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Brain vesicle

Brain vesicles are the dilated segments of the embryonic neural tube that form the rudimentary divisions of the vertebrate brain during early development, arising from the anterior end of the neural tube around the fourth week of gestation. These structures initially consist of three primary vesicles—the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain)—which expand due to proliferation of neural progenitor cells and accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid, establishing the basic anteroposterior axis of the central nervous system.^[1]^[2] By the fifth week of embryonic development, the primary vesicles further differentiate into five secondary vesicles, refining the brain's regional organization and laying the groundwork for its mature anatomy. The prosencephalon subdivides into the telencephalon, which develops into the cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulbs, and the diencephalon, which forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and retina.^[3]^[1] The mesencephalon persists undivided as the midbrain, contributing structures like the cerebral aqueduct and tectum, while the rhombencephalon splits into the metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) and myelencephalon (medulla oblongata).^[2]^[3] These vesicles also correspond to the origins of the brain's ventricular system, with their lumens expanding into the lateral, third, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth ventricles (distinct from the spinal cord's central canal), which persist in the adult brain to circulate cerebrospinal fluid.^[1] The formation of brain vesicles is a critical phase in neurulation, driven by signaling molecules such as Sonic hedgehog that pattern the neural tube along its axes, with Wnt proteins contributing to anterior-posterior patterning, ensuring proper segmentation and helping prevent neural tube defects such as anencephaly if disrupted.^[1]^[4] This process highlights the evolutionary conservation of brain development across vertebrates, where the vesicles serve as modular units for subsequent neurogenesis, gliogenesis, and circuit formation essential for sensory processing, motor control, and higher cognition.^[2]

Embryonic Development

Neural Tube Formation

Neural tube formation, or neurulation, is the initial embryological process that establishes the precursor structure for the central nervous system during the third week of human gestation. This process transforms a flat layer of ectodermal cells into a tubular structure through a series of coordinated cellular and molecular events. Primary neurulation begins around days 18-20 post-fertilization, with the neural tube forming from the midline of the embryo and extending caudally.^[5] The process is initiated by the notochord, a midline mesodermal structure that induces the overlying ectoderm to differentiate into the neural plate via secretion of signaling molecules, prominently Sonic hedgehog (Shh). Shh, expressed by notochord cells, patterns the ventral neural tube by promoting floor plate induction and ventral cell fate specification in the neural plate. This induction occurs through a ventral-to-dorsal gradient of Shh, which activates downstream transcriptional programs essential for neural identity.^[6]^[7]^[8] Key stages of neurulation involve the progressive shaping of the neural plate. The neural plate first appears as a thickened midline region of the ectoderm around day 18, induced by notochord signals. This is followed by invagination, where the central portion of the plate depresses to form the neural groove, flanked by elevating neural folds. The neural folds then converge medially, their tips fusing to enclose the groove into the neural tube; this fusion begins in the cervical region and proceeds both cranially and caudally from temporary openings called neuropores. The anterior neuropore closes around embryonic day 25 (at the 18-20 somite stage), while the posterior neuropore closes by day 27 (at the 25 somite stage), completing the tube's enclosure.^[9]^[10]^[9] At the cellular level, neuroepithelial cells undergo apical constriction, where actomyosin-driven contraction narrows the apical surface of these cells, facilitating the bending and elevation of the neural folds. This constriction, mediated by proteins like Shroom and Rho-ROCK signaling, generates the mechanical forces necessary for hingepoint formation and tube closure. Concurrently, neural crest cells emerge at the dorsal edges of the neural folds; these multipotent cells contribute to closure by migrating medially with monopolar protrusions, filling gaps and stabilizing the fusing folds before delaminating post-closure.^[11]^[12]^[13] This closed neural tube then undergoes regional expansions to form the primary brain vesicles.^[5]

