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Captain Jacobs

Tewea, known by his English name Captain Jacobs (died September 8, 1756), was a Lenape chief who allied with French forces during the French and Indian War, leading warriors in raids against British colonial settlements along Pennsylvania's frontiers.^[1]^[2] His village at Kittanning served as a base for such operations, including the destructive 1756 attack on Fort Granville, where defenders were killed or captured and structures burned after gunpowder stores ignited.^[3]^[2] Jacobs earned his epithet through interactions with British traders and officials, reflecting his status as a prominent war leader resisting territorial encroachment by provincial militias and settlers.^[1] He met his end during the Kittanning Expedition, a retaliatory raid by approximately 300 Pennsylvania provincials under Colonel John Armstrong, who destroyed the village, freed captives, and killed Jacobs in fierce cabin-to-cabin fighting that exploded his home's stored gunpowder.^[2]^[4] This event temporarily disrupted Lenape raiding capacity in the region, though it failed to halt broader allied Indigenous-French offensives, highlighting the raid's tactical success amid strategic limitations against dispersed warrior networks.^[4]

Background and Lenape Heritage

Origins and Name

Captain Jacobs, born Tewea, was a chief of the Lenape (also known as Delaware) people, an Algonquian-speaking Native American tribe historically centered in the Mid-Atlantic region before significant westward migrations in the 18th century.^[5] ^[6] His Lenape identity placed him within a matrilineal society where leadership often derived from warrior prowess and kinship ties, though specific details of his early lineage or birthplace remain undocumented in primary historical records.^[5] The moniker "Captain Jacobs" originated from interactions with British colonial settlers, specifically Pennsylvania landowner Arthur Buchanan, who bestowed the name upon observing Tewea's physical stature and features, likening him to a "burly German" from Cumberland County.^[6] This anglicized title reflected colonial practices of assigning European-style ranks and surnames to Indigenous leaders for diplomatic or identificatory purposes, a convention common during frontier negotiations and treaties.^[6] Tewea adopted or was persistently referred to by this name in colonial correspondence and military dispatches, distinguishing him from other Lenape figures amid escalating conflicts.^[5] Prior to his prominence at Kittanning, Tewea had engaged in land transactions near Lewistown, Pennsylvania, indicating early ties to areas contested between Lenape groups and expanding settlements, though these interactions predated his full alignment with French-allied forces.^[6]

Rise to Chieftainship at Kittanning

Captain Jacobs, known by his Lenape name Tewea, emerged as a leader among the Delaware (Lenape) during the westward migration of their bands to the Allegheny Valley in the 1720s, a period marked by displacement from eastern Pennsylvania lands due to Iroquois dominance and colonial pressures. Kittanning, meaning "at the great river," was established as a principal village by around 1725 on the east bank of the Allegheny River, approximately 50 miles northeast of Fort Duquesne, serving as a hub for Turtle and Turkey subclans seeking autonomy and resources. Jacobs, tied to these groups through kinship and residence, contributed to its organization, transforming it from a scattered settlement into a fortified community resistant to external encroachments.^[7]^[8] By 1740, Jacobs had attained sufficient stature to represent the Allegheny Delawares at a Philadelphia conference from August 1 to 6, where he, alongside Shikellamy and Sassoonan, addressed grievances over exploitative trader prices, unlicensed rum sales, and overhunting that depleted local game. This diplomatic engagement highlighted his role in advocating for western Delaware interests against both Pennsylvania authorities and the Six Nations, who claimed overlordship. His prior residence near Lewistown, where he sold lands to figures like Colonel Buchanan, suggests an initial phase of accommodation with colonists before tensions escalated.^[8] Jacobs' rise to chieftainship at Kittanning crystallized through demonstrated prowess in warfare rather than formal hereditary succession, aligning with Delaware traditions prioritizing merit in defense and raiding. Following General Edward Braddock's defeat on July 9, 1755, he coordinated war parties from Kittanning, including the October 16 attack on Penn's Creek that killed or captured over 20 settlers, establishing the village as a base for retaliatory operations. Accounts describe him as a recent arrival to the Allegheny country by the mid-1750s, yet his rapid ascent alongside leaders like Shingas and Pisquetomen reflected effective mobilization of warriors amid French alliances and British frontier vulnerabilities.^[7]^[9]^[8] Some historical records indicate Jacobs succeeded Custaloga as a principal chief, though specifics remain undocumented; his authority peaked in 1755–1756, when Kittanning housed captives from raids like Fort McCord (early 1756) and served as a strategic depot, underscoring his command over an estimated 20–30 warriors in coordinated strikes. This military leadership, rather than diplomatic inheritance, cemented his position, enabling Kittanning's role in the Delaware's brief assertion of independence before colonial reprisals.^[8]^[7]

