craftsmanship involved stamping thin gold foils with intricate motifs, reflecting a localized adaptation of imperial aesthetics to Germanic contexts.^[6] An estimated 1,000 to 1,500 examples survive today, indicating a relatively limited but intensive output that underscores their role as luxury items rather than commonplace objects. These pendants served as elite status symbols, likely worn by chieftains, warriors, or high-ranking individuals to signify power, possibly in ritual or ceremonial displays during feasts and alliances. Their scarcity and high gold content suggest they were commissioned by powerful leaders, functioning as markers of social hierarchy within migrating Germanic groups.^[18]^[6] By the late 6th century, bracteate production had largely ceased, attributed to increasing gold scarcity stemming from the exhaustion of Roman trade networks and the onset of Christianization in regions like Anglo-Saxon England, which disrupted pagan ritual practices. As tribal migrations stabilized and new socio-political structures emerged, craftsmanship shifted southward toward continental Europe, where alternative forms of elite adornment gained prominence. In this context, bracteates played a key socio-political role, helping to articulate group identity and authority amid the Roman Empire's collapse and the resulting fragmentation of power among Germanic peoples.^[6]^[15]

High Medieval Evolution

In the 12th and 13th centuries, bracteates experienced a revival as thin, single-sided silver coins across central and northern Europe, particularly in the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, and Scandinavia. This adaptation marked a shift from earlier ornamental uses to primarily monetary functions, with production beginning around 1120 in regions like Thuringia and Saxony-Meissen.^[19]^[20] The coins were struck on fragile silver sheets, echoing the thin-sheet technique of prior periods but optimized for mass issuance in low-monetization economies.^[21] Production centers proliferated in key mints, including those in Saxony, Bohemia, Magdeburg, and Ulm within the Holy Roman Empire, as well as decentralized princely mints in Poland and royal mints like Uppsala and Lödöse in Sweden. Designs typically featured Christian motifs such as rulers' portraits, enthroned bishops or kings, crosses, and heraldic symbols like eagles or lions, often accompanied by Latin legends identifying the issuer until the 1230s. In Poland, for instance, bracteates of Leszek the White (r. 1206–1227) depicted a winged dragon symbolizing power, while Scandinavian issues under Knut Eriksson (r. 1167–1195) were often anonymous with mint indicators.^[22]^[20]^[23] These bracteates served as low-value currency, equivalent to pfennigs or deniers, facilitating everyday transactions and local trade in regions with limited silver supply. Their economic role was tied to the renovatio monetae system, where coins were frequently recalled and restruck—sometimes biannually—to generate seigniorage revenue for rulers, though their fragility restricted long-distance circulation. Production persisted into the early 14th century before being supplanted by more durable double-sided coins like hohlpfennigs and grosschen. Notable examples include the Altenburg bracteate issued by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa around 1165, depicting the emperor enthroned, and Magdeburg issues under Friedrich I von Wettin (r. 1142–1152) showing St. Moritz.^[21]^[20]^[19]

