Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

C

C is the third letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other Western European languages, and others worldwide.^[1] Its name in English is cee (pronounced /ˈsiː/), with plural cees.^[2] In English, C generally represents the voiceless velar plosive /k/ (as in "call") or the voiceless alveolar sibilant /s/ (as in "cent").^[3] The letter derives from the Phoenician gimel (𐤂), via the Greek gamma (Γ).^[3]

History and Origins

Ancient Roots

The letter C traces its earliest origins to the Phoenician alphabet, where it derives from the third letter, gimel, meaning "camel" and representing the voiced velar stop /g/ sound. This script emerged around the 11th century BCE, marking a significant advancement in writing systems by using 22 consonantal signs derived from earlier Proto-Sinaitic forms influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs.^[4]^[5] The Phoenician gimel was adapted by the Greeks into the letter gamma (uppercase Γ, lowercase γ), retaining its /g/ phoneme and approximate form, during the 8th century BCE as part of the broader adoption of the Phoenician script to create the Greek alphabet. This adaptation occurred through trade and cultural exchange in the Mediterranean, with the Greeks rotating and curving the original bent-stick shape of gimel to fit their writing direction from left to right.^[6]^[7] By circa 700 BCE, the letter was introduced to the Etruscans in central Italy, who modified the Greek gamma form by dropping the horizontal bar, transforming it into a semicircular shape resembling the modern C and repurposing it to denote the voiceless velar stop /k/, as their language lacked a /g/ sound. This change reflects the Etruscans' phonetic needs and their borrowing of the Western Greek (Chalcidian) variant via colonies like Cumae. Archaeological evidence of these early Etruscan C forms appears in inscriptions such as the Pyrgi Tablets, three gold laminae dated to around 500 BCE, featuring bilingual Phoenician-Etruscan dedications that showcase the evolved script in ritual contexts.^[8]^[9]

Development in Alphabets

The letter C was adopted into the Latin alphabet from the Etruscan script during the 7th century BCE, as part of the broader assimilation of 21 archaic Etruscan letters derived from the Western Greek (Cumaean) alphabet.^[10] In early Latin usage, C primarily represented the voiceless velar stop /k/ sound before all vowels and certain consonants, reflecting its consistent phonetic value in Etruscan, where it had supplanted earlier distinctions with K and Q.^[11] This adoption occurred amid cultural exchanges in central Italy, with the earliest Latin inscriptions, such as those from the 7th–6th centuries BCE, demonstrating C's integration into monumental and everyday epigraphy.^[12] Initially, C in archaic Latin also served for the voiced velar stop /g/, leading to ambiguity in orthography until the letter G was introduced around 230 BCE by the grammarian Spurius Carvilius Ruga, who modified C by adding a horizontal bar to create the new form.^[13] This reform, noted in ancient sources like Plutarch, allowed C to be reserved exclusively for /k/, enhancing clarity in written Latin as the language expanded.^[14] Prior to this, inscriptions like the Duenos inscription from the 6th century BCE used C interchangeably for both sounds, underscoring the evolving nature of the script.^[11] Archaic Latin inscriptions exhibit variations in the form of C, ranging from angular, right-angled shapes reminiscent of the Greek gamma (Γ) to more rounded, semicircular curves, depending on the medium and regional scribal traditions.^[13] These differences are evident in early epigraphic evidence from Latium, where angular forms prevailed in monumental stone carvings for durability, while curved variants appeared in less formal graffiti and metalwork, adapting to the tools and surfaces used.^[11] By the 5th century BCE, the rounded form began to dominate, standardizing toward the classical Latin C. The Latin C also exerted influence on neighboring Italic scripts, particularly Oscan and Umbrian, which shared Etruscan roots and similarly employed C for /k/ in their alphabets from the 5th century BCE onward.^[15] In Oscan inscriptions, such as those from Campania, C maintained the /k/ value without initial distinction from /g/, mirroring early Latin practices, while Umbrian texts in central Italy adopted comparable forms under shared Italic epigraphic traditions.^[13] This cross-influence facilitated linguistic and cultural interactions across the Italian peninsula before Latin's dominance.

Medieval and Modern Evolution

During the Carolingian reforms of the 8th and 9th centuries CE, initiated under Charlemagne to standardize writing across the Frankish Empire, the lowercase letter c was established as a simple, rounded form in the Caroline minuscule script. This reform aimed to enhance legibility and uniformity, drawing from earlier uncial and half-uncial influences while simplifying strokes for faster production in monastic scriptoria. The rounded c featured a consistent open curve, often used in ligatures with adjacent letters like t, and became the basis for subsequent lowercase developments in Western scripts.^[16] In medieval manuscripts from the 11th to 15th centuries, variants such as blackletter (Gothic) and early italic scripts introduced more angular and compressed forms for the letter c. Blackletter, evolving from Caroline minuscule, transformed the lowercase c into a sharper, laterally condensed shape with a horizontally extended top bar, resembling a stylized t in some textura styles; this was evident in protogothic and rotunda hands used in religious texts. Italic variants, emerging in cursive book hands, emphasized minimalism with an angular top and abbreviated lower curve, reflecting the practical needs of scribes in legal and administrative documents. These changes prioritized density on the page over the earlier rounded clarity, adapting to the growing volume of manuscript production.^[16] The introduction of Johannes Gutenberg's movable-type printing press in the 1450s marked a pivotal standardization of letter forms, particularly influencing the uppercase C. Early printed works, such as the Gutenberg Bible, employed gothic typefaces that retained medieval angularity for lowercase c, but the shift toward roman types in subsequent decades revived classical Roman square capitals, fixing the uppercase C as a near-perfect, open circular arc with balanced proportions. This typographic consistency, achieved through metal type casting, ensured uniform reproduction across Europe and laid the foundation for modern letter design by reducing scribal variations.^[17] In the 19th and 20th centuries, typographic refinements focused on legibility and modernity, culminating in sans-serif fonts that streamlined the letter C. Grotesque sans-serifs emerged around 1816 with designs like William Caslon IV's "Two Lines English Egyptian," featuring a bold, rounded uppercase C without serifs for industrial signage. By the mid-20th century, Helvetica (designed by Max Miedinger in 1957) exemplified these advancements with its neutral, geometric uppercase C—a clean, evenly curved open form that emphasized optical balance and versatility in print and branding. These evolutions reflected broader movements toward functionalism, prioritizing readability in mass media over ornamental complexity.^[18]