Pre-War Relations with British Colonists

Land Interactions and Treaties

In 1754, as British colonial expansion pushed into the Ohio Valley, Captain Jacobs, serving as a prominent Lenape war chief at Kittanning, encountered direct overtures from Pennsylvania traders seeking land acquisitions near the village. Robert Buchanan, an established Indian trader with prior connections to Jacobs, negotiated the purchase of territory adjacent to Ohesson (likely referring to a locale near present-day Kishacoquillas Valley), leveraging gifts and alcohol to facilitate the deal despite Jacobs' initial reluctance to alienate ancestral lands. This transaction reflected broader Lenape wariness toward colonial encroachments, stemming from earlier fraudulent cessions in eastern Pennsylvania, such as the 1737 Walking Purchase, which had displaced many Lenape groups westward without their full consent or compensation.^[10] However, the agreement soured rapidly when Buchanan attempted to introduce settlers onto the purchased land, prompting Jacobs to express fury and demand their immediate evacuation, viewing the move as a violation of the terms and an aggressive intrusion into Lenape sovereignty. This incident underscored the fragility of pre-war land dealings, where informal sales—often influenced by trade goods rather than equitable negotiation—fueled resentment among Ohio Valley Lenape leaders like Jacobs and his ally Shingas, who prioritized defending unceded territories against unchecked settlement. No formal multilateral treaties directly involving Captain Jacobs are recorded from this period; his interactions remained localized and transactional, contrasting with earlier provincial agreements like the 1718 Treaty of Albany, which Iroquois intermediaries had imposed on Lenape lands without tribal ratification. These tensions over land control prefigured the escalation to hostilities as colonial pressures intensified.

Shift to Hostility

Captain Jacobs, originally named for his resemblance to a German settler by Colonel Buchanan after selling lands near Lewistown, initially professed strong friendship toward British colonists and engaged in amicable interactions, including land transactions in Pennsylvania's frontier regions.^[8] In November 1753, during George Washington's diplomatic mission to the Ohio Valley, Jacobs hosted Washington at McKees Rocks and invited him to a council at Logstown, indicating ongoing neutrality or alignment with British interests amid rising Franco-British tensions.^[8] This posture shifted decisively around 1754 as French traders and agents intensified efforts to court Delaware leaders against encroaching British settlements in the Ohio country, where colonial expansion—fueled by ventures like the Ohio Company—threatened Native lands and autonomy.^[11] Jacobs, among the first Delaware chiefs to be swayed, abandoned professed loyalty to the British and aligned with French forces, transforming Kittanning into a hub for hostile Delaware war parties.^[11] Underlying grievances, including the Delaware's forced westward migration after the 1737 Walking Purchase fraudulently ceded vast tracts in eastern Pennsylvania, eroded trust in colonial treaties, making French promises of support and arms more appealing.^[8] By early 1755, ahead of major hostilities, Jacobs' redirection enabled coordinated raids, marking the end of pre-war cordiality and his emergence as a key adversary to frontier settlements.^[11] This transition reflected not isolated persuasion but a broader Delaware pivot, driven by causal pressures of demographic displacement—British colonists outnumbered French 20-to-1 in North America by mid-century—and strategic incentives from French alliances offering material aid over British land encroachments.^[11]^[8]

