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Intracranial pressure

Intracranial pressure (ICP) refers to the pressure exerted by the contents of the skull—brain tissue, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and blood—within the rigid cranial vault, which maintains a constant total volume as governed by the Monro-Kellie doctrine.^[1] In healthy adults, normal ICP ranges from 7 to 15 mm Hg when measured in the supine position and does not exceed 15 mm Hg in the vertical position.^[1] This pressure is essential for adequate cerebral perfusion and neurological function, but deviations, particularly elevations above 20 to 25 mm Hg, define intracranial hypertension, which can impair cerebral blood flow, lead to brain herniation, and cause life-threatening complications.^[2] The physiology of ICP is rooted in the Monro-Kellie hypothesis, which posits that the incompressible nature of the cranium requires any increase in one intracranial component (such as brain volume from edema, CSF from overproduction, or blood from vasodilation) to be compensated by a decrease in another to preserve equilibrium; failure of this compensation results in rising pressure.^[1] CSF, produced by the choroid plexus at a rate of approximately 0.3 to 0.35 mL/min, circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space before being reabsorbed into the venous system via arachnoid granulations, acting as a key buffer alongside cerebral blood volume.^[2] Cerebral autoregulation further modulates blood flow to maintain stability across mean arterial pressures of 50 to 150 mm Hg, but disruptions—such as in trauma or hypoxia—can exacerbate pressure imbalances.^[1] Clinically, ICP is monitored invasively via intraventricular catheters or intraparenchymal sensors in critical settings like severe traumatic brain injury, where sustained elevations necessitate interventions to target pressures below 22 mm Hg, as recommended by Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines.^[1] Common causes of increased ICP include traumatic brain injury, stroke, tumors, hydrocephalus, and infections, each potentially leading to symptoms such as headache, vomiting, altered consciousness, and pupillary changes.^[3] Management focuses on addressing underlying etiologies through measures like hyperventilation, osmotherapy, or surgical decompression, with prompt treatment critical to preventing irreversible damage.^[3]

Physiology

Normal values and regulation

Intracranial pressure (ICP) refers to the pressure exerted by the contents of the skull on the brain tissue, typically measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or centimeters of water (cmH₂O).^[2] In healthy adults at rest in the supine position, normal ICP ranges from 7 to 15 mmHg.^[2] This value varies by age, with term infants exhibiting 5 to 6 mmHg, young children 3 to 7 mmHg, and adults or older children 10 to 15 mmHg.^[4] ICP also decreases in the upright position due to gravitational effects on venous drainage.^[2] The brain maintains normal ICP through dynamic regulatory mechanisms, including cerebral autoregulation of blood flow, which preserves constant cerebral perfusion despite fluctuations in systemic blood pressure via myogenic, metabolic, and neurogenic processes.^[5] Myogenic responses involve vascular smooth muscle contraction in response to pressure changes, while metabolic factors such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and oxygen (O₂) levels influence vasodilation or constriction to match blood flow to metabolic demands.^[5] Neurogenic influences from the autonomic nervous system further modulate vascular tone.^[5] Additionally, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics play a key role, with CSF produced by the choroid plexus at a rate of approximately 0.3 to 0.35 mL/min in adults, circulating through the ventricles and subarachnoid space, and absorbed primarily via arachnoid granulations into the venous system to balance intracranial volume.^[6] Several physiological factors influence normal ICP fluctuations. During sleep, ICP is typically higher than during wakeful supine rest due to changes in cerebral blood flow and CO₂ levels.^[7] The Valsalva maneuver, involving forced expiration against a closed airway, transiently elevates ICP by increasing intrathoracic pressure and impeding venous return.^[8] Hydration status also affects ICP, as dehydration can reduce CSF volume and lower pressure, while adequate hydration supports stable intracranial volumes.^[9] These regulations operate within the framework of the Monro-Kellie doctrine, which posits a fixed total volume of brain, blood, and CSF inside the rigid skull.^[2]

Monro-Kellie doctrine

The Monro-Kellie doctrine, a foundational principle in neurophysiology, was first proposed by Scottish anatomist Alexander Monro secundus in 1783, who described the intracranial space as a rigid container with incompressible contents maintaining constant volume and pressure under normal conditions.^[10] This idea was later refined by Scottish surgeon George Kellie in 1824, emphasizing the skull's fixed capacity and the balance among its components to prevent pressure fluctuations.^[11] At its core, the doctrine posits that the total intracranial volume is fixed within the rigid cranial vault, comprising approximately 80% brain parenchyma, 10% cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and 10% blood; any increase in one component necessitates a compensatory decrease in another to preserve stable intracranial pressure (ICP).^[12] For instance, expansion of brain tissue volume requires displacement of CSF or blood to avoid pressure elevation.^[13] Mathematically, this volume balance is represented as:

V_{\text{brain}} + V_{\text{CSF}} + V_{\text{blood}} = V_{\text{total}}

where V_{\text{total}} is the constant intracranial volume, and pressure rises when compensatory mechanisms are overwhelmed beyond the available reserve.^[13] Physiologically, the doctrine explains an initial phase of compliance, where small volume additions are accommodated without ICP change through shifts in CSF or blood, followed by a rapid exponential pressure increase once compensation is exhausted, highlighting the cranium's limited buffering capacity.^[14]

Types of abnormal pressure

Increased intracranial pressure

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) is defined as a sustained elevation exceeding 20 mmHg for more than 5 minutes in adults, distinguishing it from transient fluctuations within normal physiological ranges. This pathological state arises when the volume of intracranial contents—brain tissue, cerebrospinal fluid, or blood—exceeds the fixed capacity of the skull, leading to pressure buildup. According to guidelines, it is classified by severity as mild (20-25 mmHg), moderate (25-40 mmHg), and severe (>40 mmHg), with higher levels indicating greater risk of neurological compromise.^[15]^[16]^[17] Epidemiologically, increased ICP is prevalent in conditions involving brain injury, affecting approximately 50% of patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), where it contributes significantly to morbidity and mortality. In certain vulnerable populations, such as neonates—particularly premature infants with very low birth weight—the incidence is higher, often complicating up to 25% of cases involving intraventricular hemorrhage or other perinatal insults. These patterns underscore the condition's association with acute neurological events, though exact rates vary by etiology and monitoring practices.^[18]^[19]^[20] The general consequences of increased ICP include compromised cerebral perfusion due to reduced cerebral perfusion pressure, heightening the risk of cerebral ischemia when cerebral blood flow drops below 20 mL/100 g/min, as pressure gradients impair vascular autoregulation. This threshold marks a critical point where neuronal dysfunction and potential infarction begin, emphasizing the urgency of monitoring. Differentiation from normal ICP (typically 7-15 mmHg) relies on established intervention thresholds, such as >22 mmHg in adults per Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines, prompting actions to prevent secondary brain injury. Elevations occur when compensatory mechanisms of the Monro-Kellie doctrine are overwhelmed by volume expansion.^[21]^[22]

Decreased intracranial pressure

Decreased intracranial pressure (ICP), also referred to as intracranial hypotension, is defined as a reduction in ICP below the normal physiological range, typically less than 5 mmHg, or a relative decrease sufficient to produce clinical symptoms. This condition is frequently evaluated indirectly through cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure measurement via lumbar puncture, where an opening pressure below 6 cm H<sub>2</sub>O is indicative of low ICP.^[23]^[24] In terms of prevalence and epidemiology, decreased ICP is considerably less common than elevated ICP, with spontaneous intracranial hypotension exhibiting an estimated annual incidence of 4 to 5 cases per 100,000 population. It is notably associated with post-lumbar puncture complications, occurring in approximately 1% to 2% of such procedures when leading to persistent symptomatic hypotension, as well as spontaneous occurrences linked to underlying connective tissue disorders like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. The condition predominantly affects adults in their fourth decade of life, with a higher incidence among women.^[25]^[26]^[27] The general pathophysiological consequences of decreased ICP include brain sagging, where the brain descends within the cranial vault due to diminished CSF volume and buoyancy. This sagging exerts traction on pain-sensitive structures, such as the meninges, cranial nerves, and bridging veins, resulting in characteristic orthostatic symptoms like headaches that intensify with upright posture. Additional effects may involve subdural fluid collections or cranial nerve palsies from mechanical distortion.^[25]^[28]^[29] Differentiation from normal ICP is essential, as the latter maintains stable values across body positions—ranging from 7 to 15 mmHg in the supine position and not exceeding 15 mmHg upright—supported by effective CSF production, circulation, and absorption mechanisms. In contrast, decreased ICP demonstrates marked positional dependency, with symptoms and pressure gradients worsening in the upright position due to gravitational enhancement of brain descent and traction, rather than remaining consistent as in physiological states.^[1]^[30]

Causes

Causes of increased ICP

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) arises from various etiological factors that disrupt the balance of intracranial volume components, as described by the Monro-Kellie doctrine.^[2]

Mass Effect Causes

Mass lesions within the cranium can directly expand intracranial volume, leading to elevated ICP. Primary brain tumors, such as gliomas or meningiomas, and secondary tumors from metastases (e.g., from lung or breast cancer) exert compressive effects.^[2]^[31] Brain abscesses, often resulting from bacterial infections spreading from distant sites like the sinuses or ears, form encapsulated collections that increase pressure.^[2] Hematomas, including epidural (typically arterial from trauma), subdural (venous, often in elderly or alcoholics), and intracerebral (parenchymal bleeding from hypertension or amyloid angiopathy), accumulate blood volume rapidly.^[32]^[31] Brain edema contributes to ICP elevation by increasing tissue water content. Cytotoxic edema occurs in conditions like ischemic stroke, where cellular swelling follows energy failure, or traumatic brain injury (TBI), involving neuronal damage.^[2]^[32] Vasogenic edema, characterized by blood-brain barrier disruption, is common in tumors (peritumoral leakage) and inflammatory processes such as encephalitis or multiple sclerosis flares.^[2]^[32] Interstitial edema arises from transependymal CSF flow, typically in hydrocephalus, where periventricular white matter becomes waterlogged.^[2]

Hydrocephalus

Hydrocephalus elevates ICP through CSF accumulation. Obstructive (non-communicating) hydrocephalus results from blockages, such as aqueductal stenosis (congenital or acquired from tumors), intraventricular masses, or posterior fossa lesions compressing the fourth ventricle.^[2]^[31] Non-obstructive (communicating) hydrocephalus stems from impaired CSF absorption (e.g., post-subarachnoid hemorrhage or meningitis adhesions) or overproduction, as in choroid plexus papillomas or carcinomas.^[2]^[32]

Vascular Causes

Vascular disorders can impair drainage or cause parenchymal expansion. Cerebral venous thrombosis, often linked to hypercoagulable states like dehydration or malignancy, obstructs venous outflow and leads to ICP rise.^[2]^[32] Hypertensive encephalopathy, from severe uncontrolled hypertension, induces vasogenic edema and microhemorrhages.^[2]^[31]

Other Causes

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH), also known as pseudotumor cerebri, occurs without identifiable mass or hydrocephalus, predominantly in obese women of childbearing age, potentially due to impaired CSF absorption.^[2]^[31] High-altitude cerebral edema develops in climbers ascending rapidly above 2500 meters, involving hypoxic vasogenic changes.^[31] Drug-induced causes include tetracyclines (promoting CSF hypersecretion or venous stenosis), excessive vitamin A (hypervitaminosis A leading to dural sinus compression), and other agents like lithium or growth hormone.^[2]^[31]

Causes of decreased ICP

Decreased intracranial pressure (ICP) arises primarily from disruptions in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics, leading to a net reduction in intracranial volume. The most common etiology is CSF leakage, which can occur spontaneously, post-traumatically, or iatrogenically, resulting in a loss of CSF volume that lowers pressure according to the Monro-Kellie doctrine.^[23] Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is frequently caused by dural tears or meningeal diverticula, often located at spinal levels such as the thoracic or cervicothoracic regions, leading to CSF egress into the epidural space. These leaks may be idiopathic or associated with minor trauma, and skull base defects are rarer. Post-traumatic leaks can follow head injuries that disrupt dural integrity, while iatrogenic causes include procedures like lumbar puncture, epidural anesthesia, or spinal surgery, where CSF removal or puncture induces leakage; for instance, post-lumbar puncture headaches occur in approximately 10-40% of cases, depending on procedural factors such as needle size.^[23]^[33]^[23]^[34] Reduced CSF production is a rare mechanism of low ICP, potentially due to choroid plexus dysfunction. Other mechanisms include systemic factors such as severe dehydration, which induces brain tissue shrinkage through hypovolemia and osmotic effects, leading to decreased ICP. Hypocapnia, often from hyperventilation, can also lower ICP by causing cerebral vasoconstriction and reduced cerebral blood volume, though this is typically iatrogenic or transient.^[23]^[35]^[36] Over-drainage of CSF occurs in patients with ventriculoperitoneal shunts or external ventricular drains used in neurosurgical management of hydrocephalus or trauma, where excessive drainage reduces intracranial volume and pressure, sometimes requiring shunt adjustment.^[23] Systemic predispositions include connective tissue disorders like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome or Marfan syndrome, which weaken dural integrity and increase susceptibility to spontaneous leaks; these conditions alter connective tissue structure, facilitating dural ectasias or tears. Prolonged bed rest may exacerbate orthostatic components by promoting venous pooling and relative hypovolemia, indirectly contributing to pressure drops in susceptible individuals.^[23]^[23]

Pathophysiology

Mechanisms in increased ICP

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) arises when the volume of intracranial contents—brain tissue, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and blood—exceeds the compensatory capacity of the rigid skull, leading to a rise in pressure according to the Monro-Kellie doctrine. Initially, the system maintains near-normal ICP through compensatory mechanisms, but as volume expands, these fail, resulting in exponential pressure increases. This dynamic is illustrated by the intracranial compliance curve, which describes the relationship between ICP and intracranial volume. The curve features an initial flat phase where small volume additions (e.g., from edema or mass lesions) are accommodated by displacement of CSF into the spinal subarachnoid space and reduction in venous blood volume, keeping ICP stable.^[37] As compensation exhausts, the curve steepens dramatically, entering a decompensation phase where minor additional volume causes sharp ICP rises, risking brain herniation.^[1] The pressure-volume index (PVI) quantifies this compliance, serving as a clinical measure of the system's reserve. It is calculated using the formula:

\text{PVI} = \frac{\Delta V}{\log_{10}\left(\frac{P_1}{P_0}\right)}

where \Delta V is the volume change (typically 1 mL of CSF injected or withdrawn), P_1 is the ICP after the volume change, and P_0 is the baseline ICP. Normal PVI values are approximately 25 to 30 mL, with lower values indicating reduced compliance and impending decompensation; for instance, a PVI below 13 mL signals high risk of pressure escalation.^[1] As ICP elevates, it directly impairs cerebral perfusion by reducing cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), defined by the equation CPP = MAP - ICP, where MAP is mean arterial pressure. Normal CPP is maintained between 60 and 80 mmHg to ensure adequate cerebral blood flow (CBF). Cerebral autoregulation preserves constant CBF across a MAP range of approximately 50 to 150 mmHg by adjusting vascular resistance; however, when ICP surpasses 20-25 mmHg, CPP falls below autoregulatory limits, causing cerebral ischemia unless MAP compensates.^[38]^[5] Sustained high ICP compresses cerebral vessels, further exacerbating hypoperfusion and shifting the brain toward vasodilatory failure.^[39] Decompensation culminates in herniation syndromes, where supratentorial or infratentorial mass effects displace brain tissue through dural partitions. Subfalcine herniation involves the cingulate gyrus shifting under the falx cerebri, potentially compressing the anterior cerebral artery and causing frontal lobe ischemia. Uncal herniation occurs when the uncus of the temporal lobe herniates through the tentorial notch, compressing the ipsilateral oculomotor nerve and posterior cerebral artery, leading to pupillary dilation and midbrain infarction. Tonsillar herniation features the cerebellar tonsils descending through the foramen magnum, compressing the brainstem and causing rapid cardiorespiratory arrest.^[40] A late indicator of severe ICP elevation is Cushing's triad, characterized by systemic hypertension (to maintain CPP), bradycardia (from baroreceptor reflex), and irregular respirations (due to brainstem compression).^[41] These pressure dynamics trigger secondary brain injury through multiple pathways. Elevated ICP reduces CPP, compressing microvasculature and inducing global or regional ischemia, which depletes cellular energy stores (ATP) and disrupts ionic homeostasis. This energy failure promotes excitotoxicity, where excessive glutamate release overactivates NMDA receptors, leading to calcium influx, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuronal apoptosis. Additionally, ischemia fosters inflammation and oxidative stress, amplifying tissue damage beyond the primary insult.^[42]^[43] Such processes, often initiated by volume-adding factors like cerebral edema, underscore the urgency of early intervention to preserve neurological function.^[1]

Mechanisms in decreased ICP

Decreased intracranial pressure (ICP), often termed intracranial hypotension, arises primarily from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) hypovolemia, which disrupts the equilibrium described by an inversion of the Monro-Kellie doctrine, wherein loss of CSF volume prompts initial compensatory expansion of intracranial blood volume but ultimately leads to overall pressure reduction.^[23] This CSF volume depletion creates a negative pressure gradient relative to atmospheric pressure, diminishing the buoyancy provided by CSF and resulting in caudal displacement of the brain, known as brain sagging.^[23] The sagging induces traction on pain-sensitive structures, including bridging veins and cranial nerves, which can precipitate headaches and neurological deficits.^[44] CSF hypovolemia initially triggers compensatory venous engorgement to maintain intracranial volume, but as the deficit persists, it exacerbates brain descent and manifests on imaging as diffuse pachymeningeal enhancement due to dural venous plexus dilation.^[25] This enhancement serves as a radiological marker of the underlying hypovolemia.^[44] The condition is orthostatically exacerbated, with symptoms intensifying upon standing due to gravitational shifts that further promote CSF leakage and a pronounced pressure drop, often exceeding normal postural variations and contributing to symptom severity.^[45] Secondary effects include the formation of subdural hygromas from rupture of bridging veins under traction, as well as potential development of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome if the hypovolemia remains untreated, leading to multifocal arterial narrowing.^[23]^[46]

Clinical features

Signs and symptoms of increased ICP

Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) often presents with early nonspecific symptoms that can progress to more severe manifestations if untreated. The most common initial symptom is a headache, typically described as diffuse, throbbing, or bursting in nature, which is often worse in the morning or upon lying down and exacerbated by Valsalva maneuvers such as coughing or straining.^[32] Nausea and vomiting frequently accompany the headache, with the vomiting sometimes occurring without preceding nausea and taking a projectile form due to direct brainstem irritation.^[2] Visual disturbances are also prominent early signs, including blurred vision, photophobia, and diplopia (double vision), the latter often resulting from abducens (sixth cranial) nerve palsy caused by pressure on the nerve as it traverses the skull base; papilledema, or swelling of the optic disc, may develop bilaterally within days and signals optic nerve compression.^[32]^[2] As ICP rises, neurological signs become evident, reflecting compression of brain structures and potential herniation syndromes. Altered mental status is a hallmark, ranging from mild confusion and drowsiness to lethargy, stupor, and ultimately coma, indicating global cerebral dysfunction.^[47]^[3] Focal neurological deficits may emerge, such as hemiparesis (weakness on one side of the body) from uncal herniation compressing the cerebral peduncle or leg weakness due to subfalcine herniation affecting the anterior cerebral artery territory.^[2] Seizures can occur as a result of cortical irritation or metabolic disturbances secondary to elevated pressure.^[32] In advanced stages, pupillary abnormalities like a fixed and dilated pupil on one side may indicate impending transtentorial herniation.^[2] A late and ominous vital sign change known as Cushing's triad signals severe ICP and brainstem involvement, often as a terminal event preceding herniation. This triad consists of systemic hypertension, bradycardia, and irregular respirations, representing a compensatory response to maintain cerebral perfusion.^[32]^[47] In pediatric patients, signs of increased ICP differ due to the pliability of the infant skull and open fontanelles. Infants may exhibit a bulging anterior fontanelle, widened sutures, and the "setting sun" sign, where the eyes appear downcast with the sclera visible above the iris, indicative of upward gaze palsy from pressure on the midbrain.^[47]^[32] Irritability, poor feeding, and lethargy are common behavioral changes, while older children may present with symptoms similar to adults, including headache and vomiting.^[3]

Signs and symptoms of decreased ICP

Decreased intracranial pressure (ICP) most commonly presents with an orthostatic headache that intensifies upon assuming an upright posture and alleviates when recumbent, often described as throbbing or dull and localized to the frontal, occipital, or generalized regions.^[23]^[48]^[49] This headache typically emerges after a period of upright activity and may worsen over time if untreated. Accompanying this are neck pain or stiffness, often radiating to the interscapular area, and pulsatile tinnitus, which together form the classic clinical triad of spontaneous intracranial hypotension.^[23]^[48]^[49] Neurological symptoms arise from traction on cranial structures due to CSF volume depletion, including cranial nerve palsies such as abducens nerve dysfunction causing diplopia, alterations in hearing acuity, and cognitive impairments like mental fog or difficulties with concentration and memory.^[23]^[49] Additional features can encompass dizziness, vertigo, or gait unsteadiness, reflecting broader brainstem or vestibular involvement.^[23]^[49] Other manifestations include nausea, typically without significant vomiting, and sensitivity to light (photophobia), which may exacerbate the headache.^[23]^[48] Rarely, midbrain traction can produce parkinsonism-like symptoms, such as bradykinesia or tremor.^[49] In chronic cases, persistent low ICP may lead to brain sagging, predisposing to subdural hematomas that manifest as focal neurological deficits, including hemiparesis or altered mental status.^[23]^[49]

Diagnosis

Clinical assessment

Clinical assessment of abnormal intracranial pressure begins with a thorough history and physical examination to identify potential causes and severity, guiding the need for further evaluation.^[2] For suspected increased intracranial pressure (ICP), the history focuses on acute or chronic onset, recent trauma, infections such as meningitis, medication use including tetracyclines or steroids, and symptoms exacerbated by positional changes like Valsalva maneuvers.^[2] In contrast, decreased ICP, often due to spontaneous intracranial hypotension, typically presents with a history of orthostatic headaches that worsen in the upright position and improve when lying down, potentially following minor trauma or Valsalva efforts, without prominent infectious or traumatic associations.^[25]^[45] The physical examination includes fundoscopy to detect papilledema, characterized by optic disc swelling and blurred margins, which indicates increased ICP but is typically absent in decreased ICP cases.^[31] A comprehensive neurological assessment evaluates level of consciousness using the Glasgow Coma Scale, where scores ≤8 correlate with severe ICP elevation and poor prognosis; focal neurological signs, such as pupillary asymmetry or motor deficits, further suggest herniation risks.^[2]^[50] Vital signs are monitored for Cushing's triad—hypertension, bradycardia, and irregular respirations—which signals advanced increased ICP and impending brainstem compression, though it has low sensitivity.^[31]^[50] Red flags warranting urgent evaluation include progressive headaches, altered consciousness, or new-onset seizures, which heighten suspicion for increased ICP and necessitate prompt intervention to prevent herniation.^[2] In differential diagnosis, ICP-related headaches differ from migraines by their progressive or positional nature, association with neurological deficits, and presence of papilledema, whereas migraines often follow a recurrent, unilateral pattern without such signs.^[51]

Measurement techniques

Intracranial pressure (ICP) can be measured using both invasive and non-invasive techniques, with the choice depending on clinical context, urgency, and patient stability. Invasive methods provide direct and continuous monitoring but carry procedural risks, while non-invasive approaches offer indirect assessments with lower risk but reduced accuracy. Invasive techniques are considered the most reliable for precise ICP quantification. The intraventricular catheter, often via an external ventricular drain (EVD), is regarded as the gold standard, as it directly samples cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure within the ventricular system and allows for therapeutic CSF drainage.^[52] This method involves burr hole placement and catheter insertion into the lateral ventricle, typically at the Kocher point. However, it is associated with risks including infection rates of approximately 5-10% and hemorrhage in up to 5.7% of cases.^[52] An alternative invasive approach is the intraparenchymal fiberoptic sensor, which is inserted into the brain parenchyma to measure local tissue pressure; it is particularly useful when ventricular access is challenging due to swelling or shift, offering accuracy comparable to the EVD without CSF drainage capability.^[1] Infection risk with this sensor is lower, ranging from 0-8.5%, though long-term use may involve signal drift.^[52] For decreased ICP, confirmation often involves lumbar puncture showing opening pressures below 6 cm H₂O (normal 10-20 cm H₂O in adults in the lateral decubitus position), though this is contraindicated if mass effect or focal lesions are present. Imaging such as MRI may reveal supportive findings like subdural fluid collections or pachymeningeal enhancement.^[25] Non-invasive methods provide supportive data without penetrating the skull. Lumbar puncture measures opening pressure in the subarachnoid space, with normal values ranging from 10-20 cmH₂O in adults in the lateral decubitus position; pressures above 25 cmH₂O suggest elevated ICP.^[53] This technique is diagnostic but not suitable for continuous monitoring due to its intermittent nature and contraindications in cases of mass effect. Ultrasound measurement of optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) serves as a bedside proxy for ICP, as the sheath distends with pressure transmission; diameters greater than 5 mm (or 4.5-5.7 mm depending on population) are suggestive of increased ICP, with sensitivity ranging from 88-95%.^[54] Imaging modalities offer indirect correlates of ICP elevation rather than direct measurement. Computed tomography (CT) detects signs of mass effect, such as effaced cortical sulci or midline shift exceeding 5 mm, which indicate significant pressure increases requiring intervention.^[55] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides similar findings with enhanced soft tissue detail, while MR venography specifically evaluates venous sinus thrombosis as a cause of secondary ICP rise by visualizing flow obstructions.^[32] In intensive care settings, particularly for traumatic brain injury (TBI), guidelines recommend continuous invasive ICP monitoring in patients at high risk, such as those with Glasgow Coma Scale scores of 3-8 and abnormal CT findings, to guide therapy.^[56] The Brain Trauma Foundation advises targeting a cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP = mean arterial pressure - ICP) of 60-70 mmHg to optimize cerebral blood flow while avoiding hypotension.^[56]

Management

Medical treatments

Medical treatments for abnormal intracranial pressure primarily involve pharmacological interventions and supportive measures aimed at restoring normal pressure levels without surgical intervention. For elevated intracranial pressure (ICP), therapies focus on reducing cerebral edema, controlling metabolic demand, and preventing secondary insults like seizures. Choice of therapy is guided by the underlying cause, such as cytotoxic edema in trauma versus vasogenic edema in tumors.^[2] Hyperosmolar therapy is a cornerstone for managing increased ICP, using agents that create an osmotic gradient to draw fluid from brain tissue into the bloodstream. Mannitol, administered intravenously at 0.25-1 g/kg over 30-60 minutes, reduces ICP by 20-30% through osmosis and by decreasing blood viscosity to improve cerebral perfusion; effects onset within 15-30 minutes and last 1.5-6 hours, with serum osmolality monitored to stay below 320 mOsm/L.^[57]^[58] Hypertonic saline (HTS), in concentrations of 3-23.4%, is an alternative or adjunct, given as a 3% bolus of 5 mL/kg or continuous infusion; it similarly lowers ICP without rebound edema risk associated with mannitol, though central venous access is required and serum sodium should not exceed 160 mEq/L.^[2]^[58] Sedation with agents like propofol helps control increased ICP by reducing cerebral metabolic rate and oxygen demand, particularly in intubated patients; infusion rates up to 3 mg/kg/h provide effective ICP reduction and anticonvulsant effects without excessive hemodynamic compromise.^[59]^[60] Anticonvulsants such as phenytoin are routinely used for seizure prophylaxis in conditions like traumatic brain injury, where seizures can exacerbate ICP; a loading dose of 18-20 mg/kg achieves therapeutic levels (10-20 mcg/mL) to prevent early posttraumatic seizures within the first 7 days.^[61]^[62] Corticosteroids, including dexamethasone (typically 4-16 mg/day), are reserved for vasogenic edema from tumors or abscesses, as they stabilize the blood-brain barrier but are contraindicated in traumatic or cytotoxic edema due to worsened outcomes.^[2] For decreased ICP, often due to cerebrospinal fluid leaks, conservative measures form the initial approach, including bed rest, hydration to maintain euvolemia, and caffeine administration (e.g., 300-500 mg IV or oral) to promote cerebral vasoconstriction and alleviate symptoms like orthostatic headache.^[63] Theophylline, at doses of 5 mg/kg IV over 30 minutes, can be used similarly for vasoconstriction to temporarily elevate ICP and relieve headache in refractory cases.^[64] An epidural blood patch, involving injection of 10-20 mL autologous blood into the epidural space to seal dural leaks, achieves success in 70-90% of cases, often requiring multiple applications for full resolution.^[65]^[66] In general, transient hyperventilation to a PaCO2 of 30-35 mmHg induces cerebral vasoconstriction to rapidly lower increased ICP as a bridge therapy, but it should be limited to 15-30 minutes to avoid ischemia and is contraindicated in decreased ICP scenarios.^[61]^[67] Response to these interventions is monitored through serial ICP measurements, typically via intraventricular catheter, with targets of <20-22 mmHg for elevated cases and normalization for low pressure, adjusting therapies based on trends every 1-4 hours.^[2]^[16]

Surgical interventions

Surgical interventions for abnormal intracranial pressure are typically reserved for cases refractory to medical management, such as sustained ICP exceeding 20 mmHg or clinical signs of herniation like Cushing's triad (hypertension, bradycardia, and irregular respiration).^[2] These procedures aim to directly address structural causes of pressure imbalance, including mass lesions or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics, to prevent irreversible brain damage.^[2] For increased ICP, decompressive craniectomy involves removing a large section of the skull (e.g., bifrontal or hemicraniectomy) and often opening the dura to allow brain expansion and reduce pressure. This procedure can lower ICP by approximately 15-20 mmHg from elevated baseline levels, as seen in studies where mean reductions reached 18 mmHg within one hour post-surgery.^[68] Ventriculostomy, or external ventricular drainage, provides therapeutic CSF diversion alongside ICP monitoring, achieving sustained reductions in over 50% of traumatic brain injury patients with hydrocephalus or elevated pressure.^[69] Additionally, evacuation of hematomas or resection of tumors is indicated for space-occupying lesions causing mass effect, with guidelines recommending surgery for acute subdural hematomas if ICP surpasses 20 mmHg or pupillary abnormalities occur.^[70] Outcomes of these interventions vary by context. In the RESCUEicp trial for refractory traumatic brain injury, decompressive craniectomy reduced 6-month mortality from 49% in the medical management group to 27%, though it increased rates of severe disability (37% vs. 23%).^[71] The DECRA trial showed effective ICP control (mean 14 mmHg vs. 19 mmHg) but no mortality benefit and higher unfavorable functional outcomes (70% vs. 51%).^[72] Complications include sinking skin flap syndrome, a delayed phenomenon occurring in up to 13% of cases, where atmospheric pressure causes paradoxical herniation and neurological deterioration, often requiring cranioplasty for resolution.^[73] For decreased ICP, often due to CSF leaks, surgical dural repair is performed when conservative measures fail and the leak site is identified via imaging. Techniques include suturing the dura with grafts (e.g., fat or muscle patches) or applying fibrin glue sealant to close defects and restore pressure.^[74] In cases of shunt over-drainage contributing to low ICP, revision surgery adjusts or replaces the shunt system (e.g., adding anti-siphon devices) to prevent excessive CSF removal and normalize dynamics.^[75]

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SOME LIMITATIONS OF THE MONRO-KELLIE HYPOTHESIS
... original promulgation by Alexander Monro1 in 1783. Having been of interest to many in the course of the first fifty years of its existence, the doctrine has ...
[11]
George Kellie (1770-1829), his colleagues at Leith and the Monro ...
The Monro-Kellie doctrine is named after two Scottish doctors, the well-known Alexander Monro secundus and George Kellie, whose life and work has not ...Missing: original | Show results with:original
[12]
Basic concepts about brain pathophysiology and intracranial ...
Under normal conditions, this content can be divided into 3 compartments (the Monro-Kellie doctrine): cerebral parenchyma (80%), cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (10%) ...
[13]
The Monro–Kellie hypothesis - Neurology.org
The Monro–Kellie doctrine, or hypothesis, is that the sum of volumes of brain, CSF, and intracranial blood is constant.Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[14]
Monro-Kellie 2.0: The dynamic vascular and venous ...
(c) Demonstrates that once the period of compliance that this displacement affords runs out, there is an exponential rise in pressure. This description ...
[15]
Elevated Intracranial Pressure in Adults - DynaMed
Elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) is typically defined as ICP sustained > 20 mm Hg. It may be a medical or surgical emergency and may cause cerebral ischemia ...
[16]
[PDF] Critical Care Management and Monitoring of Intracranial Pressure
Dec 16, 2016 · Acute intracranial hypertension (AIH) is defined as sus- tained intracranial pressure (ICP) greater than 20 mmHg for greater than five to ...
[17]
Intracranial Hypertension - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
ICP in the range of 20 to 30 mm Hg is mildly increased and warrants treatment, whereas ICP persistently exceeding 40 mm Hg is severe and life threatening.
[18]
A Trial of Intracranial-Pressure Monitoring in Traumatic Brain Injury
Dec 12, 2012 · For these respective groups, the intracranial pressure was 20 mm Hg or higher initially in 37% and 29% of patients and at any time during ...<|separator|>
[19]
Intracranial hypertension and cerebral ischemia after severe ...
17 The incidence of elevated ICP during hospitalization in patients without mass lesions has been reported to range from 3017 to as high as 80%2 in certain ...
[20]
Neonatal cerebral hemodynamics under elevated intracranial ...
Oct 11, 2025 · Elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) is a common postnatal complication in premature infants, particularly those with very low birth weight, ...
[21]
Perfusion thresholds in human cerebral ischemia - PubMed
The threshold of cerebral blood flow (CBF) below which neuronal function is impaired and the tissue is at risk of infarction is around 22 ml/100 g/min.
[22]
Intracranial and Cerebral Perfusion Pressure Thresholds Associated ...
Feb 1, 2022 · Current pediatric guidelines, based on traumatic brain injury (TBI), suggest an ICP target of <20 mmHg and CPP minimum of 40-50 mmHg, with possible age ...
[23]
Intracranial Hypotension - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jul 24, 2023 · Intracranial hypotension (ICH) is defined as a CSF pressure less than 60 mm H2O and generally causes a postural headache in patients with the condition.Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Etiology · Evaluation
[24]
Spontaneous intracranial hypotension complicated by diffuse ... - NIH
Dec 6, 2021 · As the name suggests, intracranial hypotension is associated with low CSF pressures, typically less than <6 cm H2O. Although low pressures are a ...
[25]
Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) presents with postural headache and low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The underlying cause is usually a CSF leak.
[26]
Spontaneous spinal cerebrospinal fluid leaks and intracranial ...
May 17, 2006 · The incidence has been estimated at 5 per 100,000 per year, with a peak around age 40 years. Women are affected more commonly than men.Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
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Incidence of spontaneous intracranial hypotension in a community
There were 12 women and seven men with a mean age of 54.5 years (range, 28 to 88 years). The average annual incidence rate for all ages was 3.7 per 100,000 ...
[28]
Diagnostic Imaging and Clinical Features of Intracranial Hypotension
Intracranial hypotension (IH) is an uncommon, benign, and usually self-limiting condition caused by low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure, usually due to CSF ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[29]
Cerebral Blood Flow in Low Intracranial Pressure Headaches ... - NIH
Dec 19, 2019 · Headaches attributed to low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pressure are described as orthostatic headaches caused by spontaneous or secondary low CSF ...
[30]
Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension Without CSF Leakage ... - NIH
Nov 1, 2021 · Intracranial CSF volume depletion when in an upright position leads to a pathological decrease of intracranial pressure (ICP), brain sagging, ...Introduction · Low Intracranial Csf Volume · Csf Outflow Resistance
[31]
Intracranial Hypertension - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Mar 3, 2024 · Intracranial hypertension is a state of pressure elevation within the skull that may cause various neurological disorders.<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
A Review of the Clinical Presentation, Causes, and Diagnostic ...
Sep 6, 2024 · Increased intracranial pressure (ICP), regardless of etiology, is a life-threatening condition that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment.
[33]
CSF leak (Cerebrospinal fluid leak) - Symptoms and causes
Nov 21, 2023 · Cranial CSF leaks may be caused by: A head injury. Sinus surgery. Increased pressure in the brain. Malformations of the inner ear. Sometimes ...
[34]
The pathogenesis and clinical significance of traumatic subdural ...
If the brain shrinks due to brain atrophy, excessive dehydration or decreased intracranial pressure, fluid collection may develop by a passive effusion.
[35]
Influence of mild-moderate hypocapnia on intracranial pressure ...
Dec 16, 2019 · In severe TBI patients, a sudden mild-moderate hypocapnia induces a decrease in mean ICP and FV, but also in slow waves power of both signals.
[36]
Intracranial pressure for clinicians: it is not just a number
Sep 5, 2023 · The relationship between pressure and volume defines the compliance of the system, and its inverse index, elastance. Compliance is the increase ...
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Acute Changes in Intracranial Pressure and Pressure-Volume Index ...
Accordingly, low PVI values indicate decreased compliance. The PVI is thought to represent the algebraic sum of separate PVI values of the various compartments ...Missing: formula | Show results with:formula
[38]
Cerebral Perfusion Pressure - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
CPP and ICP: The CPP, at its most basic, is dependent on the ICP and mean arterial pressure, and its normal range is 60 to 80 mm Hg. Under normal conditions, ...
[39]
Cerebral Autoregulation - OpenAnesthesia
Mar 1, 2023 · CPP equals MAP minus ICP or central venous pressure, whichever is higher (Figure 1).1 The limits of cerebral autoregulation in infants and ...
[40]
Brain Herniation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Aug 13, 2023 · In subfalcine herniation, the ipsilateral cingulate gyrus gets migrated beneath the anterior falx, resulting in infarction along with the ...
[41]
Cushing Reflex - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
In the later stages of the Cushing reflex, brainstem dysfunction secondary to increased ICP, tachycardia, or bradycardia is observable clinically as an ...Definition/Introduction · Issues of Concern · Clinical Significance
[42]
Traumatic brain injury: pathophysiology for neurocritical care - PMC
Apr 27, 2016 · Arterial hypotension is a major risk factor for secondary brain injury, but hypertension with a loss of autoregulation response or excess ...
[43]
Revisiting Excitotoxicity in Traumatic Brain Injury - PubMed Central
When it comes to TBI, excitotoxicity is promoted by an increase of glutamate concentrations released into the extracellular space due to cellular lysis, ...
[44]
Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension Guide - - Practical Neurology
Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is a secondary headache etiology attributed to a cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak or CSF-venous fistula involving the ...Pathophysiology · Diagnostic Imaging · Treatment
[45]
Diagnosis and Treatment of Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension
Apr 30, 2024 · Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is a neurologic disorder caused by noniatrogenic leakage of CSF through a spinal dural defect, ...Radiologic Assessment Of The... · Brain Imaging · The Role Of Epidural Blood...
[46]
Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction in Spontaneous Intracranial ...
Feb 13, 2007 · Spontaneous intracranial hypotension should be considered in the differential diagnosis of reversible cerebral vasoconstriction.
[47]
Increased Intracranial Pressure (ICP): Symptoms & Treatment
Jun 20, 2024 · Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) happens when there's a rise in the pressure within your cranial vault. It can be sudden (acute) or develop ...
[48]
Low CSF Headache | Johns Hopkins Medicine
The pain is often worse at the back of the head, and may be accompanied by some neck discomfort and nausea. Rarely there are more serious neurological symptoms ...
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Complexities of low CSF volume headache - Mayo Clinic
Jun 19, 2015 · Spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) is typically the result of spontaneous cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) leak at the spine level.
[50]
Initial Diagnosis and Management of Acutely Elevated Intracranial ...
Upon approaching a patient with suspected elevated ICP, one may gather a history of classic signs or symptoms, including headache, vomiting, and change in ...
[51]
Overlap and Differences in Migraine and Idiopathic Intracranial ...
Sep 1, 2023 · This review compares the similarities and differences of the diagnostic criteria, pathophysiology, and risk factors for chronic migraine and IIH.
[52]
Intracranial Pressure Monitoring: Invasive versus Non-Invasive ...
Several different invasive methods of measuring ICP exist. Depending on the technique, ICP measuring can be undertaken in different intracranial anatomical ...
[53]
Lumbar Puncture (LP) Interpretation of Cerebrospinal Fluid
May 5, 2025 · Normal results in adults · Appearance: Clear · Opening pressure: 10-20 cm H2 O · WBC count: 0-5 cells/µL (< 2 polymorphonucleocytes [PMN]); normal ...Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis · Normal Results In Adults · Aseptic (viral) Meningitis
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Optimal Optic Nerve Sheath Diameter Threshold for the Identification ...
Feb 9, 2015 · The ONSD cut-off point for the identification of elevated opening pressure on LP was 4.1 mm; this cut-off yielded a sensitivity of 95% and a specificity of 92%.
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Midline shift | Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org
Jul 4, 2024 · Midline shift is one of the most important indicators of increased intracranial pressure due to mass effect.
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Intracranial Pressure Monitoring and Treatment Thresholds in Acute ...
Current management guidelines recommend a cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) target range of 60–70 mm Hg and an ICP threshold of >20 or >22 mm Hg.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Mannitol - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 8, 2024 · For increased intracranial or intraocular pressure, dosages range from 0.25 g/kg to 2 g/kg, administered intravenously over 30 to 60 minutes.Indications · Mechanism of Action · Administration · Contraindications
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Guidelines for the Acute Treatment of Cerebral Edema in ...
Overall, both mannitol and HTS appear to be effective in reducing ICP and cerebral edema in patients with AIS.
[59]
Propofol in the treatment of moderate and severe head injury
A propofol-based sedation and an ICP control regimen is a safe, acceptable, and, possibly, desirable alternative to an opiate-based sedation regimen in ...Clinical Material And... · Results · Propofol Subgroup...
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Intracranial hypertension and deep sedation | Critical Care | Full Text
Nov 4, 2019 · Thus, we prefer to use propofol in doses not exceeding 3 mg/kg/h, which reduces oxygen consumption and have an anticonvulsant effect [2], along ...
[61]
Guidelines for the Management of Severe TBI, 3rd Edition
May 1, 2007 · Hyperventilation is recommended as a temporizing measure for the reduction of elevated intracranial pressure (ICP). Hyperventilation should ...
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Closed Head Injury Medication: Anticonvulsants
May 4, 2022 · The anticonvulsant medication recommended for adults is phenytoin or fos-phenytoin (18 mg/kg of loading dose), ensuring therapeutic levels of 10-20 mg/dL.Missing: raised | Show results with:raised
[63]
The status of diagnosis and treatment to intracranial hypotension ...
Jan 13, 2017 · According to Monro–Kellie hypothesis, the CSF leakage reduces the CSF pressure and may give rises to a venous dilatation which is considered to ...
[64]
Theophylline, a drug efficient to increase intracranial pressure. Case ...
Theophylline can also be employed to manage low CSF pressure states and spontaneous intracranial hypotension with the aim to increase intracranial pressure (ICP) ...
[65]
Clinical Presentation, Investigation Findings, and Treatment ...
Jan 4, 2021 · Conservative treatment was effective in 28% (95% CI, 18%-37%) of patients and a single epidural blood patch was successful in 64% (95% CI, 56%- ...
[66]
Spontaneous intracranial hypotension: Treatment and prognosis
Jun 17, 2025 · (See "Post dural puncture headache".) For most patients with spontaneous intracranial hypotension, we suggest a lumbar epidural blood patch ( ...
[67]
Hyperventilation in neurological patients: from physiology to ...
Hyperventilation is commonly used in neurological patients to decrease elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) or relax a tense brain.
[68]
Decompressive craniectomy for the treatment of high intracranial ...
The benefits of DC in TBI are to facilitate the control of ICP, improve cerebral perfusion pressure, and avoid brain herniation and brainstem compression ( ...
[69]
Ventriculostomy - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring. Adjunct management for malfunctioning or infected ventriculoperitoneal shunts. As a panacea for brain relaxation ...
[70]
Guidelines for the Surgical Management of TBI
Mar 31, 2006 · ... ICP exceeds 20 mm Hg. Timing. In patients with acute SDH and indications for surgery, surgical evacuation should be performed as soon as ...
[71]
Trial of Decompressive Craniectomy for Traumatic Intracranial ...
Sep 7, 2016 · At 6 months, decompressive craniectomy in patients with traumatic brain injury and refractory intracranial hypertension resulted in lower mortality.Trial Design And Oversight · Primary Outcome · Secondary Outcomes
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Decompressive Craniectomy in Diffuse Traumatic Brain Injury
Mar 25, 2011 · Unfavorable outcomes occurred in 51 patients (70%) in the craniectomy group and in 42 patients (51%) in the standard-care group (odds ratio, ...
[73]
Sinking Skin Flap Syndrome: Phenomenon of Neurological ... - NIH
Sinking skin flap syndrome is a catastrophic delayed complication in patients who underwent craniectomy for various reasons.
[74]
CSF leak (Cerebrospinal fluid leak) - Diagnosis and treatment
Nov 21, 2023 · Your healthcare professional will likely start with your medical history and a physical exam. The physical exam includes close evaluation of ...
[75]
Complications of Shunt Systems - Signs and Symptoms
In cases where the shunt system is not functioning properly, a shunt revision (surgery) might be performed to replace or reposition specific components, ...