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Neurogenesis

Neurogenesis is the biological process by which new neurons are generated from neural stem and progenitor cells within the nervous system.^[1] This phenomenon occurs extensively during embryonic and early postnatal development, where it establishes the basic architecture of the brain and spinal cord through the proliferation, differentiation, migration, and integration of neural precursors.^[2] In adulthood, neurogenesis continues in a more limited capacity, primarily in two key regions of the mammalian brain: the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus and the subventricular zone (SVZ) lining the lateral ventricles.^[3] The core stages of neurogenesis mirror those in development but adapt to adult contexts, beginning with the asymmetric division of quiescent neural stem cells (NSCs), often identified as radial glia-like cells expressing glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP).^[1] These divisions yield transit-amplifying progenitors that undergo rapid proliferation, followed by the differentiation of neuroblasts into immature neurons, which then migrate—often in chains along pathways like the rostral migratory stream from the SVZ to the olfactory bulb—and ultimately integrate into existing neural circuits by forming synapses.^[3] This integration is crucial for functionality, with new hippocampal neurons contributing to synaptic plasticity and circuit refinement over weeks to months.^[4] Regulation of neurogenesis involves a complex interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including signaling pathways such as Wnt, Notch, and Sonic hedgehog (Shh), which promote progenitor maintenance and differentiation, alongside transcription factors like NeuroD1 and TLX that drive neuronal fate.^[1] Extrinsic modulators encompass environmental influences like physical exercise and enriched settings, which enhance proliferation via neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), as well as pharmacological agents including antidepressants that upregulate neurogenesis in the hippocampus.^[4] Aging, stress, and pathological conditions like ischemia or neurodegeneration typically suppress this process, leading to declines in NSC activity and neuronal output.^[3] Functionally, embryonic neurogenesis is essential for forming diverse neuronal populations that underpin sensory, motor, and cognitive systems, while adult neurogenesis supports ongoing brain plasticity, particularly in learning and memory—with hippocampal neurons aiding pattern separation—and olfactory discrimination via SVZ-derived interneurons.^[1] Dysregulation is implicated in neurological disorders, including depression, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, and stroke, where diminished neurogenesis correlates with cognitive deficits, highlighting its therapeutic potential through strategies aimed at stimulating NSC proliferation and survival.^[4] Ongoing research, bolstered by evidence from techniques like bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling and carbon-14 dating of neuronal DNA, continues to refine our understanding of its extent in humans; as of 2025, genetic studies have confirmed the persistence of adult hippocampal neurogenesis into late adulthood, though debates persist regarding the precise quantity and longevity of adult-born neurons.^[3]^[5]

Fundamentals

Definition and Process

Neurogenesis is the biological process by which new neurons are generated from neural stem cells (NSCs) or progenitor cells, encompassing the stages of proliferation, differentiation, migration, and integration into existing neural circuits.^[6] NSCs are self-renewing, multipotent cells capable of dividing to maintain their population or produce progenitors, while progenitor cells are more restricted intermediates that commit to specific lineages.^[7] This process is fundamental to brain development and plasticity, occurring prominently during embryogenesis and persisting in select regions throughout adulthood in many species.^[8] The core stages begin with the division of NSCs, which can be symmetric—yielding two identical daughter cells, either both stem cells or both progenitors—or asymmetric, producing one NSC and one progenitor to balance self-renewal and differentiation.^[9] Progenitors then undergo commitment to the neuronal lineage, differentiating into neuroblasts, which are immature, migratory neurons expressing markers like doublecortin.^[6] Neuroblasts subsequently migrate to appropriate locations within the nervous system and mature, extending axons and dendrites to form synaptic connections and achieve functional integration.^[8] Unlike gliogenesis, which generates non-neuronal glial cells such as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes from the same precursor pool, neurogenesis is defined exclusively by the production and maturation of neurons, often regulated by distinct transcriptional programs that favor neuronal over glial fates.^[10] Neurogenesis represents an evolutionarily conserved mechanism across metazoans, from invertebrates like Drosophila to vertebrates including mammals, though it varies in timing, extent, and neurogenic sites—peaking during development in most species and continuing lifelong in many non-mammalian lineages.^[11]