Role in the French and Indian War

Alliance with French Forces

Captain Jacobs, whose Lenape name was Tewea, aligned his warriors with French forces amid escalating colonial encroachments on Lenape lands in the Ohio Valley during the mid-1750s. Resentful of British surveyors and settlers violating treaties like the 1736 Lancaster agreement, which had placed Lenape under Iroquois oversight while limiting British expansion, Jacobs turned to French traders and commanders at Fort Duquesne for support. French agents supplied gunpowder, muskets, and scalping incentives, fostering a pragmatic alliance based on mutual opposition to British dominance rather than ideological affinity.^[4] This partnership materialized in coordinated raids following the French victory at Fort Necessity in July 1754, which emboldened Lenape war parties. By early 1755, Jacobs and fellow chief Shingas led Delaware contingents armed with French weapons, targeting frontier settlements in Pennsylvania and Virginia to disrupt British supply lines and exact revenge for land losses. French officers, including those under Captain Daniel Lienard de Beaujeu, integrated Indian scouts into their strategies, providing Jacobs' group with intelligence and reinforcements for ambushes.^[12]^[13] A pivotal demonstration of the alliance occurred during the July 9, 1755, Battle of the Monongahela, where Jacobs' warriors, numbering among the approximately 300 Indians allied with 600 French and Canadian troops, ambushed British General Edward Braddock's 1,300-man force en route to Fort Duquesne. Concealed in the woods, the allied raiders inflicted over 900 British casualties, including Braddock himself, using French-supplied flintlocks and tactics that exploited terrain advantages. This success, attributed partly to Jacobs' leadership in flanking maneuvers, solidified his reputation and intensified French-Lenape collaboration, with captives from the engagement paraded at Fort Duquesne to demoralize British prisoners.^[14]^[15] Throughout 1755–1756, the alliance enabled Jacobs to launch over a dozen raids from his Kittanning base, often with French detachments, capturing scalps and prisoners valued at French bounties of 100–150 livres each. French diplomatic overtures, including gifts of wampum and promises of territorial respect, contrasted with British aggression, sustaining Jacobs' commitment until British reprisals targeted his village. This cooperation, while effective in short-term frontier devastation, reflected Lenape agency in leveraging European rivalries to counter demographic pressures from 50,000 British colonists versus fewer French settlers.^[1]^[16]

Leadership in Raids on Settlements

Captain Jacobs emerged as a key Lenape war leader following the British defeat at the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, where contemporary accounts attribute his participation alongside other Delaware warriors in ambushing General Edward Braddock's expedition, contributing to heavy colonial casualties exceeding 900 killed or wounded.^[14] From his base at Kittanning, Jacobs organized and directed multiple war parties targeting Pennsylvania frontier settlements, coordinating with allied Shawnee and French forces to exploit the post-Braddock vulnerability of isolated outposts and wagon trains.^[1] These raids, numbering in the dozens between late 1755 and mid-1756, typically involved 20 to 100 warriors employing hit-and-run tactics, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of settlers and the capture of scores more for ransom, adoption, or labor, while disrupting supply lines and forcing evacuations along the Susquehanna and Juniata valleys.^[17] In early 1756, Jacobs personally led a Delaware war party that attacked Fort McCord near the Maryland border on April 1, burning the makeshift stockade, killing 12 defenders including Captain Lazarus Lowry, and taking numerous captives amid reports of scalping and torture to intimidate survivors.^[7] Concurrently, on the same date, forces under his command ambushed a provincial supply convoy at Sideling Hill, killing over 12 militiamen and capturing survivors in a skirmish that highlighted the effectiveness of Native concealment and rapid assault against poorly defended British movements.^[18] Jacobs' strategies emphasized surprise and mobility, often staging from Kittanning as a forward base supplied with French arms and powder, which enabled sustained operations that colonial records describe as causing widespread panic and economic hardship, with settlers fleeing eastward and provincial authorities offering bounties for Indian scalps in response.^[8] These actions positioned Jacobs as a primary target for British retaliation, with Pennsylvania Governor Robert Hunter Morris citing his raids as justification for expeditions aimed at neutralizing Kittanning's role as a hub for such incursions, underscoring the chief's tactical acumen in leveraging terrain and alliances to prosecute asymmetric warfare against expanding colonial encroachments.^[3]

