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Bushel

A bushel (abbreviation: bsh. or bu.) is a unit of dry volume measure used primarily in agriculture to quantify grains, fruits, vegetables, and other bulk commodities in the United States customary system and other imperial-derived systems.^[1] It is defined as exactly 2,150.42 cubic inches (35.239 liters), equivalent to 4 pecks or 8 U.S. dry gallons.^[2] In practice, the bushel is often tied to weight standards for specific crops, such as 56 pounds for corn or 60 pounds for wheat and soybeans, reflecting the volume's capacity at standard densities.^[1] The bushel originated in medieval Europe as a volumetric measure for grain trade, with early variations appearing in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, where it became standardized as part of legal weights and measures by the 13th century.^[3] The modern U.S. bushel derives from the 15th-century Winchester bushel, a British standard of 2,150.42 cubic inches established in 1495, which was adopted and fixed by Congress in 1836 to promote uniformity in commerce.^[4] By contrast, the imperial bushel used in the United Kingdom measures 2,219.36 cubic inches (36.368 liters), highlighting regional differences that persist from historical adjustments.^[5] Today, while the metric system has largely supplanted the bushel internationally, it remains a cornerstone of American agricultural markets, commodity pricing, and futures trading on exchanges like the Chicago Board of Trade, where yields and harvests are reported in bushels per acre.^[1] Legal weights per bushel for over 100 commodities are codified in U.S. state and federal statutes, ensuring consistency in sales and transportation, though actual weights can vary with moisture content and test standards.^[6] The unit's enduring role underscores its economic significance, with annual U.S. grain production exceeding 500 million metric tons often quantified in bushels for global trade.^[1]

Etymology

Origin of the Term

The term "bushel" derives from the Old French "boissel" or "boisseau" (Modern French), referring to a grain measure.^[7] This Old French form is linked to "boisse," an earlier grain measure.^[8] The etymology traces ultimately to Gallo-Roman *bostia "handful", based on Gaulish *bosta "palm of the hand".^[7] The earliest documented uses of "bushel" in English occur in 13th- or early 14th-century texts, such as legal and trade records, shortly after the Norman Conquest introduced extensive French vocabulary into Middle English.^[2] The spelling gradually evolved into the modern form "bushel" by the late Middle English period.

Linguistic Evolution

The term "bushel" emerged in Middle English around the early 14th century, transitioning from the Old French "boissel" or "boisseau," a form referring to a grain measure.^[7] This phonetic and orthographic shift—from the French nasalized vowel and suffix to the anglicized "bushel"—mirrored broader patterns of lexical borrowing during the post-Norman period, where French words were adapted to English phonology, often simplifying consonant clusters and vowel sounds.^[8] The word's connotation, originally tied to a measure of capacity, evolved to emphasize volume in agricultural contexts without altering its core semantic field.^[2] This evolution was deeply shaped by the influence of Norman French on English agricultural terminology following the 1066 Conquest, when Anglo-Norman dialects introduced specialized terms for measurement and trade into the vernacular.^[8] Words like "bushel" entered as part of a wave of French loanwords that enriched Middle English lexicon in domains such as farming and commerce, replacing or supplementing native Germanic terms and standardizing expressions across regions. The Norman overlay not only affected spelling—favoring forms like "busshel" in early English records—but also pronunciation, with the French-inspired /ʊ/ sound becoming prevalent in southern dialects.^[7] Regional dialects further diversified the term's forms, reflecting local phonetic preferences and cross-linguistic contacts. In Scots varieties, influenced by northern English and Gaelic substrates, spellings such as "buschel" or "buyshel" appeared in medieval texts, often pronounced with a broader vowel akin to /bʌʃəl/.^[9] Similarly, in areas with German linguistic influence, such as early colonial American settlements in Pennsylvania, variants like "buschel" emerged in bilingual contexts, adapting the English word to Low German phonetic patterns while retaining its denotation.^[2] These variations highlight the term's adaptability across eras, maintaining consistency in meaning amid orthographic flux.