Historical Discovery

For much of the 19th and 20th centuries, the prevailing view in neuroscience held that the adult mammalian brain does not generate new neurons, a doctrine largely attributed to Santiago Ramón y Cajal's histological studies in the 1890s and early 1900s, which emphasized the fixed nature of neural architecture post-development.^[12] This "no new neurons" dogma was reinforced by observations of neuronal stability and was widely accepted, influencing research for decades and suggesting that brain plasticity was limited to synaptic changes rather than cellular addition.^[13] The first challenges to this dogma emerged in the 1960s through autoradiographic studies by Joseph Altman and Gopal Das, who injected tritiated thymidine into young adult rodents to label dividing cells and observed labeled neurons in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and olfactory bulb.^[14] Their seminal 1965 paper demonstrated persistent granule cell neurogenesis in adult rat brains, providing initial evidence of ongoing neuronal production beyond infancy, though these findings were initially overlooked by the broader scientific community.^[15] Further confirmation came in the 1990s with the isolation of neural stem cells (NSCs) from the adult mammalian brain. In 1992, Brent Reynolds and Samuel Weiss reported the generation of multipotent progenitor cells from the striatum of adult mice, which could differentiate into neurons and glia in vitro when stimulated by epidermal growth factor, establishing the existence of self-renewing NSCs in mature brains.^[16] Building on this, Peter Eriksson and colleagues in 1998 provided direct evidence of adult neurogenesis in humans by analyzing postmortem hippocampal tissue from cancer patients treated with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), revealing BrdU-labeled immature neurons in the dentate gyrus of individuals up to 72 years old.^[17] Despite these advances, controversy persisted regarding human adult neurogenesis, particularly in the hippocampus. A 2018 study by Shawn Sorrells and Arturo Alvarez-Buylla analyzed postmortem tissues across ages and reported no detectable new neurons in the adult human dentate gyrus, suggesting neurogenesis ceases by early adulthood and attributing prior evidence to methodological artifacts.^[18] This sparked renewed debate, but recent 2025 research using advanced single-nucleus RNA sequencing and spatial transcriptomics on diverse human brain samples has confirmed ongoing hippocampal neurogenesis into late adulthood, resolving the controversy by identifying active neural progenitors and their transcriptional signatures in adults up to 78 years old.^[19]

Developmental Neurogenesis

In Vertebrates

In vertebrates, neurogenesis during embryonic and early postnatal development begins with the formation of the neural tube during gastrulation, where the neural plate folds and cavitates to create a hollow structure that gives rise to the central nervous system.^[20] This process establishes the foundational architecture, followed by proliferation in germinal zones such as the ventricular zone (VZ), a pseudostratified epithelium lining the neural tube where neural progenitor cells divide to expand the progenitor pool and generate neurons.^[21] The subventricular zone (SVZ) emerges later as a secondary proliferative region, particularly in the forebrain, producing additional neurons through intermediate progenitors that amplify output.^[21] Species-specific variations highlight the diversity of vertebrate neurogenesis. In zebrafish, embryonic neurogenesis is notably rapid, with primary neurons differentiating within hours post-fertilization to support larval locomotion and sensory functions, featuring an early wave of pioneer neurons that guide axonal pathfinding in a transparent embryo amenable to live imaging.^[22] This process contrasts with more protracted timelines in amniotes but shares conserved mechanisms like Notch signaling for progenitor maintenance. In birds, such as songbirds, embryonic neurogenesis populates key circuits, including the high vocal center (HVC) where neurons projecting to the anterior forebrain pathway (HVC→X) are generated during embryogenesis to establish stable song learning substrates.^[23] Mammals exemplify complex layering, as in the cerebral cortex where radial migration along glial scaffolds positions neurons in an inside-out manner, forming six distinct layers from deep to superficial.^[24] Central processes drive neuronal integration and refinement. Proliferation in the VZ involves asymmetric divisions of radial glial progenitors, balancing self-renewal and neurogenic output through spatiotemporal gradients of factors like FGF and BMP.^[21] Newly born neurons then undergo radial migration, guided by radial glia fibers, or tangential migration for interneurons originating from ganglionic eminences, ensuring precise laminar and areal organization.^[25] Apoptosis prunes excess neurons—up to 50% in some regions—via trophic factor competition and caspase activation, sculpting functional circuits by eliminating mismatched or supernumerary cells during peak production.^[26] In humans, neurogenesis peaks between embryonic weeks 8 and 20, when the majority of cortical and subcortical neurons are generated, with layer-specific production in the neocortex occurring sequentially from deep (layer VI) to superficial (layer II).^[27] This phase continues postnatally in select areas, such as the cerebellum where granule cell production from the external granular layer persists until the second postnatal year, and the olfactory bulb where interneuron generation supports sensory adaptation.^[27] Unique to vertebrates, Hox genes orchestrate anterior-posterior patterning along the neural tube, with collinear expression of paralogous groups (e.g., Hox1-4 in hindbrain rhombomeres) specifying segmental identity and neuronal subtypes through transcriptional regulation of downstream targets like motor neuron column formation.^[28] This genetic framework facilitates the evolution of layered structures, most prominently the mammalian neocortex, where expanded SVZ progenitors enable tangential expansion and supragranular layer formation, contrasting with the simpler three-layered pallium in reptiles and birds.^[24]