The Fort Granville Raid

Planning and Execution

The raid on Fort Granville, occurring between July 30 and August 1, 1756, was orchestrated by Captain Jacobs, a Lenape war chief, in coordination with French officer François Coulon de Villiers.^[19]^[20] Jacobs' forces, comprising approximately 100 Delaware warriors, allied with around 50 French soldiers, exploited intelligence on the fort's weakened state after Captain Edward Ward departed with 24 men on July 30 to aid settlers in Sherman's Valley, leaving a garrison of about 24 defenders, including civilians.^[21]^[19] This opportunistic timing followed scouting of the area, as raiders had been observed hovering nearby earlier in July, avoiding direct assault on the fully manned stockade equipped with swivel guns.^[22]^[19] Execution commenced on July 31, with Jacobs' warriors advancing stealthily through a nearby ravine to evade detection, then launching incendiary arrows to ignite the fort's wooden stockade.^[19]^[20] The fire rapidly created breaches in the defenses, killing Lieutenant Edward Armstrong and wounding others among the defenders, who suffered two fatalities overall.^[21] By August 1, with the structure ablaze and supplies destroyed, Sergeant John Turner surrendered the fort, leading to the capture of 22 men, three women, and several children.^[19]^[20] The attackers torched the remaining buildings before withdrawing, taking captives northward to Lenape villages like Kittanning or further to French posts in the Illinois country for potential ransom, while Turner was bound, tortured with heated gun barrels, and executed on Jacobs' orders.^[21]^[19] This tactical use of terrain, fire, and numerical superiority underscored Jacobs' leadership in frontier warfare, resulting in a complete French-Indian victory without losses on their side.^[21]

Casualties and Captives

The attack on Fort Granville on August 2, 1756, resulted in the deaths of Lieutenant Edward Armstrong, the fort's commander, and one enlisted soldier during the initial fighting, after which the reduced garrison surrendered. Three additional soldiers sustained wounds.^[21]^[23] The raiders, primarily Delaware warriors under Captain Jacobs with French support, captured 22 men, 3 women, and an unspecified number of children who had taken refuge within or near the fort; these prisoners were marched northward toward Indian villages, including Kittanning.^[24]^[23] Among the captives was Sergeant John Turner, who was later tortured and burned at the stake by his Delaware captors at Kittanning as retribution for the destruction of an earlier Indian raiding party. Most other captives were eventually transported to French-held Fort de Chartres in the Illinois Country, where some were ransomed and returned to British colonial authorities.^[21]^[20]

Kittanning Expedition and Demise

British Planning and Approach

In response to the destruction of Fort Granville on July 30-31, 1756, by Delaware warriors under Captain Jacobs (Tewea), which resulted in the death of Lieutenant Edward Armstrong—brother of the expedition's commander—Pennsylvania colonial authorities initiated plans for a retaliatory strike against Kittanning, the primary Delaware village serving as a base for raids on frontier settlements.^[25]^[21] Governor Robert Hunter Morris authorized the expedition, bypassing legislative delays caused by Quaker pacifism and factional disputes between proprietary and antiproprietary interests, by invoking royal charter powers to raise volunteer militia forces. The operation aimed to disrupt enemy operations, kill key warriors including Jacobs, liberate an estimated 100 captives, and restore frontier morale amid ongoing panic from Indian incursions following Braddock's defeat in 1755.^[25] Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong, a surveyor and militia officer from Carlisle, was selected to lead approximately 307 men drawn from the Second Battalion of the Pennsylvania Regiment, primarily volunteers assembled from forts in Cumberland County.^[25] Intelligence was gathered from scouts such as traders George Croghan and John Patten, who provided details on Kittanning's location about 40 miles east of modern Pittsburgh, as well as from John Baker, a former English captive who described the village's layout, defenses, and warrior numbers, ultimately serving as guide. Armstrong opted for the challenging Frankstown path over alternatives like Raystown to maintain surprise, emphasizing secrecy through a rapid march of roughly 150 miles along the Kittanning Trail, departing around August 30, 1756, with strict orders to avoid detection by foraging parties or French-allied forces.^[25] The strategic approach prioritized a dawn surprise assault with flanking maneuvers to overwhelm the village before reinforcements could arrive, focusing on burning structures, targeting combatants, and securing prisoners rather than prolonged engagement.^[25] Provisions were limited to sustain mobility, with detachments left to guard supply lines and camps, reflecting calculations of the risks posed by the deep penetration into hostile territory without regular army support.^[2] This provincial initiative marked the only major offensive by Pennsylvania militia during the early war years, driven by urgent frontier demands despite inadequate provincial funding and coordination with British regulars.