Iconography and Motifs

Common Designs in Migration Period Bracteates

Migration Period bracteates, produced primarily between the 5th and 6th centuries CE, feature a range of recurring central motifs that reflect influences from Roman coinage and local artistic traditions, often stamped in low to high relief on thin gold sheets. These motifs are typically centered within a circular field, emphasizing humanoid figures or animals with stylized, abstracted forms. Bracteates are broadly classified into types A, B, C, and D according to their primary iconographic elements, as established in standard typologies.^[24] Type A bracteates commonly display a single anthropomorphic head or bust in profile, often with exaggerated features such as a prominent eye, diadem, or torque necklace, drawing inspiration from Roman imperial portraits.^[24] Type B examples feature full humanoid figures, typically a male with a sword or weapon confronting beasts, such as a central figure battling two quadrupeds with large jaws.^[24] In Type C bracteates, the dominant motif is a profile head—often bearded with a square nose, knotted hair, and sometimes a bird-like element above—positioned atop or beside a quadruped, such as a horse with a bell-shaped head, horns, and a triangular body harness.^[24] Type D bracteates, in contrast, showcase interlaced animals without humanoid elements, including boars, birds, or serpentine creatures in dynamic, intertwined compositions.^[24] Border elements on these bracteates frequently include concentric rings of geometric patterns, such as dots (pellets), spirals, or radiating lines that frame the central image and enhance its visual prominence.^[24] Many incorporate stamped filigree-like motifs mimicking fine wirework, along with occasional runic inscriptions arranged in borders or loops, such as the formulaic sequence "alu" or personal names.^[25] The outer edges are often bordered by twisted gold wire, adding a decorative rim that unifies the stamped design.^[24] Stylistically, the figures on Migration Period bracteates exhibit abstraction with elongated limbs, oversized heads, and simplified contours, functioning as miniature relief sculptures that prioritize symbolic form over naturalistic detail.^[24] This results in bold, high-contrast imagery suited to the thin medium, with variations in relief depth creating depth and movement.^[24] Representative examples include the Fünen bracteate (IK 47) from Denmark, an A-type featuring a profile head with a prominent eye motif and torque, surrounded by a beaded border.^[26] From the Vindelev hoard in Denmark, several bracteates display Odin-like figures with crowned or diademed heads, often in profile atop equine forms, accented by geometric border patterns and runic elements.^[1]

Symbolic Interpretations

The motifs on Migration Period bracteates, such as the horse-and-rider imagery, have been interpreted as allusions to Germanic mythology, particularly the god Odin and his eight-legged steed Sleipnir. Scholars like Karl Hauck proposed that Type C bracteates depict Odin performing a healing ritual on a foal, drawing from the Second Merseburg Charm, where deities including Odin restore a horse's leg, symbolizing themes of regeneration and divine intervention. Similarly, eye symbols, as seen in inscriptions like the "Glistening Eye" on B-type bracteates, are linked to Odin's sacrifice of an eye at Mimir's well for wisdom and foresight, representing enlightenment and shamanistic vision in early Germanic cosmology. These interpretations position bracteates as visual narratives of Odinic power, blending myth with ritual efficacy. A notable example is the runic inscription on a bracteate from the Vindelev hoard (discovered 2020, analyzed 2023), reading "he is Odin's man," marking the earliest known reference to Odin, dated to the 5th century AD.^[27]^[28] Bracteates likely served an amuletic function, intended to ward off evil and provide protection to the wearer. Runic inscriptions such as gibu auja ("give luck") or alu (interpreted as a protective charm) support this role, invoking supernatural aid against harm, while their design as pendants facilitated personal use in daily life or rituals.^[29] Archaeological contexts reinforce this, with bracteates frequently deposited in graves—often accompanying female burials—or in hoards as votive offerings, suggesting they functioned as talismans for the afterlife or communal safeguarding during times of crisis. Their gold material further amplified this protective symbolism, associating wealth with divine favor in Germanic belief systems.^[29] Scholarly interpretations of bracteate symbolism have evolved through significant debates. In the 20th century, linguists like Carl J. S. Marstrander analyzed runic texts on bracteates, viewing formulas like alu as magical invocations for protection, influencing early understandings of their ritual potency.^[30] Hauck's mid-20th-century Kontext-Ikonographie framework dominated, asserting a unified Odinic program across motifs, but faced criticism for overemphasizing Christian-influenced readings and ignoring regional variations. Modern studies, such as those by Lotte Hedeager, shift toward shamanistic elements, portraying Odin as a trance-inducing figure whose attributes on bracteates reflect ecstatic rituals and elite spiritual authority, while others explore ties to kingship ideologies where symbols legitimize rulership. These approaches highlight bracteates' multifaceted role beyond strict mythology, incorporating social and political dimensions. Gender dynamics add further layers to bracteate symbolism, as these artifacts appear in contexts associated with both men and women, signifying high status across sexes. Found in male and female graves as well as mixed hoards, particularly in southern Scandinavia, they denoted elite identity and possibly diplomatic alliances forged through marriage or gift exchange.^[31] In female contexts, inscriptions like laukaR (referring to leek or onion) evoke fertility rites, linking bracteates to women's roles in agricultural prosperity and reproduction, as onions symbolized abundance in Germanic lore.^[31] Odin's androgynous traits, including associations with seiðr (a female-dominated magic), may have made bracteates versatile symbols of gendered power, worn to affirm status or invoke protective fertility for both bearers.^[31]