In Invertebrates

Neurogenesis in invertebrates primarily occurs during embryonic and larval stages, producing a relatively fixed and limited number of neurons organized into modular ganglia rather than a centralized brain, contrasting with the expansive neural proliferation in vertebrates. In many species, neural progenitors delaminate from the ectoderm and undergo asymmetric divisions to generate diverse neuronal lineages, often regulated by simpler genetic mechanisms that serve as evolutionary models for more complex systems. For instance, fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) exemplify this process, where approximately 10,000–15,000 neurons are generated, far fewer than the billions in mammalian brains, highlighting the compact scale of invertebrate nervous systems.^[29] In Drosophila, neurogenesis begins with the delamination of neuroblasts from the ventral neuroectoderm during embryogenesis, forming the ventral nerve cord through asymmetric cell divisions. These neuroblasts self-renew while producing ganglion mother cells (GMCs), which divide once to yield neurons and glia; type I neuroblasts generate about 90 per brain lobe, expressing markers like Deadpan, while type II neuroblasts produce intermediate neural progenitors that amplify neuron output. Proneural genes from the achaete-scute complex, such as lethal of scute, initiate neuroblast specification in proneural clusters within the ventral nerve cord, with divisions resuming postembryonically during larval and pupal stages to complete the process by pupation. The Delta-Notch signaling pathway mediates lateral inhibition here, ensuring precise selection of neural fates in a simpler cascade compared to vertebrates, providing insights into conserved mechanisms of progenitor diversification.^[30]^[31]^[32] Nematodes like Caenorhabditis elegans demonstrate an invariant embryonic neurogenesis, yielding exactly 302 neurons through a series of precisely mapped asymmetric divisions from ectodermal progenitors, without delamination but via internalization during epiboly. This fixed lineage, established by early cleavage stages, results in a nervous system comprising head and tail ganglia connected by a ventral cord, underscoring the deterministic nature of invertebrate neural development. In annelids, such as leeches (Hirudo medicinalis), ganglionic neurogenesis arises from teloblast lineages in the germinal plate, producing metameric ganglia through transverse bands of cells marked by engrailed homologs, with neural precursors spanning segment boundaries to form the ventral nerve cord. These processes, largely confined to embryogenesis with some larval contributions, reflect evolutionary adaptations for segmented, modular architectures in invertebrates.^[33]

Adult Neurogenesis

In Mammals

In mammals, adult neurogenesis primarily occurs in two restricted brain regions: the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus and the subventricular zone (SVZ) lining the lateral ventricles.^[3] In the SGZ, neural stem cells (NSCs) generate immature neurons that differentiate into granule cells, which integrate into the hippocampal circuitry to support functions such as pattern separation, a process that distinguishes similar experiences to aid memory formation.^[34] Similarly, in the SVZ, NSCs produce neuroblasts that migrate through the rostral migratory stream to the olfactory bulb, where they mature into GABAergic interneurons, contributing to olfactory processing and discrimination.^[35] The rate of adult neurogenesis varies by species and region but is notably robust in rodents, where thousands of new neurons are added daily to the hippocampus and olfactory bulb.^[36] In humans, estimates indicate approximately 700 new granule cells are generated per day in each hippocampus, representing about 1.75% annual turnover of dentate gyrus neurons, a process confirmed to persist into advanced age, although at a reduced rate due to age-related decline.^[37] Recent genetic analyses in 2025 have reinforced these findings, resolving prior debates by demonstrating ongoing hippocampal neurogenesis in adults across the lifespan.^[5] Newly generated neurons in mammals integrate functionally into existing neural circuits through synaptic incorporation, forming connections that enhance network plasticity. In the hippocampus, adult-born granule cells establish excitatory synapses with CA3 pyramidal cells, enabling their role in memory encoding and refinement.^[38] In the olfactory bulb, SVZ-derived interneurons form reciprocal dendrodendritic synapses with mitral and tufted cells, supporting odor perception, habituation, and short-term olfactory memory.^[39] This integration is critical for the adaptive functions of these regions, though the overall scale remains limited compared to developmental neurogenesis.^[3]