History

Early Origins

Grain measures similar to the later bushel were used as practical containers in ancient Mediterranean societies, such as the Roman modius (standardized during the Roman Republic, circa 3rd century BCE), which served as an informal volume measure for dry commodities like cereals. Rooted in Celtic linguistic traditions, the term "bushel" first appeared in the early 14th century, deriving from Gaulish *bosta, meaning "palm of the hand" or "handful," reflecting its initial use as a basket-like vessel calibrated to local hand spans or communal baskets for trade and storage.^[7] These early containers facilitated barter in agrarian communities across Gaul and the British Isles, where variability in size—often based on wicker or wooden tubs—accommodated regional crop yields without fixed dimensions.^[10] The measure's introduction to England occurred through overlapping Roman and Saxon influences, blending the Roman modius—a grain measure of approximately 8.8 liters—with indigenous Anglo-Saxon practices.^[11] During the Roman occupation of Britain (43–410 CE), the modius was employed for provisioning legions and taxing agricultural output, laying groundwork for volumetric grain assessment that persisted post-withdrawal.^[11] By the Anglo-Saxon period, the bushel had evolved into a recognized capacity unit, with informal sizes derived from local baskets or tubs, as evidenced in early legal codes and market transactions; King Edgar the Peaceable (r. 959–975 CE) maintained a royal bushel standard at Winchester, underscoring its role in royal oversight of trade.^[12] In the feudal manorial systems of England from approximately 1000 to 1200 CE, the bushel became integral to economic obligations, particularly for tithes and rents paid in kind to lords and the church.^[13] Peasants on manors typically rendered portions of their harvest—often one-tenth for ecclesiastical tithes on greater produce like grain—in bushels, with manorial accounts recording deliveries to demesne barns for redistribution or sale.^[14] This system reinforced hierarchical land tenure, as lords assessed customary rents in multiples of bushels (e.g., quarters equaling eight bushels), ensuring communal labor and surplus extraction amid variable agricultural output.^[13]

Standardization in England

The standardization of the bushel in England emerged from legislative efforts to regulate trade and prevent fraud in the sale of grain and other dry goods during the medieval period. The Assize of Bread and Ale, enacted under Henry III around 1266, marked a key early step by defining the bushel as a measure equivalent to eight gallons of wine, establishing it as the eighth part of a quarter for consistent pricing and quantity in the grain market. This definition built on prior informal practices in trade but provided the first statutory framework to enforce uniformity across the realm. Further refinements came under Edward I in 1303 through the Statute for Weights and Measures (also known as the 1303 revision of measures), which adjusted the definition to eight gallons of wheat rather than wine, better aligning the measure with dry commodities like corn and emphasizing the bushel's role in agricultural commerce. By the reign of Elizabeth I, the Exchequer issued official bronze standards in 1601 for the Winchester bushel, a cylindrical vessel with a diameter of 18.5 inches and depth of 8 inches, yielding a volume of approximately 2150.42 cubic inches; these standards were distributed to shire towns to ensure precise enforcement nationwide.^[15]^[16] The process culminated in the Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which formalized the imperial bushel as exactly eight imperial gallons (equivalent to 2219.36 cubic inches) as part of a comprehensive reform to create a unified system of measures across the British Empire. This act abolished older local variations, including the Winchester bushel, and mandated the use of verified standards to promote fair trade in agriculture and beyond.^[17]

Adoption in the United States

In the American colonies, the bushel measure was inherited from English trade practices, primarily based on the Winchester bushel standard used in Britain.^[18] Colonial merchants and farmers adopted this dry volume unit for commodities like grain, but enforcement relied on copies of English prototypes that often varied in accuracy.^[19] During the 17th and 18th centuries, local variations emerged across colonies due to inconsistent English standards and regional adaptations for agricultural and commercial needs.^[20] For instance, some areas adjusted bushel sizes based on available containers or local statutes, leading to discrepancies in trade that complicated interstate commerce.^[18] These divergences persisted into the early republic, prompting calls for uniformity from leaders like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, though Congress took no immediate action.^[19] The push for standardization culminated in the Joint Resolution of June 14, 1836, when the U.S. Congress directed the Treasury Department to define and distribute uniform standards, fixing the bushel at 2150.42 cubic inches for dry goods.^[18] This legal definition was derived from the Winchester bushel but retained the 1707 Queen Anne wine gallon of 231 cubic inches as its base unit, unlike England's 1824 shift to the larger imperial gallon of approximately 277.42 cubic inches.^[20] As a result, the U.S. bushel was about 3% smaller than the imperial bushel, reflecting a deliberate divergence to maintain continuity with pre-imperial colonial measures.^[19]

Physical Definitions

Volume Standards

The bushel is a unit of dry volume capacity with standardized definitions that vary slightly between imperial and United States systems, both rooted in historical measures for agricultural commodities. These definitions ensure consistency in trade and measurement, with the imperial bushel established under British legislation and the US dry bushel codified in federal standards. The imperial bushel is defined as exactly 8 imperial gallons, equivalent to 36.36872 liters. This volume derives from the imperial gallon's precise metric equivalent of 4.54609 liters, as fixed by the Weights and Measures Act 1985, providing a total capacity of approximately 2,219.36 cubic inches. In contrast, the United States dry bushel is defined as exactly 2,150.42 cubic inches, or 35.23907016688 liters. This measure is composed of 64 US dry pints, where each US dry pint equals 33.6003125 cubic inches. The US dry bushel's volume standards trace briefly to the Winchester bushel of medieval England, adapted and legalized in the US through acts like the 1836 law establishing uniform weights and measures. These volumetric standards facilitate precise conversions in international commerce, with the imperial bushel being about 3.2% larger than the US dry bushel.

Weight Equivalents

In modern agricultural contexts, the bushel functions primarily as a volume measure but is commonly equated to specific weights based on the bulk density of the commodity being measured, allowing for standardized trade and storage calculations. This weight interpretation varies by grain type due to differences in kernel size, shape, and composition. For instance, in the United States, a bushel of wheat is standardized at 60 pounds, corn (maize) at 56 pounds, and barley at 48 pounds, reflecting official test weight minima for high-grade grains as established by federal standards.^[21]^[22]^[23] Several factors influence these weight equivalents, including the moisture content of the grain, which has an inverse relationship with test weight—higher moisture levels reduce density and thus the weight per bushel by diluting the dry matter. Grain type further affects the value, as denser or plumper kernels (e.g., in wheat versus barley) yield higher weights for the same volume. Legal tolerances for measurement accuracy are tightly controlled, with official U.S. standards permitting an overall deviation of ±0.15 pounds per bushel in test weight apparatuses to ensure reliable grading and commerce.^[22]^[24] The conversion from volume to weight relies on the fundamental equation:

\text{Weight} = \text{Volume} \times \text{Density}

For example, applying this to wheat with a bulk density of 0.775 g/cm³ approximates the standard 60-pound weight when using the U.S. bushel volume of 35.24 liters, adjusted for typical moisture conditions around 14%. This density-based approach underscores the bushel's practical utility in adapting a volumetric unit to mass-based transactions without fixed universal weights.^[25]^[26]

Regional Variations

Imperial Bushel

The imperial bushel was formally defined by the Weights and Measures Act of 1824 as a unit of dry capacity equivalent to 8 imperial gallons, totaling 2218.192 cubic inches based on the gallon of 277.274 cubic inches.^[27] However, following redefinition of the imperial gallon in 1963 as exactly 4.54609 liters (277.419 cubic inches), the imperial bushel is now exactly 36.368 liters (approximately 2219.36 cubic inches).^[27] It was primarily employed for measuring dry commodities such as grain, fruit, and other agricultural produce, providing a standardized container for trade and storage within the British Empire. The unit's structure included subdivisions for practical application: one imperial bushel equaled 4 pecks or 32 quarts, facilitating smaller-scale divisions in commerce.^[27] These relationships ensured consistency with the broader imperial system, where the peck served as a quarter-bushel and the quart as a quarter-gallon. This hierarchical organization supported efficient handling in markets and warehouses, emphasizing volume over weight for dry goods to account for variations in density. Following the UK's metrication process, formalized by the Weights and Measures Act 1985, the imperial bushel became largely obsolete for official trade and everyday use, with metric units like liters and kilograms taking precedence. However, it persists in certain agricultural references and historical contexts, such as legacy documentation for crop yields or traditional farming practices. The imperial bushel is approximately 3% larger in volume than the United States bushel.^[27]

United States Bushel

The United States bushel is a unit of dry volume measure legally defined as exactly 2150.42 cubic inches, equivalent to approximately 35.239 liters.^[28] This standard was established in 1836 by the U.S. Department of the Treasury and derives from the Winchester bushel, defined as eight U.S. dry gallons of 268.8025 cubic inches each.^[29] It serves as the basis for measuring dry commodities, particularly in agriculture, and remains fixed under federal law without alteration since its adoption.^[18] In federal grain standards, the U.S. bushel is integral to grading and quality assessment under the Official United States Standards for Grain, where test weight per bushel determines grade levels for commodities like wheat, corn, and soybeans.^[30] For instance, minimum test weights are specified in pounds per bushel, such as 56 pounds for corn or 58 pounds for hard red spring wheat, facilitating uniform trade practices. The Federal Grain Inspection Service (FGIS) enforces these standards through official inspections and weighing services, ensuring compliance in domestic and export markets as mandated by the U.S. Grain Standards Act. Measurement devices for the U.S. bushel must adhere to tolerances outlined in NIST Handbook 44 to maintain accuracy in commercial use. For dry volume measures of one bushel capacity, the acceptance tolerance is +25 cubic inches excess and -12.5 cubic inches deficiency, while the maintenance tolerance allows +50 cubic inches for excess and -25 cubic inches for deficiency.^[31] Related weighing devices, such as grain hopper scales, require a minimum of 2,000 scale divisions and tolerances of 0.05% for acceptance and 0.1% for maintenance on test loads, supporting precise bushel-based transactions.^[31] In grain trade, the bushel may also be interpreted by commodity-specific weights, such as 56 pounds for corn, to standardize volume-to-weight conversions.^[24]

Other International Equivalents

In various non-Anglophone European countries, bushel equivalents emerged as dry capacity measures for grains and similar commodities, serving purposes akin to the English bushel in agricultural trade and storage. The German Scheffel, particularly in its Prussian form, was a standardized dry measure for grain defined by the law of 16 May 1816 as 3072 cubic Zoll, equivalent to approximately 54.96 liters.^[32] This unit facilitated consistent measurement in regional commerce, with variations in other German states like Saxony reaching up to 103.83 liters for certain bulk goods, though the Prussian standard became influential in northern Germany.^[32] In Poland, the korzec functioned as a large dry bushel-like unit, exhibiting significant regional and commodity-based variations; for instance, in the early 19th century, it measured 128 liters in Warsaw but expanded to 501.116 liters in Kraków, reflecting local customs and the measure's division into quarters (ćwierć) for smaller transactions.^[33] These discrepancies arose from decentralized standardization efforts, impacting grain assessments across Polish territories until metric adoption.^[34] The Spanish fanega, a historical dry measure primarily for grains, was commonly set at about 55.5 liters in Castile during the 19th and 20th centuries, equivalent to roughly 1.57 U.S. bushels and often subdivided into 12 celemines.^[35] Used extensively in agricultural contexts, it varied slightly by province—such as 54.80 liters in Ávila or up to 62.60 liters in the Canary Islands for stricken wheat—highlighting adaptations to local soils and practices before widespread metrication.^[35]

Modern Applications

Use in Agriculture and Commerce

In the United States, the bushel serves as a standard unit for pricing grains in futures markets, particularly through the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), now part of the CME Group, where contracts for commodities like wheat, corn, and soybeans are quoted per bushel to facilitate hedging and price discovery for producers and traders.^[36] For instance, wheat futures are commonly settled in cents per bushel, reflecting market volatility and global supply dynamics.^[37] This pricing mechanism supports efficient commerce by standardizing transactions across the agricultural supply chain.^[38] In agricultural practices, the bushel is widely employed to measure crop yields during harvesting and for storage capacity, enabling farmers to assess productivity and plan logistics. Corn yields, for example, are routinely reported in bushels per acre, with estimates derived from kernel counts and average weights, such as approximately 76,000 kernels per 56-pound bushel under optimal conditions.^[39] High-yielding fields can achieve over 250 bushels per acre, highlighting advancements in hybrid varieties and farming techniques, while harvest loss assessments use bushel equivalents to minimize waste, where two kernels per square foot equate to one bushel per acre lost.^[40]^[41] Storage facilities, including silos and bins, are often sized in bushel capacities to match these measurements, ensuring seamless transfer from field to market.^[42] Despite widespread metrication, the bushel persists in Canada for grain commodities like wheat, where it is used in yield reporting, sales contracts, and trade, often via the Avery bushel standard of 36.369 liters adjusted for density. As of 2025, Canadian yield reports continue to use bushels per acre, such as projected durum wheat yields of 37.7 bushels per acre.^[43] The Canadian Grain Commission provides conversion tools to align with metric requirements, maintaining compatibility in cross-border exports while preserving the unit's role in domestic farming.^[44]^[45] In Australia, although less common than metric tonnes—which are the primary units for buying, selling, and trade—the bushel is used for equipment specifications and conversions, such as chaser bin capacities, with tools facilitating integration into metric-based export markets for wheat.^[46]^[47] This dual-system approach supports ongoing trade in wheat, where about 65-75% of production is exported annually.^[48]

Conversions and Legal Standards

The United States bushel is defined as exactly 2,150.42 cubic inches, equivalent to approximately 35.24 liters or 0.03524 cubic meters.^[49] In contrast, the imperial bushel, based on 8 imperial gallons, measures approximately 36.37 liters.^[49] These conversions facilitate international trade and comparisons, particularly in agriculture where bushels are used alongside metric volumes. In the European Union, metric units have been mandatory for economic, health, safety, and administrative purposes since the implementation of regulations in 1995, effectively phasing out non-metric units like the bushel in commercial transactions.^[50] The United States, however, continues to recognize the bushel under federal law, with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) incorporating it into official grain standards for grading and marketing.^[51] No major changes to bushel definitions have occurred since 2000, though the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has refined tolerances for dry measures, including bushels, in its 2020 Handbook 44, with no further changes in the 2025 edition, to ensure accuracy in commercial weighing and measuring devices.^[31] These updates specify maintenance and acceptance tolerances for bushel-capacity containers, such as allowing a maximum error of 0.5% for measures up to 1 bushel in retail applications.^[31]

Subdivisions like Peck

The peck is a traditional unit of dry measure equivalent to one-quarter of a bushel.^[52] In the United States customary system, the peck is defined as 537.605 cubic inches or approximately 8.8106 liters.^[53] This subdivision facilitates the measurement of smaller quantities of bulk goods. Further subdivisions of the bushel include the dry quart and dry pint, used specifically in dry measure contexts. The dry quart equals one thirty-second of a bushel, measuring 67.2006 cubic inches or about 1.1012 liters.^[52] The dry pint, in turn, is one sixty-fourth of a bushel, with a volume of 33.6003 cubic inches or approximately 0.5506 liters.^[52] These units stem from the hierarchical structure of dry measures, where eight dry quarts comprise one peck, and two dry pints make one dry quart. Historically, the peck and its smaller subdivisions like the dry quart and pint have been employed for trading and storing smaller volumes of produce, such as apples, vegetables, and other dry commodities.^[54] For instance, a peck typically holds about 10 to 12 pounds of apples, depending on variety and size, making it practical for market sales and home use.^[55] This application underscores their role in agricultural commerce before widespread metric adoption.

Comparisons with Other Units

The bushel serves as a dry volume unit, equivalent to approximately 35.24 liters or 0.3524 hectoliters, contrasting with the metric hectoliter's fixed 100-liter capacity that accommodates about 2.84 bushels volumetrically. In weight terms, one bushel ranges from 25 to 35 kg depending on the commodity's density, such as 25.4 kg for corn or 27.2 kg for wheat and soybeans, whereas a hectoliter of the same grain yields proportionally higher mass due to its greater volume, facilitating standardized international agricultural reporting.^[56] Within imperial and US customary systems, the bushel differs from the barrel, a versatile container for dry or liquid goods; a US dry barrel holds roughly 3.28 bushels by volume, but commodity-specific standards vary, with examples like 5 bushels of shelled corn or up to 7.5 bushels for certain bulk dry measures equating to one barrel by weight.^[56] Similarly, the sack, a traditional dry bulk unit, typically contains 3 bushels, often used for packaging grains or flour in trade. Functionally, the bushel emphasizes dry bulk capacity for commodities like grains and produce, unlike the liquid gallon (3.785 liters), which measures fluids and avoids the density variations inherent in dry goods assessment. The peck, a quarter-bushel subdivision, illustrates internal scaling but underscores the bushel's role in hierarchical dry measures.^[56]

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Feb 16, 2024 · A bushel is a volume unit used in the United States and (less commonly) in Australia to measure grain quantity. Unlike metric units such as ...<|separator|>
[47]
Bushels to Tonnes
### Use of Bushel in Australian Agriculture
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Australian wheat - Australian Export Grains Innovation Centre
About 65–75% of Australia's total wheat production is exported each year, which is about 10-20% of global wheat exports. More grain market insights ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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### Summary of US Bushel Definition and Conversion
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The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 - Legislation.gov.uk
SCHEDULERELEVANT IMPERIAL UNITS, CORRESPONDING METRIC UNITS AND METRIC EQUIVALENTS ; pint · quart · gallon ; litre · litre · litre ; 0.56826125 litre · 1.1365225 litres.Missing: liters | Show results with:liters
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Grain Standards | Agricultural Marketing Service - USDA
Regulations under the United States Grain Standards Act. Part 810 ; General Provisions. Official United States Standards for Grain Subpart A -- General ...Wheat Standards · Corn Standards · Mixed Grain StandardsMissing: bushel | Show results with:bushel
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https://www.nist.gov/document/18-appdx-e-h133-18-finalpdf
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[PDF] Appendix E. General Tables of Units of Measurement
1 bushel (bu) (U.S.) struck measure. 2150.42 cubic inches (exactly). 35.238 liters. [1 bushel, heaped (U.S.)]. 2747.715 cubic inches. 1.278 bushels, struck ...
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[PDF] United States Code: Weights and Measures and Standard ... - Loc
1 bushel=2,150.42 cubic inches=35.239 1 liters. 2 dry pints=I dry quart=1.101 2 liters. 8 dry quarts= 1 peck=8.809 8 liters. 4 pecks=l bushel= 35.239 1 liters.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Household weights and measures
Dry Measure. (For fruits, vegetables, and other dry commodities. 1. 2 pints. => 1 quart. 8 quarts = 1 peck. 4 pecks = 1 bushel (2150.42 cubic inchest. 105 ...
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Extension Today: Cooking with Apples and Pumpkins
The “peck” has been used as a volume measurement of dry ingredients for centuries. A peck of apples is about 2 gallons of apples (or two small bags of apples) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=41881