Phonology and Usage

Sounds in English

In English orthography, the letter C primarily represents two distinct phonetic realizations: the voiceless velar plosive /k/ and the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/, with the selection governed by the subsequent graphemes.^[19] The /k/ sound predominates when C precedes the vowels a, o, or u, or any consonant, as exemplified in words such as cat (/kæt/), cot (/kɑt/), cut (/kʌt/), and crab (/kræb/).^[20] In contrast, C assumes the /s/ pronunciation before e, i, or y, yielding forms like cent (/sɛnt/), city (/ˈsɪti/), and cycle (/ˈsaɪkəl/).^[19] This rule-based alternation reflects a historical adaptation from Latin influences, where C originally denoted /k/ exclusively, but softened to /s/ before front vowels in Romance evolutions that English borrowed.^[21] The letter C occasionally remains silent in specific clusters, particularly in combinations involving sc before e or i, or in loanwords, where it contributes no audible sound.^[22] Common examples include scent (/sɛnt/), muscle (/ˈmʌsəl/), science (/ˈsaɪəns/), and ascend (/əˈsɛnd/), in which the C is muted to avoid redundancy with adjacent sibilants or to preserve etymological forms from French or Latin.^[23] These silences often trace to Middle English borrowings where pronunciation simplified over time, contrasting with the voiced realizations in related languages.^[22] The relative stability of C's pronunciations across modern English dialects stems from the consonant inventory's resistance to change during the Great Vowel Shift (approximately 1400–1700), a transformative period when long vowels underwent systematic raising and diphthongization, but velar and alveolar consonants like those of C persisted without alteration.^[24] This vowel-centric shift, which reshaped words like time from /tiːmə/ to /taɪm/, left C's /k/ and /s/ mappings intact from Middle English, contributing to the orthographic-pronunciation mismatches seen today.^[24] Dialectal variations in C's realization appear in specific lexical items, influenced by regional phonotactic preferences and historical substrate effects. For instance, in the word schedule (from Greek via Old French), American English typically preserves the /sk/ cluster as /ˈskɛdʒuːl/, aligning with the hard C rule, whereas British English often palatalizes it to /ˈʃɛdʒuːl/, treating the initial sch as /ʃ/ akin to school.^[25] This divergence, noted in rhotic accents like General American versus non-rhotic Received Pronunciation, highlights how post-vocalic environments and borrowing paths can modulate C's voicing without disrupting the core orthographic principles.^[26]

Sounds in Other Languages

In languages using the Latin alphabet outside of English, the letter C typically retains its classical Latin value as the voiceless velar plosive /k/ in most positions, particularly before the vowels a, o, and u, though regional sound shifts introduce significant variation before front vowels e and i.^[27] This default /k/ pronunciation persists across many Romance languages, such as Italian (e.g., "casa" /ˈka.sa/), Portuguese (e.g., "casa" /ˈka.zɐ/), and Romanian (e.g., "casă" /ˈka.sə/), reflecting the retention of Latin's hard C sound in non-palatalizing contexts.^[28] A notable exception occurs in Italian, where C before e or i palatalizes to the voiceless postalveolar affricate /tʃ/, similar to the "ch" in English "church"; for instance, "ciao" is pronounced /ˈtʃa.o/.^[29] In contrast, Castilian Spanish treats C before e or i as the voiceless dental fricative /θ/, akin to the "th" in English "think," as in "cielo" /ˈθje.lo/, though many Latin American varieties merge this to /s/.^[30] French further diverges by softening C to the voiceless alveolar fricative /s/ before e, i, or y, yielding pronunciations like "ciel" /sjɛl/, with the cedilla (ç) used to enforce /s/ before a, o, or u (e.g., "garçon" /ɡaʁ.sɔ̃/).^[31] Beyond Romance languages, Celtic tongues like Scottish Gaelic maintain C as a consistent /k/ regardless of following vowels, as in "cat" /kʰat̪/ (meaning "cat").^[32] However, the digraph ch in Scottish Gaelic produces the voiceless velar fricative /x/, a guttural sound like the "ch" in German "Bach," exemplified by "loch" /lɔx/ (meaning "lake").^[33] While the focus remains on Latin-script languages, non-Latin systems indirectly linked to C's heritage include the Cyrillic letter К, pronounced /k/ as in "ka" (e.g., Russian "кот" /kot/ for "cat"), which traces its form and sound to Greek kappa (Κ), ultimately sharing Phoenician roots with Latin C.

Digraphs and Combinations

In English, the digraph ch commonly represents the affricate sound /tʃ/, as in the word "church," where it produces a single phonetic unit distinct from the individual letters c and h.^[34] This digraph originated from Old English and Latin influences, evolving to denote this sound in many native and borrowed words. Another frequent digraph is ck, which spells the /k/ sound at the end of words following a short vowel, such as "back," preventing the use of a lone k after vowels for orthographic consistency.^[35] In other languages, the ch digraph varies significantly. In French, ch is pronounced as the fricative /ʃ/, similar to "sh" in English "she," as heard in "chat" meaning cat.^[36] German employs the trigraph sch to represent /ʃ/, as in "Schule" for school, a convention rooted in Middle High German spelling practices to distinguish this sibilant from other s-c combinations.^[37] In Scottish English and Gaelic borrowings, ch can produce a velar fricative /x/, akin to the "ch" in German "Bach," as in "loch" referring to a lake.^[38] Portuguese uses ch for /ʃ/, exemplified in "chave" meaning key, alongside qu which often yields /kw/ before e or i, as in "quando" for when.^[39] Trigraphs involving c extend these patterns. In English, tch functions as a trigraph for /tʃ/ after short vowels at syllable ends, as in "watch," where it reinforces the affricate sound in a manner analogous to ch but adapted for phonetic closure.^[40] German's sch , while primarily a trigraph, occasionally interacts with c in loanwords but maintains its core /ʃ/ role independently. Historically, combinations like Old English cw, pronounced /kw/, evolved into the modern qu digraph under Norman French influence after the 1066 Conquest, replacing native spellings in words such as "cwēn" becoming "queen."^[41] This shift standardized labiovelar sounds in Middle English orthography, influencing many Indo-European derivatives.^[42]