In Non-Mammals

Adult neurogenesis in non-mammalian vertebrates is characterized by its widespread distribution across multiple brain regions and its persistence throughout the lifespan, often enabling significant regenerative capacities that surpass those observed in mammals. In these species, neural stem cell (NSC) niches are broadly present, including in the telencephalon, optic tectum, and cerebellum, supporting continuous neuron production for both physiological maintenance and injury repair. For instance, radial glia-like cells serve as primary progenitors in many non-mammals, facilitating tissue regeneration by proliferating and differentiating into neurons and glia in response to damage.^[40]^[41]^[42] In teleost fish such as zebrafish, adult neurogenesis occurs extensively in the telencephalon and optic tectum, allowing for full brain regeneration following injury. Post-lesion, proliferative zones expand, generating new neurons that integrate into functional circuits to restore lost tissue, a process mediated by NSC activation and minimal gliosis. Birds, particularly songbirds like canaries and white-crowned sparrows, exhibit seasonal neurogenesis in song control nuclei such as the high vocal center (HVC), where tens of thousands of new projection neurons—approximately 68,000 in HVC during the breeding season—are added annually to support vocal learning and plasticity. Reptiles, including lizards like Podarcis liolepis, show persistent neurogenesis in the striatal regions and medial cortex, with injury inducing heightened proliferation from ventricular zone progenitors, leading to neuronal replacement without scarring.^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46] Amphibians, such as newts and axolotls, demonstrate remarkable regenerative potential, including spinal cord neuron production after transection, where ependymal cells form a tube-like structure that supports neurogenesis and axonal regrowth. These processes occur at rates far higher than in mammals, with continuous neuron addition enabling lifelong brain expansion and adaptation. Evolutionarily, this widespread adult neurogenesis in non-mammals promotes sustained neural plasticity and recovery from trauma, contrasting with the age-related decline and localization to specific niches in mammalian brains. Such capabilities highlight an ancestral trait for environmental adaptability that has been partially conserved across vertebrates.^[47]^[48]^[49]^[50]

Regulatory Mechanisms

Molecular and Genetic Factors

Neurogenesis is tightly regulated by a network of signaling pathways and transcription factors that govern the proliferation, maintenance, and differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) across developmental stages and species. The Wnt/β-catenin pathway plays a central role in promoting NSC proliferation and neuronal fate specification by stabilizing β-catenin, which translocates to the nucleus to activate target genes involved in cell cycle progression and neurogenesis.^[51] In contrast, the Notch/Delta pathway inhibits neuronal differentiation by maintaining NSCs in a proliferative state; activation of Notch receptors by Delta ligands leads to the cleavage and nuclear translocation of the Notch intracellular domain, which represses proneural genes and sustains progenitor identity.^[52] The BMP/Smad pathway contributes to the gliogenic switch later in development, where BMP ligands bind receptors to phosphorylate Smad1/5/8, promoting astroglial differentiation over neurogenesis by antagonizing neuronal-promoting signals.^[53] Key transcription factors orchestrate these processes at the genetic level. Sox2 and Pax6 are essential for NSC maintenance and self-renewal; Sox2 sustains progenitor identity by repressing neuronal differentiation genes, while Pax6 balances proliferation and neurogenesis, with its levels critically influencing the timing of neuronal production.^[54] For neuronal commitment, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) factors such as Neurogenin (Ngn) and NeuroD drive the transition from progenitors to neurons; Ngn promotes neurogenesis while inhibiting gliogenesis through independent regulation of downstream pathways, and NeuroD further specifies neuronal subtypes by binding regulatory elements to activate differentiation genes.^[55] Genetic models have elucidated the necessity of these factors. In mice, Ascl1 (Mash1) knockouts severely impair neurogenesis, particularly in the midbrain dopaminergic system and olfactory epithelium, leading to reduced neuronal generation and altered progenitor differentiation.^[56] Human genome-wide association studies (GWAS) link variants in neurogenesis-related genes to hippocampal volume, with enrichment in pathways involving cell proliferation and neuronal maturation, suggesting genetic influences on adult neurogenic niches.^[57] The core molecular machinery exhibits remarkable cross-species conservation, particularly the proneural bHLH family, which includes Ascl1, Ngn, and NeuroD homologs from Drosophila (e.g., atonal and achaete-scute) to humans, regulating neural competence and diversification across evolution.^[58] Mutations disrupting this machinery underlie neurodevelopmental disorders; for instance, disruptions in the MCPH1 gene, which encodes microcephalin involved in DNA damage response and centrosome integrity during NSC divisions, cause primary microcephaly by prolonging G2/M phases and depleting the progenitor pool, resulting in reduced brain size.^[59]

Environmental and Epigenetic Influences

Environmental factors significantly influence neurogenesis, particularly in the adult hippocampus. Physical exercise and environmental enrichment have been shown to enhance hippocampal neurogenesis by upregulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which promotes the proliferation and survival of neural progenitor cells.^[60] In contrast, chronic stress suppresses neurogenesis through elevated glucocorticoids, which inhibit neural stem cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in newborn neurons via glucocorticoid receptor signaling.^[61] Nutritional factors also play a role; omega-3 fatty acids promote adult hippocampal neurogenesis by supporting neuronal membrane integrity and modulating inflammatory pathways, though direct links to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) mechanisms in this context remain under investigation.^[62] Hypoxia, often mediated by hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), can drive neurogenesis in neurogenic niches by activating adaptive responses that enhance progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation.^[63] Prenatal environmental exposures, such as maternal diet, can alter the fetal epigenome, influencing lifelong neurogenesis potential. High-fat maternal diets induce persistent DNA methylation changes in the offspring's brain, affecting gene expression related to neural development and potentially reducing neurogenic capacity into adulthood.^[64] Epigenetic modifications provide a key interface between environmental cues and neurogenesis regulation. DNA methylation dynamics, regulated by ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes, are crucial for neural stem cell (NSC) identity; TET-mediated demethylation of NSC promoters prevents premature differentiation and supports ongoing neurogenesis during development.^[65] Histone acetylation, conversely, facilitates gene activation in neurogenic processes; inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs) enhances acetylation at promoters of neuronal genes, promoting NSC differentiation and increasing neurogenesis in both embryonic and adult contexts.^[66] Aging contributes to neurogenesis decline through accumulated epigenetic silencing. Progressive hypermethylation and reduced histone acetylation lead to repression of neurogenic genes in the hippocampus, diminishing NSC proliferation and survival over time.^[67] A 2025 study shows that microglia regulate GABAergic neurogenesis in the prenatal human brain through IGF1 signaling, promoting progenitor proliferation in the medial ganglionic eminence during the second and third trimesters and highlighting species-specific mechanisms for interneuron production.^[68]

Induced Neurogenesis

Pharmacological and Substance Effects

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as fluoxetine, enhance neurogenesis in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the adult hippocampus by increasing progenitor cell proliferation through serotonin signaling pathways.^[69] Chronic administration of fluoxetine promotes the survival and differentiation of these progenitors into mature neurons, an effect mediated by activation of 5-HT1A and 5-HT4 receptors.^[70] This pro-neurogenic action is observed in rodent models and correlates with antidepressant efficacy, though human studies show more modest increases in neural progenitors in the dentate gyrus of individuals with major depressive disorder.^[71] Neurotrophic factors and their mimetics also induce neurogenesis, particularly in the subventricular zone (SVZ). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) supports SVZ progenitor proliferation and neuronal recruitment to the striatum, with BDNF mimetics like small peptide analogs enhancing this process in ischemic conditions.^[72] Erythropoietin (EPO), acting via its receptor, stimulates SVZ-derived neurogenesis by promoting neural progenitor production and migration along the rostral migratory stream, as demonstrated in both in vitro and in vivo models of hypoxia.^[73] Cannabinoids exert pro-neurogenic effects through CB1 receptor activation in hippocampal neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs). Endocannabinoids and synthetic agonists increase proliferation and survival of new neurons in the SGZ, influencing baseline and activity-dependent neurogenesis stages.^[74] In contrast, alcohol suppresses adult hippocampal neurogenesis in a dose-dependent manner, with binge-like exposures reducing progenitor proliferation, neuroblast survival, and long-term neuronal integration.^[75] Higher doses lead to persistent deficits, potentially via oxidative stress and apoptosis in the SGZ.^[76] Experimental pharmacological agents, including histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors like valproic acid, upregulate neurogenesis through epigenetic mechanisms such as increased histone acetylation and gene expression in neural progenitors.^[77] Recent studies from 2023 to 2025 indicate that psychedelics, such as psilocybin, boost hippocampal neural stem cell (NSC) activity and promote structural neuroplasticity, including enhanced dendritic spine density and synaptogenesis, via serotonin 2A receptor agonism.^[78] These effects are observed after single or low-dose administrations in preclinical models.^[79] However, pharmacological overstimulation of neurogenesis carries risks, including aberrant neuronal integration and potential tumor formation due to dysregulated progenitor proliferation. HDAC inhibitors like valproic acid can perturb postnatal NSC activity, leading to imbalances in differentiation and survival that may contribute to oncogenic pathways in susceptible tissues.^[80]

Therapeutic Strategies

Therapeutic strategies for harnessing neurogenesis primarily involve stem cell transplantation and gene therapy approaches to restore neuronal populations in neurodegenerative and neurological disorders. Neural stem cell (NSC) grafts have shown promise in preclinical models of Parkinson's disease, where transplantation into the striatum promotes dopaminergic neuron integration and improves motor function by enhancing endogenous neurogenesis and reducing inflammation. For instance, human brain-derived NSCs transplanted into rodent models of Parkinson's disease demonstrated long-term survival and functional recovery, with up to 20% of grafted cells differentiating into tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons. Gene therapy targeting the transcription factor Ascl1 enables in vivo conversion of non-neuronal cells, such as astrocytes, into functional neurons; in mouse models, Ascl1 overexpression in dorsal midbrain astrocytes led to efficient neuronal reprogramming, with converted cells exhibiting electrophysiological properties and synaptic integration. These strategies aim to replenish lost neurons while modulating the neurogenic niche to support graft survival and host integration. In stroke recovery, stimulation of the subventricular zone (SVZ) via electrical or pharmacological means enhances neurogenesis to aid tissue repair and functional restoration. Functional electrical stimulation of the SVZ in rat stroke models increased neural progenitor proliferation by 2-3 fold, leading to improved behavioral outcomes such as enhanced motor coordination and reduced infarct size. For depression, therapeutic enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis through targeted interventions, including neuromodulation techniques like deep brain stimulation, has been explored to alleviate symptoms by promoting dentate gyrus neuron generation. In rodent models of chronic stress-induced depression, optogenetic stimulation of hippocampal progenitors boosted neurogenesis and reversed depressive-like behaviors, with treated animals showing normalized sucrose preference and reduced immobility in forced swim tests. Recent developments include a January 2025 Stanford Medicine study showing that elevated glucose levels block new neuron formation in aged mouse brains by impairing neural stem cell activation, suggesting potential interventions to reduce glucose influence and enhance neurogenesis in aging or injured tissue.^[81] In 2025, phase II clinical trials for Alzheimer's disease, such as those evaluating the small molecule NA-831, have demonstrated preliminary efficacy in boosting hippocampal neurogenesis; NA-831 treatment in mild Alzheimer's patients improved cognitive scores on the ADAS-Cog scale by an average of 4.1 points after 24 weeks.^[82] These advances highlight the transition from preclinical optimization to human application, with small molecules offering non-invasive options to upregulate neurogenic pathways like BDNF signaling. Despite these progresses, significant challenges persist in therapeutic implementation, including limited integration efficacy of transplanted cells, where only 5-10% of NSCs typically survive and functionally incorporate in host tissue due to immune rejection and vascular deficits. Ethical concerns with induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), such as the risk of tumorigenicity from incomplete reprogramming and the need for genetic matching to avoid immunogenicity, have slowed clinical adoption, necessitating rigorous preclinical screening for genetic stability. Delivery methods also pose hurdles; for example, intranasal administration of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) enhances neurogenesis in stroke models by crossing the blood-brain barrier efficiently, but achieving therapeutic concentrations without nasal irritation or systemic side effects remains inconsistent, with rodent studies showing only transient elevations in hippocampal BDNF levels. Preclinical outcomes in rodents underscore the viability of these strategies across disorders: NSC grafts in Parkinson's models restored dopamine levels by 30-50% and ameliorated akinesia, while SVZ stimulation post-stroke promoted angiogenesis alongside neurogenesis, yielding 40% better sensorimotor recovery. In depression models, hippocampal enhancement via antidepressants or exercise regimens increased newborn neuron survival by up to 50%, correlating with antidepressant efficacy. Human phase I/II trials for epilepsy, such as Neurona Therapeutics' NRTX-1001 using iPSC-derived inhibitory neurons, have reported safety in drug-resistant temporal lobe epilepsy patients, with approximately 80% showing over 75% seizure reduction after single intracerebral administration.^[83] These results indicate scalable potential, though long-term efficacy requires further validation in larger cohorts.

Implications and Recent Advances

Role in Brain Function and Disease

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis, primarily occurring in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus, contributes to spatial memory formation and retention by enhancing pattern separation and encoding of contextual information.^[84] New neurons in this region integrate into existing circuits, supporting long-term spatial learning tasks such as the Morris water maze.^[85] Additionally, hippocampal neurogenesis regulates mood, with reductions linked to depressive states and enhancements promoting emotional resilience through modulation of stress responses.^[86] In the subventricular zone (SVZ), adult-born neurons migrate to the olfactory bulb, where they facilitate fine olfactory discrimination by increasing neuronal diversity and synaptic plasticity in odor processing.^[87] Ablation of these SVZ-derived neurons impairs innate odor preference and subtle scent differentiation.^[88] In Alzheimer's disease, adult neurogenesis declines early, with amyloid-β oligomers inhibiting neural stem cells (NSCs) in both the SGZ and SVZ, exacerbating cognitive deficits.^[89] This inhibition promotes NSC senescence and reduces progenitor proliferation, contributing to memory loss.^[90] In schizophrenia, impaired SVZ neurogenesis, including reduced progenitor proliferation and altered neuronal migration, disrupts cortical integration and correlates with psychotic symptoms.^[91] In depression, SGZ neurogenesis is suppressed by chronic stress, leading to impaired mood regulation, though this suppression is reversible with antidepressant treatments that restore progenitor proliferation.^[92] Aging leads to a progressive decline in adult neurogenesis, correlating with cognitive impairments such as reduced spatial memory and executive function.^[93] Recent 2025 studies highlight how senescent microglia in the aged hippocampus release inflammatory signals, contributing to cognitive decline.^[94] This microglial-mediated interference forms an intermediate aging state that drives broader cognitive decline.^[95] Newly generated neurons provide protective roles by buffering against excitotoxicity, as their enhanced synaptic plasticity helps maintain circuit homeostasis during oxidative stress.^[96] This buffering capacity implies contributions to brain resilience following trauma, where adult-born neurons support recovery of cognitive functions like learning and emotional processing.^[97] Optogenetic studies demonstrate that selective ablation or silencing of newborn dentate neurons impairs learning, including spatial navigation and behavioral flexibility, by disrupting excitatory-inhibitory balance in hippocampal circuits.^[98] Such targeted manipulations confirm the necessity of these neurons for memory acquisition and adaptation.^[99]

Emerging Research Techniques

Recent advances in intravital imaging have enabled real-time tracking of neurogenesis in living mammalian brains. Intravital two-photon microscopy in mice has been refined to monitor the dynamics of newborn neurons over extended periods, such as 60 days, by labeling cells with retroviral GFP and capturing dendritic growth and integration into neural circuits.^[100] These 2025 developments allow for non-invasive, longitudinal observation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis, revealing age-dependent declines in progenitor proliferation and maturation.^[101] Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has emerged as a powerful tool for dissecting neural stem cell (NSC) heterogeneity and states during neurogenesis. In the forebrain ventricular-subventricular zone, scRNA-seq combined with spatial transcriptomics has identified distinct NSC niches, including dormant and activated states marked by genes like Nes, Veph1, and Ascl1, with injury-induced shifts toward oligodendrogenesis.^[102] Cross-analysis of multiple scRNA-seq datasets from 2023–2025 has resolved transcriptional profiles of hippocampal NSCs, highlighting intermediate activation states in quiescent NSCs before full proliferation.^[103] Human studies have benefited from refined postmortem techniques and non-invasive imaging to confirm and quantify adult neurogenesis. Carbon-14 dating of genomic DNA from hippocampal tissue, updated in 2025, provides genetic evidence of ongoing neuron formation in adults, estimating a low but persistent rate of new neurons throughout life, thus resolving prior debates on its existence.^[5] Genetic tools have advanced the identification of neurogenesis regulators across species. Genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screens in aged mouse NSCs have uncovered 654 genes that enhance activation, including Slc2a4 (GLUT4), whose knockout boosts neurogenesis twofold by altering glucose metabolism.^[104] Lineage tracing with Brainbow variants in non-mammalian models, such as zebrafish, facilitates multicolor labeling of clonally related cells, revealing coordinated cell death and proliferation patterns during brain development.^[105] Emerging assays have illuminated cellular interactions in neurogenic niches. A 2025 Nature study on human forebrain organoids demonstrated that microglia-NSC interactions via insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) signaling promote progenitor proliferation and GABAergic interneuron production, with microglia concentrating near SOX2+ radial glia.^[68] Machine learning models applied to transcriptomic data have predicted NSC identities and neurogenic potential from genomic profiles, spotting progenitors in adult human brains and supporting the detection of immature neurons.^[106] These techniques have profoundly impacted neurogenesis research by confirming adult neuron generation in humans and identifying targets for regeneration. The resolution of the adult neurogenesis debate through C14 and ML analyses has paved the way for designing therapies that enhance NSC activation in aging and disease.^[5]

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Comparative aspects of cortical neurogenesis in vertebrates - PMC
The mammalian neocortex consists of six layers. By contrast, the reptilian and avian cortices have only three, which are believed to be equivalent to layers I, ...
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Neuronal migration in the CNS during development and disease
Jan 9, 2019 · Interneurons initially migrate tangentially in two streams over long distances into the cerebral cortex (Fig. 1A). They then switch to radial ...Neuronal Migration In The... · Neuronal Migration Disorders... · Mouse Models Of Nmds<|separator|>
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[PDF] Timetables of Neurogenesis in the Human Brain Based on ...
In the first part of this article, we match developing human and rat brains at 10 different ages (from rat E11/ human week 3.5 to rat E21/human weeks 15-16).
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Hox genes in development and beyond
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3824005/
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Paradox of Pattern Separation and Adult Neurogenesis: A Dual Role ...
Hippocampal adult neurogenesis is thought to subserve pattern separation, the process by which similar patterns of neuronal inputs are transformed into distinct ...Pattern Separation By The... · New Neurons Are Pattern... · New Neurons Maintain...
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Adult Neurogenesis and the Olfactory System - PMC - PubMed Central
Neuroblasts from the subventricular zone (SVZ) migrate along the rostral migratory stream (RMS) into the olfactory bulb, where they differentiate into ...
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Adult neural stem cells in the mammalian central nervous system
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Dynamics of Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Adult Humans
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Genetic evidence that our brains make new neurons in adulthood ...
Jul 3, 2025 · His team's earlier work suggested roughly 700 new neurons are formed each day, which is less than 0.03% of the neurons in an adult hippocampus.
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Adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus - Neurology.org
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The functional significance of newly born neurons integrated into ...
Two decades of huge investigation in adult neurogenesis revealed the biological importance of integration of new neurons into the olfactory circuits. In this ...
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Conserved and Divergent Features of Adult Neurogenesis in Zebrafish
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Neural stem cells and neurogenesis in the adult zebrafish brain
Lifelong neurogenesis in vertebrates relies on stem cells producing proliferation zones that contain neuronal precursors with distinct fates.
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Regenerative neurogenesis: the integration of developmental ...
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Adult neurogenesis in the telencephalon of the lizard Podarcis liolepis
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Neurogenesis in the Adult Avian Song-Control System - PMC - NIH
New neurons are added throughout the forebrain of adult birds, especially in the song-control system, and are linked to the death of mature neurons.
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Seasonal changes in neuronal turnover in a forebrain nucleus in ...
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Neurogenesis during caudal spinal cord regeneration in adult newts
Transection induces a proliferation response in cells lining the ependymal canal, giving rise to an ependymal tube in which neurogenesis occurs.
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Neurogenesis and growth factors expression after complete spinal ...
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Neurogenesis and neuronal regeneration in the adult reptilian brain
Adult neurogenesis and neuronal regeneration take advantage of the same mechanisms that are present during embryonic neurogenesis. New neurons are born in the ...
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Broadening the functional and evolutionary understanding of ...
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The Level of the Transcription Factor Pax6 Is Essential for ...
The transcription factor Pax6 is essential for neural stem cell proliferation, multipotency, and neurogenesis in many regions of the central nervous system.
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NeuroD1 reprograms chromatin and transcription factor landscapes ...
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Proneural basic Helix-Loop-Helix (bHLH) proteins are required for neuronal determination and the differentiation of most neural precursor cells.
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MCPH1: a window into brain development and evolution - PMC
Two missense mutations in the primary autosomal recessive microcephaly gene MCPH1 disrupt the function of the highly conserved N-terminal BRCT domain of ...
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Exercise-Mediated Neurogenesis in the Hippocampus via BDNF
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Omega-3 fatty acids upregulate adult neurogenesis - PMC
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Functional hypoxia drives neuroplasticity and neurogenesis via ...
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Maternal diet induces persistent DNA methylation changes in the ...
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Fluoxetine targets early progenitor cells in the adult brain - PNAS
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The role of serotonin in adult hippocampal neurogenesis
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Antidepressants increase neural progenitor cells in the human ...
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BDNF control of adult SVZ neurogenesis - PMC - PubMed Central
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Erythropoietin Regulates the In Vitro and In Vivo Production of ...
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Cannabinoids promote embryonic and adult hippocampus ...
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Alcohol and adult hippocampal neurogenesis - PubMed Central - NIH
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Long-lasting reduction in hippocampal neurogenesis by alcohol ...
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Towards an understanding of psychedelic-induced neuroplasticity
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HDAC inhibitors dysregulate neural stem cell activity in the postnatal ...
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A role for adult neurogenesis in spatial long-term memory - PubMed
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A Functional Role for Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Spatial ...
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Hippocampal Neurogenesis: Regulation by Stress and ...
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Continuous neurogenesis in the adult forebrain is required for innate ...
Neurons born in the SVZ migrate into the olfactory bulb, whereas neurons born in the SGZ migrate into the hippocampal dentate gyrus. The functional significance ...
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SVZ-derived newly generated neurons populate several olfactory ...
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Impaired adult neurogenesis is an early event in Alzheimer's ...
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Alzheimer's Amyloid-β Accelerates Cell Senescence and ...
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The role of adult neurogenesis in psychiatric and cognitive disorders
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The intricate interplay between microglia and adult neurogenesis in ...
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Increasing Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis Promotes Resilience ...
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Early life adversity shapes neural circuit function during sensitive ...
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Review Advances in intravital imaging of adult neurogenesis in mice
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Cross‐Analysis of Single‐Cell Transcriptomic Datasets Reveals ...
Jun 4, 2025 · Here, we reanalyze single-cell RNA sequencing datasets demonstrating hippocampal adult neural stem cell (NSC) heterogeneity to resolve ...
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Neural Progenitor Cells Tracked Non-invasively in Humans
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Multicolor lineage tracing using in vivo time-lapse imaging reveals ...
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Machine learning spots neural progenitors in adult human brains
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