Battle at Kittanning

On the morning of September 8, 1756, Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong's force of approximately 300 Pennsylvania militiamen launched a surprise dawn assault on Kittanning, approaching from the east and south to envelop the Delaware village along the Allegheny River.^[3] ^[2] The attackers divided into parties to prevent escape, catching most residents off guard as many warriors were absent on hunting or raiding parties; numerous villagers fled into surrounding woods, some carrying white captives.^[3] Captain Jacobs, the Lenape leader who had directed raids including the recent destruction of Fort Granville, organized a determined defense with a handful of followers, firing from the shelter of cabins to inflict casualties on the advancing militia.^[2] ^[3] The fiercest fighting centered on Jacobs' own log cabin, where he and his family—reportedly including his wife assisting in reloading muskets—resisted surrender demands and continued shooting until the structure was set ablaze by the attackers, igniting stored gunpowder and causing explosions audible miles away.^[3] As flames consumed the building, Jacobs and his family attempted to escape by leaping from an upper story but were shot down and killed, with militiamen scalping Jacobs' body as a trophy of the engagement.^[3] ^[1] The battle lasted several hours, with the militia torching much of the village despite sustaining heavier losses than the defenders; Armstrong's command reported 17 killed, 13 wounded, and 19 missing (some of whom returned later), while Indian casualties were lower, estimated at 5 to 14 including Jacobs and his relatives, though exact figures remain uncertain due to the chaos and escapes.^[3] ^[1] During the fighting, at least 11 English captives were rescued from the village, though four escaped during the subsequent retreat and two were recaptured only to face torture by pursuing Delawares.^[3] Armstrong himself was wounded in the shoulder early in the action but directed operations from a ridge, ordering withdrawal as reinforcements from Fort Duquesne approached.^[3]

Death and Village Destruction

During the surprise dawn assault on Kittanning village on September 8, 1756, Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong's Pennsylvania militiamen targeted the residence of Captain Jacobs, identified as a primary defender due to his role in prior raids.^[2] The attackers set fire to Jacobs' cabin, which reportedly contained stored gunpowder that caused an explosion, forcing occupants to attempt escape.^[3]^[4] Jacobs' wife and son emerged first from the burning structure and were shot dead by militiamen as they fled toward nearby cornfields.^[3] Captain Jacobs then leaped from the cabin, sustaining multiple gunshot wounds that proved fatal; he was subsequently scalped by Armstrong's forces.^[2]^[4] His death was confirmed through the recovery of his scalp and effects, marking the elimination of a key Lenape leader responsible for attacks like the Fort Granville raid.^[2] Following Jacobs' demise, Armstrong's command systematically destroyed the village, igniting all structures and surrounding crops to deny resources to remaining inhabitants and potential raiders.^[2]^[3] The raid yielded eleven scalps in total and facilitated the rescue of eleven white captives, though at the cost of seventeen militiamen killed and thirteen wounded.^[2]^[1] This scorched-earth approach rendered Kittanning uninhabitable, disrupting Delaware operations in the region.^[2]

Aftermath and Historical Assessment

Immediate Frontier Impact

The destruction of Kittanning on September 8, 1756, and the death of Captain Jacobs, a prominent Delaware leader responsible for raids such as the February 1, 1756, attack on Fort Granville, provided an immediate psychological boost to Pennsylvania's frontier settlers, who had endured over a year of relentless Native American incursions following General Edward Braddock's defeat in July 1755. Contemporary accounts described the raid as a rare offensive success that restored confidence among colonists, with Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong hailed as the "Hero of Kittanning" for eliminating a key staging ground for attacks on settlements along the Susquehanna and Juniata rivers.^[4]^[2] This morale uplift was evidenced by increased volunteer enlistments in provincial forces and public celebrations, countering the widespread fear that had led to abandoned farms and fortified blockhouses.^[1] Tactically, the raid disrupted Kittanning's role as a supply hub allied with French forces at Fort Duquesne, as Armstrong's 307-man force burned the village, its crops, and stores, while rescuing at least 11 captives, including women and children held since prior raids. Jacobs' death—scalped after he reportedly detonated gunpowder in defiance—deprived raiders of a skilled tactician, temporarily hampering coordinated strikes from that locus, though many warriors escaped to regroup. The operation's success in destroying materiel without full-scale retaliation in the immediate aftermath pushed surviving militants northward, reducing the village's capacity to launch expeditions for several months amid autumn shortages.^[2]^[26] However, this frontier respite was fleeting; Indian raids intensified in the ensuing weeks, with reports of fiercer assaults on outlying settlements, suggesting the raid aggravated rather than quelled hostilities by provoking reprisals without a broader British strategy to exploit the disruption. Pennsylvania officials noted that while captives' recovery offered tangible relief to affected families, the lack of follow-up expeditions allowed dispersed groups to sustain pressure, underscoring the raid's limited strategic depth despite its immediate tactical gains.^[27]

Legacy in Warfare and Narratives

The death of Captain Jacobs on September 8, 1756, during the Kittanning Expedition marked a shift in colonial responses to Delaware raiding tactics, demonstrating the feasibility of offensive provincial raids deep into Native territories as a counter to guerrilla warfare. Jacobs' leadership in ambushes and village strikes, such as the July 1756 assault on Fort Granville that killed 24 defenders and captured others, had exemplified the effectiveness of Lenape hit-and-run operations, which inflicted over 1,000 colonial casualties in Pennsylvania alone from 1755 to 1756 and prompted settler evacuations.^[3] The expedition's destruction of Kittanning disrupted operations from that base, freeing 11 captives and eliminating a key staging point for raids, though quantitative assessments show Delaware incursions rising from 78 in the 15 months prior to 88 in the following period, albeit with reduced settler fatalities due to frontier depopulation.^[3] This event foreshadowed broader adoption of irregular and scorched-earth methods by colonial forces, including village burnings and targeted leadership strikes, later formalized in British campaigns under Jeffrey Amherst.^[28] In narratives of frontier conflict, Jacobs was depicted in colonial accounts as a primary architect of terror, with Pennsylvania officials lauding his demise as vengeance for mutilations and abductions during raids, including the Granville attack where bodies were reportedly scalped and dismembered.^[3] Contemporary celebrations included a commemorative medal for expedition leader John Armstrong and the naming of Armstrong County after him, framing the raid as a morale-boosting triumph that ended Jacobs' personal campaigns. Historians like James P. Meyers credit it with temporary cessation of threats from Jacobs specifically, while others, including Daniel P. Barr, assess it as a strategic draw that failed to destroy stockpiled munitions or liberate an estimated 100 captives, instead provoking intensified Delaware reprisals and highlighting the limits of punitive expeditions absent sustained military presence.^[3] Modern reevaluations emphasize its psychological value in rallying provincial defenses over decisive wartime alteration, underscoring causal dynamics where localized victories yielded short-term deterrence but perpetuated cycles of retaliation in irregular frontier warfare.^[3]^[4]

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