Typology and Classification

Classification Systems

The classification of bracteates has evolved through several scholarly frameworks, reflecting advances in archaeological, numismatic, and scientific methods across different historical periods. In the 19th century, Danish archaeologist and numismatist Christian Jürgensen Thomsen pioneered the systematic categorization of Nordic gold bracteates in his 1855 treatise Nordiske Guldbracteater, grouping them primarily by iconographic motifs—such as human heads, animals, and equestrian scenes—and regional stylistic variations to establish a chronological and geographical foundation for study. Thomsen's approach emphasized the Migration Period examples as prestige items influenced by Roman medallions, influencing later typologies by integrating artifact associations from closed finds. For Migration Period bracteates, the standard typology was formalized by Swedish archaeologist Oscar Montelius in 1869, dividing them into letter-designated categories based on central motifs: Type A featuring profiled human heads, Type B with anthropomorphic figures often holding objects, Type C depicting a head alongside a horse or quadruped, and Type D featuring dragon-like animals or other animal motifs, each with numerical subtypes for stylistic variants. This system, refined by Bernhard Salin in 1904 through die-link analysis and further detailed in Malte Mackeprang's 1952 corpus Die völkerwanderungszeitlichen Goldbrakteaten, remains the benchmark for distinguishing over 1,000 known specimens by motif, chronology (ca. 450–550 CE), and production centers in southern Scandinavia. High medieval bracteates, functioning as thin silver coinage from the 12th to 14th centuries, were classified in 19th-century numismatic catalogs primarily by issuing mints, rulers, and epigraphic legends to trace economic policies and regional sequences. Early works, such as those compiling Central European series, grouped them by ecclesiastical and secular issuers (e.g., bishops and princes) and weight standards, revealing patterns of short-term renewals known as renovatio monetae. Modern refinements integrate scientific techniques, including X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry for non-destructive metal sourcing to identify alloy compositions and provenance—such as distinguishing electrum-like gilding on Migration Period gold from silver bracteate cores—and geographic information systems (GIS) for mapping distribution patterns to model trade networks and depositional behaviors across Europe. These methods complement traditional typologies by providing material and spatial data, enhancing attributions to workshops without relying solely on iconography.

Major Types and Variants

Bracteates from the Migration Period are primarily classified into types A, B, C, D, and F based on their dominant motifs, with type C being the most numerous. These gold pendants, produced between approximately 400 and 550 CE, reflect influences from late Roman imperial iconography adapted into Germanic styles. Over 1,000 examples are known in total, with distributions concentrated in Scandinavia, particularly Denmark. Type A bracteates feature a prominent imperial-style bust or head, often diademed and facing right, sometimes accompanied by runes or subsidiary animals like birds. More than 100 examples exist, predominantly from Danish contexts, where they served as high-status pendants imitating Roman coin portraits. A representative specimen is the Fünen I bracteate (IK 119), which displays a detailed profile head with runic elements evoking authority and prestige. Type B bracteates depict standing human figures, often one to three, interacting with quadrupeds or birds, symbolizing themes of power and possibly ritual scenes. Around 50 known examples highlight their rarity, with finds scattered across southern Scandinavia and occasional continental sites. Notable variants include the "three gods" motif, as seen in the Eskatorp bracteate, where anthropomorphic figures flank an animal, emphasizing hierarchical compositions. Type C bracteates, the most common variant with over 500 specimens, portray an equestrian figure or a large human head above a four-legged animal, frequently a horse, linked to heroic or divine imagery. They are subdivided into subtypes C1 through C5 based on the posture and orientation of the rider or head relative to the mount, such as C1 with the figure facing forward and C3 showing a profile view. The Tjurkö I bracteate (IK 184) exemplifies type C, featuring a stylized head over a horse with an accompanying runic inscription. Type D bracteates illustrate mythical or animalistic scenes, such as intertwined ribbon animals or dragon-like creatures, marking a transitional style toward the end of the Migration Period around 550 CE. Fewer than 100 examples are documented, often from late hoards in Denmark and Sweden, with motifs evolving from earlier anthropomorphic designs. Type F bracteates feature a horse-like animal without an accompanying human figure, serving as a subgroup related to Type D but emphasizing equestrian elements alone (around 17 specimens). High medieval bracteates, emerging from the 11th century onward, diverge from Migration Period gold types by using silver and featuring obverse-only designs with crowned heads or Christian crosses, reflecting feudal and ecclesiastical authority. These variants, struck in central Europe including Sweden, often bear legends identifying rulers, as in the Geatish types with a crowned profile. Unlike their precursors, they functioned more as currency than jewelry, with production centered in mints under royal or episcopal control.