Primary Vesiculation

Primary vesiculation refers to the initial segmentation of the rostral neural tube into three distinct dilatations during early embryonic brain development. This process builds upon the closed neural tube, which serves as the foundational structure for the central nervous system.^[1] It occurs during the fourth week of human embryogenesis, marking a critical phase where the anterior end of the neural tube undergoes rapid expansion.^[14] The mechanism involves differential growth and ballooning of the rostral neural tube, driven by positive fluid pressure within the lumen and influenced by surrounding tissues, resulting in three primary vesicles.^[1] These vesicles are identified as the prosencephalon (forebrain), positioned at the cranial end; the mesencephalon (midbrain), located in the middle; and the rhombencephalon (hindbrain), situated at the caudal end.^[14] Each vesicle represents a foundational compartment that will further differentiate, with the prosencephalon expanding anteriorly, the mesencephalon maintaining a central bridge, and the rhombencephalon extending posteriorly.^[1] Histologically, the walls of these primary vesicles consist of a pseudostratified columnar epithelium lining the emerging ventricles, which forms the ventricular zone.^[1] Within this epithelium, early neuroblasts begin to appear, initiating the differentiation of neuronal precursors amid the fluid-filled cavities.^[1] This layered structure, including the nascent mantle zone for neuronal cell bodies, supports the foundational architecture for subsequent brain regionalization.^[14]

Secondary Vesiculation

Secondary vesiculation represents the further subdivision of the three primary brain vesicles into five secondary brain vesicles, marking a critical phase of early neural regionalization during human embryonic development. This process begins around the fifth week of gestation, following the establishment of the primary vesicles in the fourth week.^[14]^[15] The mechanism involves differential growth and partitioning of the neural tube walls. The prosencephalon (forebrain) divides into the telencephalon and diencephalon, the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) subdivides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon, while the mesencephalon (midbrain) remains undivided.^[14] This subdivision is driven by patterned gene expression and signaling gradients that specify regional identities along the anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axes. Key growth factors regulating this regionalization include fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), such as FGF8, which establish morphogen gradients to pattern the telencephalon and mid-hindbrain boundaries, and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), which contribute to dorsal-ventral patterning by influencing neural progenitor fates.^[16]^[17] Morphological changes accompany this vesiculation, including the evagination of the telencephalon, where lateral outgrowths form the precursors to the cerebral hemispheres, and the development of flexures in the brain tube. The cephalic flexure at the mesencephalon level bends the forebrain ventrally, while the pontine flexure in the hindbrain region folds the rhombencephalon to accommodate its expansion. These flexures and evaginations reshape the neural tube, facilitating the spatial organization of emerging brain regions.^[15]^[14] This stage prepares the brain for subsequent tertiary subdivisions, such as the formation of optic vesicles from the diencephalon and hypothalamic precursors, laying the groundwork for more specialized structures in later gestation.^[14]

Anatomical Structure

Primary Brain Vesicles

The primary brain vesicles represent the initial subdivisions of the developing brain, emerging from the rostral expansion of the neural tube around the fourth week of embryonic development. These vesicles establish the fundamental anterior-posterior organization of the central nervous system, consisting of three distinct regions: the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon.^[1]^[18] The prosencephalon is located at the anterior end of the neural tube and is associated with the future forebrain structures. It forms a prominent ballooning that encloses early ventricular spaces, which will contribute to the lateral and third ventricles.^[3]^[1] The mesencephalon occupies a central position along the neural tube, appearing as a narrow, tubular segment that serves as a conduit between the forebrain and hindbrain regions. Its lumen remains relatively constricted, foreshadowing the cerebral aqueduct.^[18]^[3] Positioned as the posterior extension of the neural tube, the rhombencephalon exhibits a rhomboid shape in cross-section and provides a direct link to the developing spinal cord. It encompasses the caudal portion of the brain vesicles, with its cavity contributing to the fourth ventricle.^[18]^[1] All three primary brain vesicles share common histological features, including an inner lining of ependymal cells derived from the neuroepithelium and cavities filled with precursors to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). These structures also contain zones of neuroepithelial proliferation, where cells actively divide to generate the precursors of neurons and glia.^[3]^[1] In histological and imaging views, such as sagittal sections of the week 4 embryo, the outlines of these vesicles are clearly delineated as successive swellings along the neural tube, highlighting their sequential anterior-to-posterior arrangement.^[1]