Typographic Forms

Uppercase and Lowercase Variants

The uppercase letter C in the Latin alphabet is characterized by a symmetrical, open crescent shape, derived from the Greek letter gamma (Γ), which the Etruscans adapted for the /k/ sound before passing it to the Romans.^[43] In serif fonts, it typically maintains proportions of approximately 1:1 width to height, constructed from a circular base to ensure balance and readability.^[44] For instance, in Times New Roman, a classic serif typeface designed for legibility in print, the uppercase C features subtle serif extensions at the top and bottom, adding a refined, traditional elegance to the form.^[45] In contrast, the lowercase c emerged in uncial scripts during the 4th to 8th centuries CE, evolving as a more compact, rounded curve distinct from the uppercase version, with forms appearing as simple circular segments in early manuscripts.^[16] This minuscule variant allowed for denser text in codices while preserving fluidity. In modern handwriting, lowercase c typically exhibits a single-story form resembling an open, simple curve.^[46] Stylistic differences between uppercase and lowercase C are pronounced across font families; for example, in the geometric sans-serif Futura, both forms adopt pure, unembellished arcs based on basic shapes like circles, prioritizing modernist simplicity over decorative elements.^[47] These distinctions highlight how typographic choices reflect historical and aesthetic evolution. In usage, the uppercase C appears at the start of sentences, in proper nouns, and especially in acronyms and initials, such as CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), to denote significance or abbreviation.^[48] Conversely, the lowercase c is employed in general body text for everyday words like "cat" or "city," promoting smooth readability in continuous prose.^[49]

Ligatures and Abbreviations

In historical typography and manuscripts, the letter C frequently formed ligatures with adjacent characters to enhance readability and conserve space in scribal practices. One prominent example is the ct ligature, where the tail of the C connects to the crossbar of the t, creating a fused glyph commonly seen in medieval Latin scripts and early printed books from the 15th century onward. This ligature originated in cursive handwriting to streamline writing and was adopted by printers like those in the Aldine Press to mimic manuscript aesthetics, persisting in English typography until the 19th century when mechanical typesetting favored separate letters.^[50]^[51] The cedilla (ç), a diacritic hook beneath C, evolved as a ligature-like modification in medieval Spanish orthography around the 15th century, initially representing a small z fused under C to denote the /ts/ sound before adapting in French to indicate /s/ before a, o, or u. In Turkish, adopted during the 1928 Latin alphabet reform, ç specifically marks the /tʃ/ affricate, distinguishing it from plain C's /dʒ/ sound. This form underscores C's adaptability in Romance and Turkic scripts for phonetic precision.^[52] Medieval scribal abbreviations often employed C as a shorthand for "cum" (Latin for "with"), particularly in Tironian notes—a system of shorthand attributed to Cicero's secretary Marcus Tullius Tiro in the 1st century BCE and widely used through the Middle Ages. In these notes, a simple C or a curved mark resembling a backward C signified "con" or "cum" in compound words, reducing lengthy Latin texts in manuscripts and legal documents.^[53]^[54] In modern usage, abbreviations derived from C persist in various contexts. The notation "c." stands for "circa," Latin for "around" or "approximately," commonly applied to dates in historical and bibliographic references since the Renaissance. Similarly, "c/o" denotes "care of" in postal addresses, indicating delivery through an intermediary, a convention traceable to 19th-century English correspondence practices. In pharmaceutical prescriptions, "c" (often with a macron overline, ḡ) abbreviates "cum" to mean "with," as in instructions for taking medication alongside food or another substance.^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58] The letter C originates from the Phoenician gimel (𐤂), a consonantal sign meaning "camel" that represented the /g/ sound and derived from an earlier pictographic form resembling a throwing stick or boomerang. This Phoenician character was adapted by the Greeks around the 8th century BCE into gamma (Γ/γ), retaining the /g/ phoneme while the script incorporated vowels for the first time. The Etruscans, receiving the alphabet from Greek colonists, simplified gamma's form into a semicircle (C) to denote a velar stop, initially /k/ or /g/, which Romans later adopted directly into their alphabet as C for /k/.^[59] Among sibling characters sharing the same Phoenician root, the Hebrew gimel (ג) directly descends from gimel, preserving the /g/ sound and numerical value of 3, while in the Latin alphabet, G emerged as a close relative around 230 BCE when a horizontal bar was added to C to distinguish the original /g/ from the shifted /k/ pronunciation of C. In other scripts, such as the Gothic alphabet developed by Ulfilas in the 4th century CE, the letter geuua (𐌲) derives from Greek gamma, representing /g/ with a numerical value of 3.^[60] Similarly, the Armenian gē (Գ), created by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 CE, is believed by some scholars to model an early variant of gamma, denoting a voiced velar /g/ (or aspirated /gh/ in certain dialects) with a numerical value of 3.^[61] The Cyrillic ka (К), introduced in the 9th century by the disciples of Cyril and Methodius, relates to Latin C through their shared representation of the /k/ sound, though its form more closely mirrors Greek kappa (Κ); meanwhile, the Armenian Գ and Gothic 𐌲 emphasize the /g/ lineage from gamma. Diacritic variants of C include the Czech č (with háček, or "little hook"), which modifies C to represent the affricate /tʃ/ as in "church," a convention dating to 15th-century reforms influenced by Jan Hus to simplify digraphs like ch. In Esperanto, invented by L. L. Zamenhof in 1887, ĉ (with circumflex) likewise denotes /tʃ/, chosen to align with international familiarity while using diacritics for unique sounds in the constructed language's 28-letter alphabet.^[62]^[63]

Representations in Computing

Encoding Standards

In digital computing, the letter C is represented through standardized character encoding schemes that map its uppercase and lowercase forms to specific numeric code points for storage, transmission, and display. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), developed in the 1960s, assigns the uppercase C (denoted as 'C') to decimal code 67, equivalent to hexadecimal 43 or binary 01000011, while the lowercase c is assigned to decimal 99, hexadecimal 63, or binary 01100011.^[64] These 7-bit codes, ranging from 65 to 90 for uppercase A-Z and 97 to 122 for lowercase a-z, form the foundation of text representation in early computing systems, ensuring interoperability across devices. Unicode, the modern universal encoding standard maintained by the Unicode Consortium, extends ASCII compatibility by assigning the uppercase C to code point U+0043 (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C) and lowercase c to U+0063 (LATIN SMALL LETTER C) within the Basic Latin block (U+0000 to U+007F).^[65] This direct mapping preserves ASCII's numeric values, allowing seamless transition for legacy data. Unicode also accommodates typographic variants of C, such as the uppercase Ç (LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C WITH CEDILLA) at U+00C7 in the Latin-1 Supplement block, which represents the letter in languages like French, Portuguese, and Turkish.^[66] For variable-length encoding in modern applications, UTF-8—a widely adopted transformation format for Unicode—represents the basic ASCII C and c as single-byte sequences matching their code points: 0x43 for uppercase and 0x63 for lowercase. Diacritic-extended variants like Ç require two bytes in UTF-8: 0xC3 followed by 0x87, enabling efficient storage of international text while maintaining backward compatibility with ASCII-only systems.^[66] This byte sequence reflects UTF-8's design to encode code points above U+007F using multi-byte prefixes, with the first byte 0xC3 indicating a two-byte character starting in the Latin-1 range. Historically, encoding standards for C evolved from IBM's Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC), used in mainframe systems since the 1960s, where uppercase C is encoded as hexadecimal C3 (decimal 195) and lowercase c as 83 (decimal 131).^[67] The transition to ASCII in the 1970s, driven by ARPANET and Unix adoption, standardized encodings for broader compatibility, with Unicode's 1991 introduction unifying EBCDIC and ASCII mappings to support global multilingualism without data loss. Modern systems ensure backward compatibility through conversion utilities and Unicode's superset design, allowing EBCDIC data to be transcoded to UTF-8 for contemporary use.^[67]

Input Methods and Keyboards

In the standard QWERTY keyboard layout, widely used in English-speaking countries, the letter C is positioned on the third row from the top (bottom letter row), third key from the left, and is typically pressed using the left middle finger in touch typing technique.^[68] This placement aligns with the home row keys (A S D F for the left hand), where the middle finger rests on D and reaches down to C.^[68] International variants adapt the layout for different languages while maintaining some similarities. In the AZERTY layout, common in French-speaking regions, C occupies the same position as in QWERTY—third row, third key from the left—facilitating familiarity for users transitioning between layouts.^[69] The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard, designed for efficiency in English, repositions C to the top row on the right side (under the right index finger's reach), aiming to minimize finger travel for less frequent letters.^[70] On mobile devices, input methods emphasize gesture-based typing for efficiency. Swipe or glide typing, as implemented in keyboards like Gboard, allows users to trace a path across the on-screen keys, passing over C to form words without lifting the finger, which the system interprets via path prediction algorithms.^[71] Autocorrect features on these keyboards also support common digraphs like "ch" by predicting and suggesting completions based on language models, correcting mis-swipes or partial inputs in real-time to enhance accuracy.^[72] Accessibility adaptations ensure inclusive input for diverse users. In Braille, the letter C is represented by a single cell using dots 1 and 4 raised in the standard six-dot configuration.^[73] For Morse code, a telegraphy and radio communication standard, C is encoded as -.-. (dash-dot-dash-dot).^[74] These methods rely on tactile or auditory interfaces rather than visual keyboards, often integrated with encoding standards like ASCII for digital translation.^[73]

Additional Applications

In Science and Mathematics

In physics, the lowercase letter c denotes the speed of light in vacuum, a fundamental constant exactly equal to 299,792,458 m/s, which serves as the basis for the meter in the International System of Units (SI).^[75]^[76] The uppercase C represents capacitance in electrical circuits, defined as the ratio of electric charge Q stored on the capacitor to the voltage V across it, given by the equation Q = CV, where the unit of capacitance is the farad (F).^[77] In chemistry, the symbol C is the standard designation for the element carbon, a nonmetallic tetravalent element with atomic number 6 that forms the basis of organic compounds.^[78] Additionally, c functions as the SI prefix "centi-", indicating a factor of $10^{-2}, as in centimeter (cm) for length.^[79] In mathematics, the notation C(n,k) or \dbinom{n}{k} is commonly used for the binomial coefficient, representing the number of ways to choose k items from n without regard to order, calculated as \dbinom{n}{k} = \frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}.^[80] The letter c frequently denotes an arbitrary constant in equations, including those involving complex numbers, such as in linear combinations or polynomial expressions over the complex field \mathbb{C}.^[81] In biology, C abbreviates cytosine, one of the four nucleotide bases in DNA (alongside adenine, guanine, and thymine), where it pairs with guanine via hydrogen bonds to form part of the double helix structure.^[82]

In Music and Arts

In music, the letter C denotes the first note of the C major scale, which consists of the pitches C, D, E, F, G, A, and B, forming a foundational diatonic scale without sharps or flats.^[83] This scale serves as a primary reference in music theory due to its simplicity and alignment with the white keys on a piano keyboard. In standard notation using the treble clef, also known as the G clef, the symbol curls around the second line from the bottom to indicate G, but C is referenced through the third space from the bottom (for higher C notes) or a ledger line below the staff for middle C, bridging the notation between vocal and instrumental ranges.^[84] The pitch of middle C, designated as C4 in scientific pitch notation, is standardized at approximately 261.63 Hz under the A440 tuning system, where A4 above middle C is set to 440 Hz as per ISO 16:1975.^[85] This frequency establishes a consistent auditory reference for tuning instruments and orchestras worldwide. In modern solfège systems, particularly the fixed-do method prevalent in French and Italian traditions, C is always assigned the syllable "do," providing an absolute pitch association regardless of key signature.^[86] In the arts, the C shape appears prominently in heraldry as the crescent, a charge depicting a stylized quarter moon with horns facing upward, symbolizing hope, enlightenment, or sovereignty and often borne by crusaders or noble houses.^[87] During the Renaissance, artists employed curved lines in compositional structures to guide the viewer's eye and foster harmony, as seen in the dynamic flows of figures and landscapes that enhance balance and movement.^[88]

Cultural and Symbolic Meanings

In Roman numerals, the letter C represents the value 100, derived from the Latin word centum meaning "hundred."^[89] This symbol is commonly employed in historical dating, such as denoting centuries (e.g., XXth century for the 20th) or specific years on monuments and copyrights, like MCMLXXV for 1975.^[90] It also appears in structured outlines and legal documents to organize hierarchical information, where subtopics under main points (often marked by uppercase Roman numerals) are denoted by uppercase letters such as A, B, C.^[91] In modern slang and informal communication, particularly in texting and online messaging, "C" serves as an abbreviation for "see," often used in phrases like "c u later" to convey "see you later."^[92] In educational contexts, a grade of C typically signifies average or satisfactory performance, corresponding to a percentage range of 70-79% in many American grading systems, indicating that a student has met basic requirements but not excelled.^[93] The letter C features prominently in corporate branding, exemplified by the iconic Coca-Cola logo, which uses a flowing Spencerian script where the elongated curves of the two C's create a distinctive, elegant form that has remained largely unchanged since 1886.^[94] Some interpretations highlight the tail of the first C as subtly forming a smile, reinforcing the brand's association with happiness and refreshment.^[95] Symbolically, the shape of C resembles the crescent moon, a motif frequently linked to lunar deities in various mythologies, such as the Greek goddess Selene, who is depicted driving a chariot across the night sky and often adorned with a crescent headdress representing the moon's phases.^[96] This curved form evokes themes of femininity, intuition, and cyclical renewal in cultures worldwide, including associations with the Roman goddess Luna and other moon worship traditions.^[97]

References

[1]
The Development of the C Language - Nokia
Dennis Ritchie turned B into C during 1971-73, keeping most of B's syntax ... Ritchie, `The Evolution of the UNIX Time-sharing System,' AT&T Bell Labs.
[2]
The development of the C programming language
The C programming language was devised in the early 1970s as a system implementation language for the nascent Unix operating system.
[3]
C Programming with Linux | Dartmouth Engineering
C is a foundational language taught at schools around the world and represents one of the building blocks of modern computer information technology. ...
[4]
Introduction to C Programming About C - Description
C is a low level language that deals with characters, numbers, and addresses. These data types are manipulated by basic arithmetical and logical operators.
[5]
The 10 Most Popular Programming Languages to Learn in 2024
Common uses: Because it can run on any type of device, C is often used to program hardware, such as embedded devices in automobiles and medical devices used in ...
[6]
TIOBE Index - TIOBE - TIOBE Software
The TIOBE Programming Community index is an indicator of the popularity of programming languages. The index is updated once a month.
[7]
Top 5 Programming Languages for Cybersecurity Professionals
Strength: One of the main advantages of using C/C++ in cybersecurity is its speed and efficiency. C and C++ are able to perform complex tasks faster than many ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[8]
The Phoenician Alphabet in Archaeology
Sep 14, 2017 · Starting in the 11th century BCE, the script of the Phoenician alphabet was a real improvement on contemporary syllabic writing systems.
[9]
Table of the Phoenician Alphabet - Phoenicia.org
After 900 B.C. the Greeks borrowed the sign from Phoenician and reversed/curved its form, changed its name to Gamma and made the sign stand for the consonant G.
[10]
(PDF) The Greek alphabet - Academia.edu
This paper examines the development and structure of the Greek alphabet in relation to its Phoenician origins, addressing the phonemic adaptations and ...
[11]
Alphabet Origins: From Kipling to Sinai
Dec 22, 2014 · The alphabet used by the Phoenicians was adopted and adapted by the Greeks and Etruscans. Crystalline sandstone bust of the Egyptian king ...Missing: C gimel gamma
[12]
The Roman Age of Kings: the Etruscans and their influence on ...
Apr 7, 2021 · Around 700 BCE the Etruscans copied the alphabet from the Greeks of Cumae. ... The Greek letter gamma was for instance replaced with a c ( ...
[13]
The Etruscan Texts of the Pyrgi Golden Tablets Certainties and ...
The Pyrgi tablets, discovered 50 years ago, offer crucial insights into Etruscan and Phoenician languages. The texts illustrate the interpretative challenges ...
[14]
The Marsiliana Tablet Abecedarium, the Earliest Example of ...
"21 of the 26 archaic Etruscan letters were adopted for Old Latin Offsite Link from the 7th century BCE, either directly from the Cumae alphabet Offsite ...
[15]
https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-325
[16]
Alphabet, Epigraphy and Literacy in Central Italy in the 7th to 5th ...
Etruscans were the first to adopt the practice of writing from Euboean Greeks. The oldest Etruscan inscriptions recovered at Tarquinia and Caere date to the ...
[17]
(PDF) Cuma and the origin of the Latin alphabet - ResearchGate
Feb 3, 2023 · 1) The letter G was introduced into the Latin alphabet around 230 BC In fact, Plutarch, in Roman. Questions, question 54, reports that ...
[18]
https://www.creativebloq.com/design/fonts-typography/the-history-of-the-sans-serif
[19]
https://www.ontrackreading.com/perspectives/the-sounds-of-the-letter-c
[20]
The History of c - Medieval Writing
May 25, 2006 · In the pre-Carolingian minuscule scripts or National Hands, c hardly varies at all, apart from some minor differences of roundness and slope.
[21]
Development of The Roman Letterform - History of Graphic Design
The letters are made primarily from straight lines, and when curved forms appear, they have a very large aperture. This means that forms like S and C and M, ...
[22]
The history of the sans serif - Creative Bloq
Sep 19, 2024 · The first sans serif typeface appearing in the 19th century when William Caslon IV designed 'Two Lines English Egyptian', published in a type specimen book in ...
[23]
Phonics Rules: The Sounds of the Letter c (with Free Worksheet)
The letter 'c' makes /s/ before e, i, or y; otherwise, it makes /k/. For example, 'cent' is /s/ and 'cat' is /k/.
[24]
Spelling Rule: When to Pronounce the Letter 'c' as /k/ or /s
In English the letter c is usually pronounced as a /k/ sound. • We can also pronounce c as an /s/ sound. • When c comes directly before the letters e, i or ...
[25]
C, n. meanings, etymology and more - Oxford English Dictionary
In a few words from foreign languages, c retains the foreign pronunciation, as in Italian cicerone /tʃitʃeˈrone/ . The combination CH virtually constitutes a ...
[26]
Listen Up! These Are The Silent Letters Of The English Language
Jul 8, 2022 · Silent C words There are many examples of this, such as science, scissors, scent, ascent, crescent, descent, descend, disciple, scene, obscene, ...
[27]
Silent Letters in English: A Guide With Examples - Grammarly
Dec 30, 2024 · What are silent letters in English? ; c, “cat,” “couch,” and “cold”, “muscle,” “scene,” and “scent” ; d, “dog,” “door,” and “dentist”, “edge,” “ ...
[28]
The Great Vowel Shift - Harvard's Geoffrey Chaucer Website
The "long" vowels are regularly and strikingly different. This is due to what is called The Great Vowel Shift.
[29]
SCHEDULE | Pronunciation in English
### Pronunciation Variants for "Schedule"
[30]
Definition of SCHEDULE
### Pronunciation of "schedule" in American English
[31]
How has the pronunciation of the letter "c" developed?
Nov 16, 2021 · The original pronunciation of Latin C is reconstructed as [k], a voiceless velar plosive. · Changes between Latin and the Romance languages ...When did “c” before “e” or “i” start to be pronounced as [ts] (in ...In Latin, is there a difference between C and Q? [duplicate]More results from latin.stackexchange.com
[32]
C in Italian - Lawless Italian Pronunciation
1. When C precedes a soft vowel (E, I), it is pronounced like English's ch as in "chip." Phonetic symbol: [tʃ] · 2. When C precedes a hard vowel (A, O, U) or ...
[33]
food and drink: 2 Italian pronunciation of c and ch | OpenLearn
Pronunciation: c, ci and ch. The letter c has a 'soft' sound before i or e. It is pronounced /tʃ/, as in the English word 'church': cappuccino. The letter c has ...
[34]
Pronouncing the 'C' and 'Z' - Spanish - ThoughtCo
Apr 28, 2025 · The letter 'C' in Spanish can sound like 'ch', 'k', 's', or 'th' depending on the region. The letter 'Z' in Spanish is pronounced like 's' ...
[35]
C - French Consonant - Lawless French Pronunciation
The letter C has two pronunciations: 1) Soft – In front of a soft vowel, C is pronounced like the S in "say." Phonetic symbol: [s] 2) Hard – In front of a hard ...
[36]
The Scottish Gaelic Alphabet
Learn the Scottish Gaelic alphabet, how many letters it has and what they are with accompanying audio files.
[37]
Sounds - Scottish Gaelic sounds pronunciation guide - LearnGaelic
CH - 'h' with a consonant. We are going to have a look at the Gaelic sound made by the letters ch. Learn the sound. MH - 'h' with a consonant. The letter ...<|separator|>
[38]
https://rgblack.medium.com/och-aye-how-to-pronounce-the-scottish-ch-dda4fd18c3c9
[39]
CK Digraph Words and Sounds - thereadingadvicehub
The 'ck' digraph is a relatively common grapheme in written English and it only represents one phoneme (sound). It is used in high-frequency words such as back ...
[40]
How to Pronounce 'CH' in French - ThoughtCo
Jun 18, 2019 · In French, the letters "CH" have two possible pronunciations: The most common pronunciation is "SH" like in the English word "sheep." Listen. ...
[41]
Deutsch im Blick :: Kapitel Drei :: Aussprache - COERLL
It is also pronounced as 'sh' in the trigraph 'sch' as in die Schule (not like sk in English school, schooner, etc.!) Listen to sample vocabulary. Roll ...
[42]
How to pronounce the Scottish “CH” | by Robert Grieve Black | Medium
Apr 12, 2024 · The golden rule is that the “CH” is never, ever pronounced “K” if the word is Scottish. One possible exception is the Gaelic word “cac” which ...
[43]
Pronunciation Guide for European Portuguese Consonants
This guide covers European Portuguese consonant pronunciation, focusing on sounds like c, ç, ch, h, lh, m, n, nh, r, s, x, and z.
[44]
Overview of the '-tch' Spelling Rule - Phonics - Reading Universe
The '-tch' rule uses 't', 'c', 'h' after a short vowel at the end of a one-syllable word, like 'hatch' and 'pitch', making the /ch/ sound.
[45]
The Borrowers: Part Five - The Letter Q(u) - Colorado Reading Center
Dec 16, 2020 · Once the Frenchmen invaded England and took control, they began changing the spelling of words within English that were spelled with 'cw' to 'qu ...
[46]
Was the change in spelling from "cw" to "qu" in English associated ...
Sep 2, 2015 · Both come from PIE labiovelars (*gʷ, *ghʷ, *kʷ). QU was no longer pronounced as a labiovelar in Romance languages by the time English arrived.
[47]
The Origin of the Alphabet
The Greeks called it gamma (Γ). The Etruscans -- who had no g sound -- used it for the k sound, and passed it on to the Romans as C. They in turn added a short ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[48]
Character design standards - Uppercase for Latin 1 - Typography
Jun 9, 2022 · In serif designs the top of the main straight stroke's serif is usually equal to the lower inner serif on this main stroke. Screenshot that ...
[49]
Times New Roman font family - Typography
### Summary of Times New Roman Design Principles
[50]
UniversiTTy: Lesson 10. Designing Basic Lowercase Characters
Jun 6, 2025 · The letters “a” and “g” are considered double-story, also featuring single-story options. Based on their structure and meaning, “e” and “s” can ...
[51]
Behind The Font: Why The Futura Typeface Never Looks Dated
Apr 8, 2021 · We'll cover Futura's history, unique font anatomy, and its use in logos and branding. And we'll also tackle the question faced by many well-established, ...
[52]
Capitalization Rules and Examples | Grammarly
Oct 24, 2024 · Below, we explain essential English capitalization rules with examples so you'll know which words to capitalize and which to keep lowercase.
[53]
Capitalization Rules in English | Quick Guide & Examples - Scribbr
Rating 5.0 (613) Apr 19, 2019 · Always capitalize the first letter of sentences and names of specific people, places, or things. Other words aren't usually capitalized.
[54]
What is the symbol connecting the letters "c" and "t" called, and ...
Jul 7, 2022 · The most common way to refer to ct is either the ct-ligature or ligatured ct, which already implies presence/use of the connecting symbol.
[55]
To bind: Ligatures in Aldine Type | Folger Shakespeare Library
May 9, 2019 · In writing, ligatures were often time- (or at least hand-) saving measures, meant to ease or speed up writing; ligatures in type meant more work ...
[56]
Cedilla - FrathWiki
Jul 13, 2021 · The cedilla (Çç) originated as a swash of Zz, and the word 'cedilla' originally referred to the letter Çç, not just the diacritic.
[57]
10.4 System of abbreviation and ligatures | Latin Paleography
Characteristic signs include, for example, those used to indicate con / cum with a kind of backward C, contra with the same sign, twice repeated, enim with a ...
[58]
[PDF] The elements of abbreviation in medieval Latin paleography - CORE
c = ...cum, ...cit ... It is to be found in the examples collected by Valerius Probus9 and in the Tironian notes, always with the meaning of con or cum.
[59]
Digging Up the Latin Roots of 14 Abbreviations - Merriam-Webster
ca./c. When you see the abbreviation c. or ca. followed by a date, it means "about" or "around." It is a shortening of the preposition circa, which has ...
[60]
What does the Latin term "circa (c.)" mean? - Grammar Monster
"Circa" is a Latin term that is commonly abbreviated as "c." It means "around" or "approximately" when used in relation to dates.
[61]
C/O | definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary
abbreviation for care of: used in addresses when the person you are writing to is staying at someone else's home.Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[62]
Common Prescription Abbreviations for Medication - Verywell Health
Jun 12, 2025 · c or c̅: with; cap, caps (capsule): capsule; cc or cf: (cum cibos) with food; comp: compound; daw: dispense as written; dc, D/C, disc: ...
[63]
Scholars Track the Alphabet With New Precision
Nov 8, 1988 · The Phoenician alef, beth, gimel and dalet become the Greek alpha, beta, gamma, delta and so forth. Since the Semitic scripts had only ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
Gimel - The Ancient Hebrew Alphabet | AHRC
The original name to this letter is most likely gam, the parent root of gimel. This letter is the origin of the Arabic letter Geem and the Greek gamma ...Missing: Latin | Show results with:Latin<|separator|>
[65]
Gothic language - Wikipedia
... Gothic letters of Runic or Latin origin. Gothic words can be transliterated ... 𐌲 (g), following the usage of the corresponding Greek letter gamma.
[66]
SHORT HISTORY OF THE CYRILLIC ALPHABET | IVAN G. ILIEV
It originated during the 10th century in Bulgaria, on whose present-day territory several other alphabets were born even before this one: the Gothic alphabet of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[67]
Eternal Alphabet: GIM - Գ (գիմ) - imYerevan
Jan 8, 2016 · Various assumptions exist as to the origin of the graphic form of letter Գ. According to one version, its prototype was the Greek letter gamma.
[68]
2 Writing and pronunciation
2 Writing and pronunciation. Esperanto uses Latin alphabet with 28 letters: A B C Ĉ D E F G Ĝ H Ĥ I J Ĵ K L M N O P R S Ŝ T U Ŭ V Z a b c ĉ d e f g ĝ h ĥ i j ĵ ...
[69]
ASCII characters from 33 to 126 - IBM
B uppercase b, 67, C uppercase c, 68, D uppercase d. 69, E uppercase e, 70, F uppercase f, 71, G uppercase g. 72, H uppercase h, 73, I uppercase i, 74, J ...
[70]
None
- **LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C**: Code point U+0043
[71]
None
- **Code Point**: U+00C7
[72]
EBCDIC Alphanumeric Code - HyperPhysics Concepts
EBCDIC Code ; Char, EBCDIC, HEX ; A, 1100 0001, C1 ; B · 1100 0010, C2 ; C · 1100 0011, C3 ; D · 1100 0100, C4 ...
[73]
The EBCDIC character set - IBM
ASCII and EBCDIC are both 8-bit character sets. The difference is the way they assign bits for specific characters.
[74]
Where Should Fingers Be Placed on the Keyboard? - Computer Hope
Jun 14, 2025 · On a US keyboard, your left-hand fingers should be placed over the A, S, D, and F keys, and the right-hand fingers should be placed over the J, ...
[75]
https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?c
[76]
The Dvorak Keyboard Layout
Aug 22, 2019 · The vowels are placed under the left hand, and some of the most common consonants (d, h, t, n, s) are under the right hand. Many words are able ...
[77]
https://www.ptb.de/cms/en/ptb/fachabteilungen/abt2/fb-26/ag-262/the-capacitance-unit-farad.html
[78]
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Carbon
[79]
How the braille alphabet works - Perkins School For The Blind
And each braille letter is made of a combination of raised dots in the braille cell. ... Next, the letter “b” is dot 1 and dot 2, and “c” is dot 1 and dot 4.
[80]
International Morse Code
Morse code uses dots and dashes, with a dot as one unit and a dash as three. Remember the sounds, not the dots and dashes.<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
speed of light in vacuum - CODATA Value
speed of light in vacuum $c$. Numerical value, 299 792 458 m s-1. Standard uncertainty, (exact). Relative standard uncertainty, (exact).
[82]
SP 330 - Section 2 - National Institute of Standards and Technology
Aug 21, 2019 · It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299 792 458 when expressed in the unit m s−1, where ...
[83]
The Capacitance Unit Farad - PTB.de
The capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge Q stored in the capacitor to the applied dc voltage U: C = Q/U.
[84]
Carbon | C | CID 5462310 - PubChem - NIH
Carbon is a nonmetalic tetravalent element with symbol C, atomic number 6, and atomic weight 12. NCI Thesaurus (NCIt). View More... See also: Nitrogen ...
[85]
SI prefixes - BIPM
Decimal multiples and submultiples of SI units ; centi. c. 10 ; milli. m. 10 ; micro. µ. 10 ; nano. n. 10 ...
[86]
Binomial Coefficient -- from Wolfram MathWorld
The symbols _nC_k and (n; k) are used to denote a binomial coefficient, and are sometimes read as "n choose k." (n; k) therefore gives the number of k ...Missing: C( | Show results with:C(
[87]
What is a complex constant and how do I use it?
Jul 18, 2014 · In this context complex constants simply means complex numbers. Hint to solve the problem: Try to use Vieta's formulas.
[88]
Cytosine - National Human Genome Research Institute
Cytosine (C) is one of the four nucleotide bases in DNA, with the other three being adenine (A), guanine (G) and thymine (T).Missing: abbreviation standard
[89]
The Major Scale - musictheory.net
C major is: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C. Next, we will build the Eb Major Scale. Our starting note will be Eb. The first whole step takes us to F.
[90]
Learn the notes of the Treble Clef - Music Theory Academy
The other note that you should be able to easily recognise on a treble clef staff is middle C. In the treble clef, middle C is positioned on a ledger line just ...
[91]
Note names of musical notes keyboard piano frequencies = octave ...
"Middle C" is designated C4 in scientific pitch notation with a frequency of 261.6 Hz, because of the note's position as the fourth C key on a standard 88 key ...<|separator|>
[92]
Solfege - AaronShearerFoundation.org
One system is called “Fixed Do” (meaning that the note “C” is always Do) is based on the syllables: Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, and Ti. These seven syllables ...
[93]
Crescent - Mistholme
Jan 4, 2014 · The crescent is an ancient charge, shaped like the quarter-moon just after new. It's thought to have been intended originally as a horse-brass.
[94]
[PDF] Conceptual Formation of Curvature in the Logic of Art
Jul 10, 2025 · In Renaissance art, curved lines often guide the viewer's eye, creating harmony and balance.
[95]
100 in Roman Numerals - GeeksforGeeks
Jan 23, 2024 · 100 in Roman Numerals is written as C. "C" is derived from the Latin word "centum," which means one hundred.
[96]
Roman Numeral Date Converter - Calculator Soup
Aug 1, 2025 · Use this converter as a Roman numeral translator for dates and years. Also convert date numbers in month, day and year to dates in Roman
[97]
[PDF] Outline Format Rules • Begin with a Roman Numeral for the Topic.
Begin with a Roman Numeral for the Topic. • After each Roman numeral, letter, or number put a period. • Begin all lines with an upper case letter.
[98]
C - What is c short for? - Slang.net
C has 2 meanings. The most common is "See." See examples of how people use the terms.
[99]
Key Facts You Should Know About The US Grading System
C - this is a grade that rests right in the middle. C is anywhere between 70% and 79%; D - this is still a passing grade, and it's between 59% and 69%; F ...
[100]
Coca-Cola Logo and symbol, meaning, history, PNG, brand
Sep 20, 2025 · The redesign of 1889 has introduced a more elegant version of the Coca-Cola logotype, with elongated lines of both “C's, which were curved even ...
[101]
The Hidden Message You Never Noticed on a Coca-Cola Bottle
Nov 8, 2024 · Many believe the ribbon-like extension on the first “C” in Coca-Cola is actually a smile. In theory, this jibes with Coca-Cola's overarching message.
[102]
Selene, Greek Moon Goddess | Meaning, Mythology & Symbols
In Greek mythology, the moon goddess Selene is the personification of the moon. She is said to drive her moon chariot across the sky every night.<|control11|><|separator|>
[103]
23 Moon Gods and Goddesses: Deities of Lunar Magic and Mysticism
Mar 18, 2025 · Symbols: Crescent moon, chariot pulled by horses. Máni is the Norse god of the Moon, revered in Old Norse mythology as the brother of Sól, the ...

C