Production and Craftsmanship

Manufacturing Techniques

Bracteates were produced using a specialized embossing technique adapted from Roman coin-making methods, involving the hammering of thin gold foil over a carved die to create a single-sided relief design. The process started with the preparation of a die, carved in reverse relief to form the motif, using materials such as metal. Experimental evidence suggests wooden matrices were also viable, capable of producing series of at least 15 bracteates.^[9] Archaeological evidence includes a copper-alloy die discovered at Postgården near Ålborg in Jutland, Denmark, dating to the 5th century and used for stamping D-type bracteates. Another die for a gold bracteate was identified at Gudme on the island of Funen, Denmark, also from the 5th century, indicating local workshop activity.^[32] Thin gold foil, typically 0.2–0.4 mm thick and cut to the desired diameter, was placed over the die and hammered from the reverse side using a repoussé method to push the metal into the die's contours, forming the low-relief image.^[33]^[9] To maintain malleability and avoid cracking during repeated hammering, the foil was annealed by gentle heating, a standard practice for working soft metals in this period.^[9] Fine details, such as borders, pellets, or linear elements, were added post-hammering by stamping with specialized punches, allowing for customization even from a single die.^[33] Finishing involved attaching a suspension loop for wearing as a pendant, achieved either by soldering a small gold tube or wire loop to the rim or by piercing a hole near the edge and securing the loop through it.^[33] These techniques are evidenced by microscopic analysis of tool marks on surviving bracteates and rare workshop debris, such as metal scraps and crucibles from sites like Gudme, highlighting the skilled craftsmanship required.^[32]

Workshops and Regional Styles

During the Migration Period, bracteate production was concentrated in Scandinavia, with Jutland in Denmark serving as a primary center for Type C variants, characterized by their high output and association with elite central places. The Gudme complex on Funen, adjacent to Jutland, has been identified as a likely workshop hub based on the density of gold artifacts and evidence of specialized craft production, including die-stamped pendants linked to ritual and trade activities. Clusters of up to 34 Type C bracteates produced from 16 distinct dies in this region underscore the scale of local manufacturing, where standardized techniques allowed for efficient replication of motifs.^[15] In Sweden, Gotland represented another key production area, particularly for runic-inscribed bracteates that blended iconographic elements with early alphabetic script. Examples like the Type C bracteate from Djupbrunns, featuring runes and a swastika motif, highlight regional adaptations where inscriptions served protective or commemorative functions, often carved in a distinct island style. Die-link analysis connects multiple Gotland pieces to shared workshops, suggesting itinerant or semi-permanent craft centers tied to local elites.^[34] Continental workshops in northern Germany and Anglo-Saxon England produced bracteates with pronounced Romanized influences, adapting imperial coin designs into Germanic contexts. In northern Germany, finds from sites like Sievern reveal stylistic variations with centralized busts and animal interlace echoing late Roman medallions, indicating production near trade routes along the North Sea coast. Anglo-Saxon examples, such as the six Type D bracteates from the Sarre burial (Grave 4) in Kent, depict snake-like creatures and were likely manufactured in Frankish-influenced ateliers, with two pieces sharing the same die and accompanied by Roman coinage in the burial. These continental styles often incorporated filigree-like borders and hybrid motifs, linking them to broader Merovingian networks. Die-links across these regions, such as those tying 32 Type C pendants from 18 dies spanning Norway to Britain, confirm interconnected workshops facilitating stylistic diffusion.^[14]^[35] In the high medieval period, bracteate production shifted toward coinage in mints across central Europe, with Poland exhibiting distinct regional styles tied to ruling authorities. Silesian issues under Piast dukes featured ornate borders resembling intricate filigree, often with personalized emblems like lions or crosses, reflecting local monetary standards and frequent re-coinage practices. These variations per ruler or mint, such as smaller flans post-1210 conforming to Thuringian weights, highlight decentralized workshops emphasizing artistic elaboration over uniformity. Trace element studies of Migration Period gold, including bracteates, point to imports from eastern European sources, supporting the role of long-distance procurement in sustaining both early and later production.^[36]