Secondary Brain Vesicles

The secondary brain vesicles arise from the subdivision of the primary vesicles during the fifth week of human embryonic development, resulting in five distinct dilatations that exhibit increased morphological complexity compared to their precursors.^[19]^[14] The telencephalon consists of paired evaginations that expand laterally from the rostral forebrain, forming the primordia for the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia; these evaginations enclose the lateral ventricles, which communicate with the third ventricle via the interventricular foramina.^[19]^[20] The diencephalon occupies the central portion of the forebrain, caudal to the telencephalon, and encompasses the primordia of the thalamus and hypothalamus while surrounding the third ventricle.^[19]^[14] The mesencephalon remains largely unchanged in form from the primary midbrain vesicle, presenting as a narrow constriction that houses the cerebral aqueduct and contains the precursors to the midbrain tegmentum and tectum.^[19]^[20] The metencephalon develops from the rostral hindbrain as a region that gives origin to the pons and cerebellum, enclosing the rostral part of the fourth ventricle.^[19]^[14] The myelencephalon forms the caudal hindbrain, serving as the base for the medulla oblongata and housing the caudal portion of the fourth ventricle along with primordia of cranial nerve nuclei.^[19]^[20] These vesicles are interconnected through the embryonic ventricular system, which maintains continuity from the lateral and third ventricles through the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle and central canal, facilitating cerebrospinal fluid circulation.^[21]^[14] Brain flexures, including the pontine flexure at the metencephalon-myelencephalon junction and the cephalic flexure involving the mesencephalon, contribute to the realignment and spatial organization of these vesicles during development.^[19]^[20]

Derivatives and Functions

Forebrain Derivatives

The forebrain, or prosencephalon, undergoes secondary vesiculation to form the telencephalon and diencephalon, which develop into the cerebral hemispheres and central diencephalic structures, respectively, underpinning advanced neural processing in the adult brain.^[22] These derivatives emerge from the anterior neural tube and expand dramatically during embryogenesis to support complex functions such as perception and autonomic control.^[1] The telencephalon primarily gives rise to the cerebral hemispheres, which encompass the neocortex and underlying white matter, forming the bulk of the cerebrum responsible for higher-order processing; it also forms the basal ganglia, which modulate motor control, cognition, and reward processing, and the olfactory bulbs, which serve as the first relay station for olfactory information.^[1] Within the neocortex, distinct regions specialize as sensory areas (e.g., visual and auditory cortices) for perceptual integration and motor areas (e.g., primary motor cortex) for voluntary movement coordination.^[23] Additionally, the telencephalon contributes to the limbic system, including the amygdala for emotional responses and the hippocampus for memory formation and spatial navigation.^[24] The diencephalon differentiates into several core structures, notably the thalamus, which acts as a primary relay for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, excluding olfaction; the hypothalamus, which regulates homeostasis through control of hunger, thirst, temperature, and hormone release via its connections to the pituitary gland; the epithalamus, including the pineal gland, which modulates circadian rhythms by secreting melatonin in response to light-dark cycles; and the retina, the neural layer of the eye responsible for photoreception and initial visual processing.^[1]^[25]^[26] Collectively, forebrain derivatives enable higher cognition through neocortical networks for reasoning and language, sensory integration via thalamic gating, and endocrine control mediated by the hypothalamo-hypophyseal axis, which links neural signals to glandular outputs like growth hormone and stress responses.^[23]^[27] During human embryonic development, the telencephalic hemispheres undergo significant expansion by the eighth gestational week, establishing bilateral outgrowths that foreshadow cortical layering.^[28] Sulci and gyri, which increase surface area for enhanced computational capacity, begin forming around weeks 12–16 and continue refining into the third trimester.^[29] The original cavities of the telencephalon and diencephalon persist as the lateral ventricles (one in each hemisphere) and the third ventricle, respectively, forming part of the brain's cerebrospinal fluid-filled ventricular system for cushioning and nutrient distribution.^[30]