Distribution and Finds

Geographical Spread

The core area of bracteate production and finds during the Migration Period (c. 450–550 CE) lies in southern Scandinavia, where the majority of the approximately 1,000 known gold examples have been recovered, with concentrations in Denmark (including Jutland and the islands of Zealand and Funen), southern Sweden, and extensions into the Baltic regions such as Gotland, Öland, and Bornholm, as well as southwestern Norway.^[10]^[15] These artifacts, often featuring runic inscriptions and mythological motifs, represent over 60% of runic variants originating from this zone, underscoring its role as the primary hub.^[37] Beyond this core, bracteates appear in export zones across northern Germany (e.g., Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony, and Saxony) and Anglo-Saxon England, particularly in Kentish graves such as those at Sarre and Bifrons, reflecting cultural ties across the North Sea.^[38]^[15] Occasional discoveries extend to northern France (e.g., Herouvillette) and further south into continental Europe via trade and migration routes, reaching as far as Italy through Langobardic connections, though such peripheral finds are sparse compared to the Scandinavian heartland.^[15]^[38] Circulation of these bracteates occurred mainly through gift exchange among elites and diplomatic networks, rather than commercial trade, often as prestige items deposited in graves or hoards to signify status and alliances.^[15] Patterns reveal a southward gradient in density, with fewer examples in continental interiors, and overall production declined sharply by 550 CE, marking the end of this jewelry form amid shifting Migration Period dynamics.^[9]^[39]

Key Archaeological Discoveries

One of the most significant recent discoveries in bracteate studies is the Vindelev hoard, unearthed by a metal detectorist in December 2020 near Jelling in Jutland, Denmark. This Migration Period assemblage comprises 23 gold objects weighing nearly 800 grams, including 13 large bracteates that stand out for their size (up to 13.8 cm in diameter) and fine craftsmanship, far exceeding typical examples of 2-7 grams. Several bracteates bear runic inscriptions in Proto-Norse, with one—the IK 738 specimen—featuring the oldest known reference to the god Odin, reading in part "He is Odin's man" and possibly naming a figure "Jaga" or "Jagaz" as a ruler or devotee, dated to the early 5th century AD. The find, analyzed through 3D scanning, has reshaped understandings of early Norse mythology and elite networks across northern Europe.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43] In the 19th century, excavations at the Gudme site on the island of Funen, Denmark, uncovered evidence of a major gold-working workshop active during the late Roman and Migration Periods (3rd-6th centuries AD). The finds included workshop debris such as raw gold materials, small hoards, and production tools, alongside nine gold bracteates, a garnet-inlaid sword stud, and other jewelry, indicating specialized manufacturing on a significant scale. These discoveries, part of broader investigations revealing pit houses linked to metalworking, provided early insights into the organized production of bracteates in southern Scandinavia, with debris suggesting ongoing craftsmanship tied to elite patronage.^[44]^[32]^[45] The Binham hoard, progressively discovered by metal detectorists in a Norfolk field between 2004 and 2013, represents the first confirmed group of gold bracteates in Britain, totaling five bracteates (three Type A and two Type B) plus two bracelets. Dated to the late 5th to early 6th century AD, the hoard includes unique iconography such as anthropomorphic heads and warriors battling beasts, deposited in a context suggesting ritual or elite hoarding practices akin to those in Scandinavia. This assemblage, now housed at Norwich Castle Museum, underscores cultural and trade connections between Anglo-Saxon England and northern Germanic elites, positioning Binham as a potential central place in early medieval East Anglia.^[46]^[47]^[48]

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Aug 7, 2025 · In this study, four methods for dating and classifying medieval bracteates are presented: 1) legends and letters; 2) coin finds; 3) regional monetary standards ...Missing: catalogs | Show results with:catalogs
[19]
Renovatio Monetae: Bracteates and Coinage Policies in Medieval Europe
### Summary of Bracteates in 12th-13th Century Coinage Policies
[20]
European Bracteates of the Early Middle Ages - Baldwin's
Oct 7, 2020 · The silver bracteates were the predominant regional coinage minted in German-speaking areas (except Rhineland, Westphalia and the Middle Rhine ...
[21]
[PDF] Bracteate of Leszek the White - Narodowy Bank Polski
The end of the 12th century and the whole of 13th century was a period dominated by bracteates,. i.e. thin, one-sided coins. At the same time, it was the ...
[22]
https://www.baldwin.co.uk/news/european-bracteates-of-the-early-middle-ages/
[23]
(PDF) Bracteates and Runes - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · ... bracteates show di erent key points in the. Baldr narrative described by the Merseburg arm and that a bracteate. hoard discovered in a ...
[24]
Charlotte Behr: The materiality of faces - Academia.edu
The gaze of the profile faces on bracteates was not directed to the left or right but towards the viewer. On the A-bracteate from Broholm/Oure, Fünen (IK 47 ...
[25]
An Eye for Odin? Divine Role-Playing in the Age of Sutton Hoo. Neil ...
This paper presents some new observations concerning the construction of the Sutton Hoo helmet, as a point of entry to a wider discussion of pre-Christian ...Missing: Sleipnir | Show results with:Sleipnir<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
None
Summary of each segment:
[27]
Norwegian runic inscriptions - Arild Hauges Runer
On the bracteate alu is written in runes. Some maintains that alu is a magic word, other maintain it means "protection".
[28]
[PDF] Gold, Gods and Women - Publicera
the hoards containing bracteates can be attributed to both men and women ... Byzantine art, has been adapted to Germanic mythology in which weaving ...
[29]
Bracteate - Wikipedia
A bracteate (from the Latin bractea, a thin piece of metal) is a flat, thin, single-sided gold medal worn as jewelry that was produced in Northern Europe
[30]
(PDF) Bracteate inscriptions and context analysis in light of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Further refinements to bracteate groupings were made by Mogens B.Mackeprang (1952), but the basic division of the Migration Period bracteates ...
[31]
XRF spectrum of a silvered copper core from a brakteate pfennig (Np...
This paper presents some applications of Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) and Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (ED-XRF) for the characterization of ...
[32]
(PDF) "The Multiplicity of Migration: The Distribution of Early ...
By analyzing the distribution and findings of bracteates, the study asserts that a variety of migration behaviors, including gift exchange and trade ...
[33]
https://www.arild-hauge.com/PDF/Small_masks_on_Migration_Age_jewellery.pdf
[34]
Gold Bracteate - Gelmir
Gold bracteates are round gold pendants usually worn as part of a necklace with several pieces, either separated by pearls or knots or hung from loops or short ...Missing: German catalogs 19th
[35]
Tjurkö (II)/Målen, bracteate (C-type) - RuneS
The research project „Runic Writing in the Germanic Languages (RuneS)“ investigates the oldest independently developed writing system in the Germanic ...
[36]
https://www.ifn.se/media/emsi3npy/reprint2020-88.pdf
[37]
[PDF] Re-Coinage in Medieval Sweden - NET
Sep 1, 2014 · No bracteates of Geatish monetary standard are. 20 There are a lot of variants of the Geatish type with the image of a crowned head. It is ...
[38]
[PDF] Journal of Archaeology and Ancient History
Mar 25, 2016 · It seems that in the case of the bracteates, the Roman technique of mass production of coins was adapted by the Scandinavians to produce unique ...
[39]
Late Roman and Migration Period sites in southern Scandinavia ...