Midbrain Derivatives

The midbrain, derived from the mesencephalon during secondary brain vesiculation, remains a relatively undivided structure in the adult brain, serving as a critical conduit for motor, sensory, and autonomic pathways. It is anatomically divided into the dorsal tectum, ventral tegmentum, and the paired cerebral peduncles forming its base, with these components integrating visual, auditory, and motor functions essential for reflexive behaviors and coordinated movement.^[31]^[32] The tectum, comprising the superior and inferior colliculi, processes sensory information for reflexive responses; the superior colliculus coordinates visual reflexes such as orienting the eyes and head toward stimuli, while the inferior colliculus handles auditory reflexes, relaying sound localization signals to motor centers.^[33]^[32] In contrast, the tegmentum contains key nuclei including the red nucleus, which modulates motor control by integrating cerebellar inputs to facilitate limb movements, and the substantia nigra, a dopaminergic nucleus that produces dopamine to regulate voluntary movement and reward pathways within the basal ganglia circuits.^[34]^[35] The cerebral peduncles, located ventrally, house descending corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts that transmit motor commands from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord and brainstem.^[22] Functionally, the midbrain integrates these elements for precise eye movements via the oculomotor (cranial nerve III) and trochlear (cranial nerve IV) nuclei, which originate here and control extraocular muscles, while the substantia nigra's connections to the basal ganglia enable smooth initiation and modulation of actions.^[31]^[36] In adults, the midbrain persists as a compact, conserved region approximately 2 cm long, housing the cerebral aqueduct that serves as the primary pathway for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow between the third and fourth ventricles, maintaining intracranial pressure balance.^[14]^[37] Evolutionarily, the midbrain represents a core component of the reptilian brain, emphasizing instinctual sensory-motor integration that forms the foundational layer for more advanced vertebrate neural systems.^[38]

Hindbrain Derivatives

The hindbrain, or rhombencephalon, subdivides during embryonic development into the metencephalon and myelencephalon, giving rise to key structures of the adult brainstem and cerebellum.^[1] The metencephalon primarily differentiates into the pons and cerebellum, while the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata.^[1] These derivatives integrate sensory and motor pathways essential for basic physiological functions. The pons, originating from the ventral metencephalon, acts as a major relay station for ascending and descending neural tracts, facilitating communication between the cerebrum, cerebellum, and spinal cord.^[39] It also houses nuclei involved in cranial nerve relays, particularly for facial sensations, eye movements, and hearing, and contributes to the pontine respiratory group that helps generate respiratory rhythm in coordination with medullary centers.^[40] The cerebellum, developing from the dorsal metencephalon, coordinates voluntary movements, maintains balance and posture, and enables fine motor control through circuits involving Purkinje cells, which integrate proprioceptive and vestibular inputs to refine motor outputs.^[41]^[42] The medulla oblongata, derived from the myelencephalon, contains critical autonomic centers that regulate heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory drive via the medullary respiratory and cardiovascular groups.^[43] It also controls reflexive actions such as vomiting through the area postrema and chemoreceptor trigger zone, ensuring rapid responses to physiological threats.^[44] Collectively, these hindbrain structures underpin autonomic regulation of vital functions, stabilize posture through cerebellar-vestibular interactions, and support fine motor precision by modulating descending motor pathways.^[44] Additionally, the pons and medulla serve as the primary origins for cranial nerves V (trigeminal) through XII (hypoglossal), which innervate facial muscles, sensory regions of the head, and visceral organs.^[45] Developmentally, the cerebellum emerges from the rhombic lip of the metencephalon, a specialized germinal zone at the dorsal hindbrain that generates granule cell precursors beginning around the 8th post-conception week.^[46] These precursors, marked by Atoh1 expression, migrate tangentially to form the external granule layer, where they undergo extensive proliferation driven by Sonic hedgehog signaling from Purkinje cells.^[46]^[42] Cerebellar foliation initiates with the appearance of principal fissures between the 11th and 13th post-conception weeks, progressing to form major lobules by the fifth gestational month as the external granule layer thickens and granule cells migrate inward.^[42] This foliation enhances the cerebellum's surface area for precise motor integration. In parallel, the fourth ventricle expands posteriorly and superiorly within the hindbrain from early somite stages, accommodating the growing pons, medulla, and cerebellum while its roof plate thins into a squamous epithelium to facilitate cerebrospinal fluid circulation.^[47]

Clinical Significance

Neural Tube Defects

Neural tube defects (NTDs) arise from the failure of the embryonic neural tube to close properly during the third and fourth weeks of gestation, disrupting the initial formation of primary brain vesicles from the neural tube and consequently impairing subsequent brain development.^[5] This closure failure particularly affects the rostral end of the neural tube, leading to severe malformations in the prosencephalon (forebrain vesicle), which prevents the normal progression to secondary vesiculation and results in exposed or absent neural tissue.^[48] These defects are among the most common congenital anomalies of the central nervous system, with an estimated global incidence of approximately 300,000 affected births annually, or about 1 in every 1,000 pregnancies, though rates vary regionally from 1.3 to 124.1 per 10,000 births.^[49] Prenatal diagnosis is typically achieved through ultrasound screening between 11 and 14 weeks of gestation, where markers such as absent cranial vault or abnormal intracranial translucency indicate the presence of NTDs.^[50] Anencephaly represents a lethal NTD caused by the failure of anterior neuropore closure around the 25th day of embryonic development, resulting in the absence of the forebrain vesicle (prosencephalon) and major portions of the skull and scalp.^[51] Without the protective neural tube enclosure, the forebrain tissue degenerates, leading to incomplete brain development where only rudimentary brainstem structures may persist, and no secondary vesicles form from the prosencephalon.^[48] Fetuses with anencephaly are often stillborn or survive only hours to days postnatally due to the lack of functional cerebral hemispheres.^[52] Encephalocele, another open NTD, involves the herniation of brain tissue and meninges through a midline cranial defect, most commonly in the occipital or frontal regions, frequently impacting the prosencephalon and disrupting early vesicle integrity.^[14] This protrusion occurs due to incomplete neural tube fusion, allowing intracranial contents to extend into a sac-like structure outside the skull, which can compress or distort the developing forebrain vesicle and hinder secondary partitioning.^[53] Unlike anencephaly, some neural tissue may remain viable, but neurological deficits vary based on the herniated volume and location.^[54] Key risk factors for NTDs include maternal folate deficiency, which impairs DNA synthesis and neural tube closure; genetic mutations such as those in the MTHFR gene affecting folate metabolism; and conditions like maternal diabetes, which alter cellular energy pathways and increase oxidative stress during neurulation.^[55]^[56] Periconceptional folic acid supplementation at 400 micrograms daily significantly reduces NTD risk by up to 70%, as it restores optimal folate levels essential for proper neural tube formation and vesicle development.^[57]^[58] Overall, these defects profoundly disrupt prosencephalon formation, preventing the telencephalon and diencephalon from emerging and abolishing secondary vesiculation in affected regions.^[9]

Developmental Anomalies

Developmental anomalies of brain vesicles arise from disruptions in the embryonic processes of neural tube closure, vesicle formation, and subsequent division, primarily occurring between weeks 3 and 9 of gestation. These malformations affect the primary vesicles (prosencephalon, mesencephalon, rhombencephalon) or their secondary derivatives, leading to a spectrum of congenital disorders with neurological, craniofacial, and systemic consequences. Etiologies include genetic mutations (e.g., in SHH or FOXC1 genes), chromosomal abnormalities (e.g., trisomy 13), environmental teratogens (e.g., maternal diabetes or retinoic acid exposure), and multifactorial interactions. Such anomalies often manifest as severe developmental delays, epilepsy, hydrocephalus, or lethality in the perinatal period.^[52]^[59]^[60] Forebrain anomalies predominantly involve the prosencephalon and its failure to cleave into telencephalon and diencephalon during secondary vesiculation. Holoprosencephaly (HPE), the most prevalent such disorder with an incidence of 1 in 10,000 live births, results in partial or complete fusion of the cerebral hemispheres and a single ventricular cavity. Alobar HPE, the severest form comprising about 66% of cases, features absent interhemispheric fissure, fused thalami, and associated midline facial defects like cyclopia or hypotelorism; it is frequently linked to SHH pathway mutations that disrupt ventral induction signaling. Semilobar and lobar variants show partial cleavage, with milder neurological outcomes including seizures in up to 50% of survivors and endocrine deficiencies due to hypothalamic-pituitary axis involvement. Anencephaly, stemming from failed anterior neural tube closure around week 4, precludes prosencephalon formation, resulting in absent forebrain, calvaria, and brainstem exposure; it has an incidence of approximately 1 in 2,000 births worldwide.^[52]^[59]^[61] Midbrain anomalies are less common and often occur within broader syndromes affecting the mesencephalon. Diencephalic-mesencephalic junction dysplasia, a rare recessive disorder, disrupts midbrain-diencephalon boundary formation, leading to aqueductal stenosis, hydrocephalus, and motor impairments; it arises from mutations impairing axonal guidance and neuronal migration during primary vesicle differentiation. These defects highlight the mesencephalon's role in coordinating tectal and tegmental development, with clinical features including oculomotor dysfunction.^[60] Hindbrain anomalies primarily disrupt rhombencephalon segmentation into metencephalon and myelencephalon, yielding cerebellar and brainstem malformations. Dandy-Walker malformation, occurring in 1 in 10,000 to 30,000 live births, involves vermian hypoplasia, cystic fourth ventricle enlargement, and posterior fossa expansion, often due to FOXC1 mutations affecting mesenchymal signaling; it presents with hydrocephalus in 80% of cases and ataxia or cognitive delays. Joubert syndrome and related disorders (incidence ~1 in 80,000) feature cerebellar vermis aplasia, thickened superior peduncles forming a "molar tooth" sign on imaging, and arise from ciliopathy gene mutations (e.g., AHI1, CEP290) that impair rhombic lip progenitor proliferation; affected individuals exhibit hypotonia, abnormal breathing, and retinopathy. Pontocerebellar hypoplasia encompasses a group of autosomal recessive conditions with pontine and cerebellar atrophy from rhombencephalon underdevelopment, linked to genes like TSEN54 or EXOSC3 involved in RNA processing, resulting in severe microcephaly and early lethality.^[52]^[60]

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Generation of the squamous epithelial roof of the 4th ventricle | eLife
Feb 18, 2019 · In the hindbrain region this involves the generation of a thin squamous roof over the expanding fourth ventricle. We have used the hindbrain in ...
[47]
Totally Tubular: The Mystery behind Function and Origin of the Brain ...
The lateral ventricles are connected to the third ventricle, which is linked to the fourth ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct. In turn, the fourth ventricle ...
[48]
Global Burden of Neural Tube Defects, Risk Factors, and Prevention
Neural tube defects (NTDs), serious birth defects of the brain and spine usually resulting in death or paralysis, affect an estimated 300,000 births each year ...
[49]
Assessment of the posterior brain at 11-14 weeks for the prediction ...
Objective: To evaluate the routine midsagittal view of the posterior brain at the 11-13 weeks' ultrasound examination, for predicting open neural tube defects.
[50]
The etiopathogenic and morphological spectrum of anencephaly
Anencephaly is a severe malformation of the central nervous system (CNS), being one of the most common types of neural tube defects.
[51]
Fetal Brain Development: Regulating Processes and Related ...
Neural tube defects (NTD) are caused by abnormal embryonic dorsal induction, which regulates formation and closure of the neural tube between the 5th and 7th ...
[52]
Nervous System Malformations - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
This article provides an overview of the most common nervous system malformations and serves as a reference for the latest advances in diagnosis and treatment.
[53]
Embryology, Central Nervous System, Malformations - NCBI - NIH
Neural tube defects (NTDs) are malformations of the brain and spinal cord resulting from the failure of the neural tube closure in the third and fourth week of ...
[54]
Neural Tube Defects and Maternal Biomarkers of Folate ... - NIH
Alterations in maternal folate and homocysteine metabolism are associated with neural tube defects (NTDs). The role that specific micronutrients and metabolites ...
[55]
Maternal metabolism influences neural tube closure - PMC
Specifically, we discuss historical views and recent advances as to how maternal folate deficiency and maternal diabetes disrupt neural tube closure.
[56]
Neural Tube Defects - CDC
May 20, 2025 · Taking 400 micrograms of folic acid daily before and during early pregnancy can help prevent an NTD. Folic acid is the only form of folate ...
[57]
Periconceptional folic acid supplementation to prevent neural tube ...
Aug 9, 2023 · All women, from the moment they begin trying to conceive until 12 weeks of gestation, should take a folic acid supplement (400 μg folic acid daily).
[58]
Holoprosencephaly - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jun 7, 2024 · Holoprosencephaly is a rare and complex congenital disorder that significantly impacts the development of the human brain.Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Etiology · Evaluation
[59]
Midbrain-Hindbrain Malformations: Advances in Clinical Diagnosis ...
This review provides an overview of MBHB disorders important to clinicians and developmental biologists.