(PDF) Late Roman and Migration Period sites in southern Scandinavia with archaeological evidence of the activity of gold and silver smiths.
[40]
"Production Areas and Workshops for the Manufacture of Bracteates ...
This research explores the production areas and workshops involved in the manufacture of bracteates, a type of Scandinavian jewelry from the fifth and sixth ...
[41]
(PDF) Scandinavian Gold Bracteates in Britain. Money and Media in ...
Their use as pendants is only one way of turning the foreign money into domestic media, as the coins could also be transformed into anonymous and practical ring ...
[42]
[PDF] Regional Monetary Standards and Medieval Bracteates
most important German bracteate coin hoards, the dominating monetary standard often accounts for at least 80 percent of the coins in the hoards.21. Only two ...Missing: portraits | Show results with:portraits
[43]
<source><italic> Die Goldbrakteaten der Völkerwanderungszeit ...
Different series derive from the. Vendel, Merovingian, and Viking periods. Comparable in size to an American quarter, the bracteates of the migration period.
[44]
Scandinavian Migration Period Bracteates Found outside the Nordic ...
More than 700 of these objects have for an audience who appreciated the idea of a bracte- been found in Scandinavia, but a sizable number of ate and wanted to ...
[45]
https://de.scribd.com/document/302459084/Late-Roman-and-Migration-Period-Sites-In
[46]
Coins
The 12th century saw a development of bracteates within Scandinavian coinage. Bracteates are coins struck on one side only and on a flan so thin that the ...
[47]
https://www.edp24.co.uk/lifestyle/20789560.iceni-gold-norfolk-pub-pint-glass-top-10-acquisitions-countys-museums/
[48]
Vindelev Treasure reveals European elite network connections
Apr 8, 2024 · The treasure, which includes 13 gold bracteates from the ... Viking silver treasures from the Burray Hoard go on display at Orkney Museum.
[49]
Norse Gold Bracteate - Archaeology Magazine - July/August 2023
This is the oldest written reference to the Norse god of war and of the dead ever found, dating to 150 years earlier than the next known mention of Odin.
[50]
The golden fields of Denmark: Uncovering the power and prestige of ...
Jul 21, 2025 · The Vindelev Hoard – a collection of gold artefacts including locally produced pendants decorated on one side that are known as bracteates, ...
[51]
Gold and silver treasure - National Museum of Denmark
Gudme found gold bracteates, neck rings, and spiral, plus Roman silver coins, and silver/bronze scraps. Many of the 50 gold hoards from the Late Iron Age are ...
[52]
Late Roman and Migration Period Sites in | PDF - Scribd
the 3rd to the 6th century, Gudme was divided into a southern section with workshop activities and small hoards, mostly of raw materials, and a northern and ...<|separator|>
[53]
(PDF) The Bracteate Hoard from Binham — An Early Anglo-Saxon ...
Aug 10, 2025 · This article describes the recent discovery of Britain's first certain hoard of gold bracteates, found in a field in Binham (Norfolk).<|control11|><|separator|>
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From Iceni gold to a Norfolk pub pint glass: The top 10 acquisitions ...
Jan 2, 2019 · Norwich Castle Museum has obtained the final known pieces from a unique hoard discovered buried in Binham. The gold bracteates - a type of ...
[55]
The Binham Bracteates - Art Fund
The Binham Bracteates. Unknown ... coins. They join two bracteates already in the Norwich Castle collection, together comprising the first hoard of its type.Missing: 7 2019
[56]
[PDF] Regional Monetary Standards and Medieval Bracteates - Numista
most important German bracteate coin hoards, the dominating monetary standard often accounts for at least 80 percent of the coins in the hoards.21. Only two ...Missing: portraits Germanic<|control11|><|separator|>
[57]
(PDF) Regional Monetary Standards and Medieval Bracteates
Aug 7, 2025 · The classification and dating of coins can provide insight into economic and monetary development when studying coin hoards and cumulative finds ...Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution