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Celebes Sea

The Celebes Sea, also known as the Sulawesi Sea, is a deep marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean bordered on the north by the Sulu Archipelago, Sulu Sea, and Mindanao Island of the Philippines; on the east by the Sangihe Islands; on the south by the Minahasa Peninsula of Sulawesi, Indonesia; and on the west by the eastern coast of Borneo, encompassing Kalimantan in Indonesia and Sabah in Malaysia.^[1]^[2] It extends approximately 675 kilometers north-south and 840 kilometers east-west, encompassing a diverse underwater topography featuring deep basins, seamounts, and extensive coral reef systems.^[2] With a maximum depth of 6,220 meters and over half of its seabed exceeding 4,000 meters, the sea's bathymetry supports unique oceanographic conditions influenced by the Indonesian Throughflow, which carries warm waters from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean.^[1] Renowned for its exceptional marine biodiversity, the Celebes Sea hosts 580 of the world's approximately 793 reef-building coral species, alongside abundant pelagic life including yellowfin tuna, marlin, dolphins, manta rays, whales, and sea turtles.^[2] This richness positions it within the Coral Triangle, a global center of marine endemism where isolated deep basins and shallow barriers have fostered evolutionary divergence, potentially harboring undiscovered species adapted to extreme depths exceeding 6,000 meters.^[3] The sea's clear waters, strong currents, and volcanic features make it a prime location for scuba diving, particularly in areas like Bunaken National Park, while sustaining vital fisheries and serving as a key route for regional maritime trade via ports such as Manado and General Santos.^[1] Geologically, it originated as an ancient ocean basin around 42 million years ago amid tectonic activity, with its formation reflecting open-ocean conditions from the middle Eocene period.^[1]

Physical Geography

Extent and Dimensions

The Celebes Sea spans a surface area of approximately 280,000 square kilometers.^[1] Its approximate extent measures 675 kilometers north to south and 840 kilometers east to west.^[2] These dimensions reflect the sea's elongated, semi-enclosed basin within the western Pacific Ocean, bordered by landmasses of Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia. According to International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) delineations, the sea's bounding coordinates range from 0°48' N to 7°51' N in latitude and 116°43' E to 125°37' E in longitude, encompassing a bounding box span of roughly 780 kilometers north-south and 990 kilometers east-west, adjusted for the irregular coastal geography.^[4] The maximum recorded depth is 6,220 meters, underscoring the sea's status as a deep marginal sea with a central abyssal plain.^[1] The sea's dimensions contribute to its role as a transitional zone between the Pacific and Indo-Australian plates, with depths exceeding 4,000 meters over more than half its area, facilitating unique oceanographic features.^[1]

Boundaries and Adjacent Features

The Celebes Sea, a marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean, is geographically bounded to the north by Mindanao Island and the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines, with the Sibutu-Basilan Ridge marking the transition to the adjacent Sulu Sea.^[5]^[2] To the east, it is delimited by the Sangihe Islands chain and Talaud Islands, both Indonesian territories that extend northward from the northern tip of Sulawesi.^[5]^[6] To the south, the sea meets the northern coast of Sulawesi Island (Indonesia), while its western boundary follows the eastern shores of Borneo, encompassing areas under Indonesian Kalimantan and Malaysian Sabah.^[5]^[1] These landmasses form a semi-enclosed basin approximately 3° N, 122° E in centroid location, with surrounding islands and coastlines influencing regional oceanography.^[7] Adjacent features include deep trenches and seamounts within the basin, but primary connections are to the Sulu Sea northward and indirect links via straits to the Banda Sea southward, though the sea remains largely isolated by archipelagic barriers.^[5] Maritime boundaries overlap in claims among Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia, particularly in the northern and western sectors, stemming from exclusive economic zone delineations agreed in bilateral treaties like the 1970s Indonesia-Philippines pact but contested in areas near Sabah.^[8]^[1]

Geological and Tectonic History

Formation and Evolutionary Timeline

The Celebes Sea basin formed as a marginal sea through seafloor spreading behind a north-dipping subduction zone, which facilitated the northward advance of the Indian-Australian plate relative to surrounding continental margins.^[9] This rifting and spreading initiated in the late Eocene, around 43–35 million years ago (Ma), producing oceanic crust that underlies much of the basin today.^[7] Paleomagnetic and stratigraphic data from Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) sites indicate that the basin's central areas accumulated pelagic oozes from the late middle Eocene (approximately 40 Ma) onward, reflecting an evolving deep-water environment amid regional extension.^[10] Spreading activity peaked during the Oligocene to early Miocene (roughly 34–20 Ma), with the basin widening as back-arc processes detached it from proto-Philippine Sea influences, trapping older crustal fragments possibly derived from late Cretaceous or early Tertiary proto-Pacific lithosphere.^[11] ^[12] By the early Miocene (around 20–18 Ma), subduction along the basin's margins began to impinge, marking the transition from extension to compression; this included early subduction events that contributed to arc volcanism in adjacent Sulu Sea systems.^[13] A pivotal shift occurred in the middle Miocene (approximately 15–11 Ma), when spreading ceased entirely and continental-derived turbidites—quartzose and mud-rich—prograded into the basin, signaling tectonic uplift of source terranes in Borneo and Sulawesi due to collisional adjustments.^[10] ^[14] Late Miocene initiation of subduction (around 11–9 Ma) saw northwest-dipping consumption of the basin's crust beneath northern Sulawesi and the Sulu arc, reducing basin sedimentation rates and introducing volcanic ash layers from emergent arcs.^[12] ^[13] Subduction largely terminated by 9 Ma, followed by post-Miocene extension, exhumation, and scattered intraplate volcanism between 4 Ma and 0.2 Ma, which deformed seafloor features without fully reversing the basin's closure trajectory.^[13] Ongoing tectonic activity persists as low-level compression and minor faulting, preserving the basin's relict oceanic character amid the broader Philippine Sea plate convergence.^[15]

Seafloor Topography and Active Processes

The seafloor of the Celebes Sea consists of a deep marginal basin underlain by oceanic crust, with the central and southeastern portions reaching depths of 4,500 to 5,100 meters.^[7] The basin is flanked by shallower continental shelves and slopes along its margins, transitioning to adjacent seas like the Sulu Sea to the north and the Makassar Strait to the west.^[16] Prominent topographic features include large ridges and basins, linear troughs with synclinal structures adjacent to ridges such as the Sulu Ridge, and evidence of fault scarps, warping, and recent deformational troughs indicating ongoing structural modification.^[15] High-resolution multibeam bathymetry surveys of the southwest sector, covering approximately 65,000 km² since 2017, delineate four primary morpho-bathymetric categories: structural elements like faults and folds, erosional channels, gravitational slides and slumps, and depositional fans and aprons, with structural features dominating due to tectonic influence.^[17] Active geological processes are governed by convergence in the western Pacific tectonic regime, where the Celebes Sea basin—formed as an Eocene back-arc or marginal sea—is now undergoing peripheral subduction and basin closure.^[12] The oceanic lithosphere subducts southward beneath northern Sulawesi along the North Sulawesi Trench, with the slab penetrating to a depth of about 250 km, as imaged by seismic tomography and evidenced by intermediate-depth seismicity.^[18] ^[19] To the northeast, subduction occurs at the Cotabato-West Sangihe and East Sangihe trenches, while the southern margin aligns with the North Sulawesi zone, collectively encircling the basin and driving compressive deformation.^[11] These subduction systems sustain high seismicity, including events like the magnitude 4.2 earthquake on May 28, 2023, within the subduction interface.^[20] Tectonic activity manifests in seafloor deformation through fault reactivation, vertical displacements on ridges, and sediment instability, contributing to gravitational mass movements observed in bathymetric data.^[15] The convergence rate and slab geometry reflect interaction with adjacent plates, including the Philippine Sea Plate to the east, fostering arc-continent collisions and potential subduction propagation into the basin interior.^[21] While the central basin hosts relict spreading fabric from its Miocene opening, current processes emphasize contraction over extension, with no evidence of active seafloor spreading.^[12]

Oceanography and Environmental Dynamics

Water Properties and Circulation

The surface waters of the Celebes Sea exhibit tropical characteristics, with sea surface temperatures averaging 29–29.8°C on interannual scales, influenced by seasonal monsoon-driven variations that can lower temperatures by up to 1–2°C during the northeast monsoon period.^[22] Surface salinity typically ranges from 32.5 to 34 practical salinity units (psu), reflecting high precipitation and freshwater input that creates a low-salinity layer decoupled from underlying saline waters.^[22] ^[23] This stratification forms a barrier layer, particularly evident in December–January under weak net heat flux (17.5–24.5 W m⁻²) and strong surface freshwater flux (1.14–2.06 m yr⁻¹), which inhibits vertical mixing and entrainment of nutrients from the thermocline.^[23] Vertically, the water column features a thermocline at approximately 100–200 m depth, below which temperatures decrease to around 10°C at 400 m and stabilize near 3.4°C in bottom waters exceeding 5,000 m depth.^[24] ^[25] Salinity increases with depth to about 34.0 psu below 400 m, with intermediate waters (200–1,000 m) influenced by North Pacific Intermediate Water intrusion, characterized by salinities of 34.35–34.40 psu and low dissolved oxygen levels.^[24] ^[26] Bottom waters maintain a stable salinity of 34.594 psu, corresponding to deep Pacific inflows minimally modified by regional processes.^[25] Circulation in the Celebes Sea is dominated by a cyclonic gyre, driven by wind patterns and basin topography, with surface inflows primarily from the western Pacific via the Mindanao Current entering from the north and northeast passages.^[27] ^[28] This gyre facilitates southward outflow through the Makassar Strait, contributing to the upper branch of the Indonesian Throughflow by transporting warm, relatively fresh Pacific surface waters toward the Indian Ocean at rates modulated by monsoon winds and interannual variability.^[29] ^[28] Below 150 m, circulation patterns diverge, with intermediate flows showing anticyclonic tendencies in the central and eastern basins, while tides and 50-day oscillations introduce variability that enhances throughflow transport.^[30] ^[31] Seasonal reversals occur during the southeast monsoon, weakening the gyre and altering current speeds, though the net throughflow remains persistently equatorward.^[28]

Internal Waves and Upwelling Phenomena

The Celebes Sea is characterized by vigorous internal wave activity, primarily generated by semidiurnal tidal currents interacting with shallow sills along its northern boundaries, such as the Sulu Ridge. These barotropic tides convert energy into baroclinic modes, producing large-amplitude internal solitary waves (ISWs) that propagate southward across the basin toward the Indonesian coast. Satellite observations, including those from MODIS and Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar, reveal wave packets spanning tens to hundreds of kilometers in wavelength, with phases detectable in sunglint and moonglint imagery even under varying illumination conditions.^[32]^[33]^[34] The internal waves exhibit high spatial coverage, with brightness reversals in remote sensing data indicating stratified layering effects, and their disintegration contributes to enhanced vertical mixing throughout the water column.^[35] Upwelling in the Celebes Sea is persistent over topographic features like the Sulu Ridge, where cold, nutrient-enriched subsurface waters are drawn to the surface, as evidenced by lowered sea surface temperatures and elevated chlorophyll-a concentrations during peak events. Model simulations estimate an upwelling flux of approximately 0.4 Sverdrups (Sv) across the basin, largely attributable to wind stress curl during monsoon periods, though tidal and internal wave dynamics amplify local intensities.^[36]^[37] This process forms salinity fronts and supports elevated primary productivity, with phytoplankton blooms responding sensitively to El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability; for instance, La Niña phases intensify upwelling and biomass, while El Niño suppresses it.^[38] The interplay between internal waves and upwelling is evident in the basin's dynamics, where ISW breaking induces turbulent mixing that effectively transports nutrients upward, supplementing wind- and topography-driven mechanisms. Geostationary satellite data from Himawari-8 and high-frequency observations confirm that these waves modulate surface signatures, influencing upwelling fronts through shear-induced instabilities.^[39]^[40] Such phenomena underscore the Celebes Sea's role as a conduit for energy dissipation from Pacific tides into regional biogeochemical cycles, though quantitative amplitudes remain understudied relative to adjacent seas like the Banda, where ISWs exceed 120 meters.^[41]^[42]

Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Marine Flora and Fauna Diversity

The Celebes Sea, forming part of the Sulu-Celebes Sea Large Marine Ecosystem at the apex of the Coral Triangle, exhibits exceptional marine biodiversity driven by its complex bathymetry, including deep basins and extensive coral reefs that foster high species richness.^[43] This region supports over 500 species of reef-building corals, contributing to the global center of coral diversity.^[44] Phytoplankton communities are diverse, with more than 170 species identified in nearby Lembeh Strait waters during surveys from 2012 to 2015, underpinning primary productivity.^[45] Seagrass meadows, integral to coastal ecosystems, host up to 10 species across the Sulawesi Sea ecoregion, providing habitat connectivity between reefs and mangroves.^[46] Faunal diversity includes thousands of reef-associated fish species, with local inventories in adjacent Philippine waters recording 266 species across families such as Epinephelinae (48 species), Lutjanidae (40 species), and Acanthuridae (33 species).^[47] Invertebrates abound, encompassing diverse mollusks, crustaceans, and cephalopods like the squid Enoploteuthis spp., alongside reef-building and non-reef corals.^[48] Pelagic and reef predators such as whale sharks, hammerhead sharks, manta rays, and groupers thrive, supported by upwelling and trophic complexity.^[1] Marine reptiles include sea turtles and sea snakes, while mammals such as dolphins, porpoises, and whales inhabit the open waters.^[48] Deep basins, exceeding 5,000 meters in places, isolate populations and promote speciation, yielding unique deep-sea fauna including specialized jellyfish and other invertebrates.^[3] This biodiversity hotspot's richness stems from geological isolation and nutrient dynamics, though exact endemic counts remain understudied.^[3]

Endemism and Ecological Hotspots

The Celebes Sea's deep basins, isolated by shallow sills and surrounding island arcs, foster endemism through restricted larval dispersal and gene flow, enabling speciation in midwater and benthic communities.^[3] This geological configuration has preserved distinct evolutionary lineages for millions of years, distinct from adjacent Pacific and Indian Ocean populations.^[3] A 2007 joint U.S.-Philippine expedition using remotely operated vehicles documented over 100 specimens from depths exceeding 1,500 meters, many representing potentially undescribed species adapted to these enclosed environments.^[49] Notable endemic discoveries include Teuthidodrilus samae, a polychaete worm dubbed the "squidworm" for its tentacular crown resembling cephalopod arms, collected from bentho-pelagic zones at 200-300 meters depth; this new genus exhibits unique morphological traits like dermal papillae and branchiae, confirming its novelty and regional restriction.^[50] Other finds encompassed a transparent, undulating sea cucumber (Enoploteuthidae sp.), a black abyssal jellyfish, and tentacled polychaetes, highlighting the sea's role in harboring relict deep-sea fauna.^[49] These species underscore the Celebes Sea's understudied midwater layer as a cradle for endemism, with isolation barriers preventing homogenization with open-ocean biota.^[3] As a core component of the Coral Triangle, the Celebes Sea qualifies as an ecological hotspot, with its coral reefs and upwelling zones supporting elevated densities of reef-associated taxa; the adjacent Sulu-Celebes ecoregion boasts over 500 scleractinian coral species and peaks in reef fish diversity, though precise endemic counts remain incomplete due to taxonomic gaps.^[43] Deep basins like the Talaud and Sulu troughs concentrate biodiversity through nutrient-rich internal waves, amplifying productivity and speciation in fishes, cephalopods, and invertebrates.^[3] Conservation assessments rank the Sulawesi Sea corridor highly for larval connectivity, emphasizing its outsized role in regional marine evolution despite comprising less than 2% of global ocean area.^[51] Ongoing threats from overexploitation necessitate targeted surveys to catalog remaining endemics before habitat alteration erodes this irreplaceable genetic repository.^[50]

Economic Utilization

Fisheries and Aquaculture

The Celebes Sea supports substantial marine capture fisheries, primarily targeting small pelagic species such as sardines and mackerel, as well as tuna including skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis) and yellowfin (Thunnus albacares), which dominate landings in Indonesian and Philippine portions.^[43] ^[52] Annual fisheries production in the broader Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion, encompassing the Celebes Sea, reached an estimated 1.6 million tonnes as of 2003, with pelagic fish biomass in surveyed areas totaling 932,761 metric tons in 2015.^[43] ^[53] In North Sulawesi, adjacent to the sea, landings increased from 50,000 tonnes in 1997 to 81,000 tonnes in 1998, valued at approximately $76 million USD, reflecting growth in handline and longline operations for tuna.^[52] Commercial and artisanal fleets, including purse seiners and trawlers, operate within Indonesia's Fisheries Management Area 716, which covers much of the Celebes Sea, contributing to national tuna catches.^[54] Aquaculture activities in coastal areas bordering the Celebes Sea focus on marine and brackish-water species, including prawns, groupers, oysters, mussels, and seaweeds, serving both domestic markets and exports to East Asia.^[44] In Indonesia, historical expansion of shrimp pond culture allocated over 1 million hectares in the 1980s–1990s, though many sites were abandoned by 2001 due to disease and environmental degradation.^[52] The Philippines engages in cage culture for reef fish like groupers and milkfish in nearshore waters, supplemented by mussel and oyster farming, with production tied to wild seed stocks from the sea.^[43] Regional aquaculture output, while not exclusively from the Celebes Sea, exceeded $18 million USD annually in Indonesia and $10 million USD in the Philippines over the past decade, driven by demand for live reef fish.^[43] Fisheries yields have shown signs of pressure, with approximately 70% of coral reefs in the Philippine sector producing less than 5 tonnes per square kilometer per year, compared to 15–20 tonnes per square kilometer in less exploited areas, indicating widespread overexploitation of reef-associated stocks.^[52] Declining catch per unit effort and reliance on destructive methods like blast fishing further strain resources, though offshore tuna stocks remain a focus for sustainable management under frameworks like Indonesia's Fishery Management Areas.^[43] ^[54]

Shipping Routes and Trade

The Celebes Sea serves as a critical maritime corridor for regional shipping, connecting the western Pacific Ocean to the Indonesian archipelago via the Makassar Strait and to the Sulu Sea through passages like the Sibutu Strait, facilitating trade flows between Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia.^[55]^[56] These routes support the movement of containerized goods, bulk cargoes, and roll-on/roll-off (RoRo) vessels, with traditional east-west traffic linking ports in Sulawesi and Mindanao for commodities such as agricultural products, minerals, and processed foods.^[57] The sea's position astride archipelagic sea lanes, including those designated under the Philippines' Archipelagic Sea Lanes Act, underscores its role in both domestic and international navigation, though traffic density remains lower than in chokepoints like the Strait of Malacca.^[58] Key ports along the Celebes Sea coastline, numbering approximately 24 across the bordering nations, handle diverse trade volumes, with emphasis on fisheries exports and inter-island connectivity.^[1] In Indonesia, Bitung Port in North Sulawesi processes landings from tuna fisheries in the adjacent Celebes Sea, contributing significantly to national seafood exports; capture fisheries accounted for 34.26% of Bitung's total export value from 2000 to 2007, reflecting its role as a transshipment hub for pelagic species.^[59] In the Philippines, Davao Port, situated at the entrance to Davao Gulf opening onto the Celebes Sea, manages over 820,000 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) of containers annually, alongside bulk and general cargo, serving as a gateway for exports like bananas, electronics, and imports of fuel and machinery.^[60] These facilities enable bilateral trade expansion, exemplified by new RoRo services between Davao and Indonesian ports since 2017, which have boosted cross-border exchanges in perishables and manufactured goods.^[57] Trade through these routes is predominantly regional, with limited deep-sea trans-Pacific volumes due to the sea's semi-enclosed nature and navigational constraints from deep basins and internal waves, prioritizing short-haul efficiency over high-capacity global lanes.^[61] Security concerns, including piracy risks in adjacent Sulu-Celebes areas, have prompted coordinated patrols under trilateral agreements since 2016, indirectly supporting sustained commercial viability by reducing disruptions to fishing and cargo operations.^[56] Overall, the Celebes Sea's shipping infrastructure underpins economic linkages in the BIMP-EAGA subregion, though infrastructure upgrades at ports like Bitung and Davao are needed to accommodate growing container and RoRo demands.^[62]

Hydrocarbon Exploration and Potential

The Celebes Sea and its marginal basins exhibit frontier hydrocarbon potential, primarily in Tertiary sedimentary sequences with marine source rocks capable of generating oil and gas. Geological assessments indicate proven petroleum systems in adjacent South Sulawesi, including Eocene to Miocene reservoirs and Paleogene kitchens, though commercial discoveries remain limited due to complex tectonics and deepwater conditions exceeding 2,000 meters in much of the basin.^[63]^[64] Exploration efforts in the Indonesian sector, particularly offshore Sulawesi bordering the Celebes Sea, date to the 1970s and early 1980s, yielding three small gas fields in western and southern Sulawesi with total reserves under 100 billion cubic feet. A play-based analysis estimates Sulawesi's overall recoverable resources at 36.7 million barrels of oil, 123 million barrels of condensate, and 3.4 trillion cubic feet of gas across multiple phases, though success rates have been low owing to trap integrity issues and source rock maturation variability. In October 2024, Pertamina-led consortia initiated major drilling in the Central Sulawesi Block (also known as Melati), an onshore-offshore area projected to hold 850 million barrels of oil and 4.7 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, marking a renewed push into this underexplored province.^[65]^[66]^[67] On the Philippine side, the Celebes Sea portion of the exclusive economic zone remains largely untested, with seismic data suggesting prospective basins akin to those in the Sulu Sea but lacking confirmed discoveries. Government estimates highlight untapped potential in offshore Mindanao-adjacent areas, yet exploratory drilling has been sparse, hampered by fiscal uncertainties and prioritizing shallower plays like the Cotabato Basin's 29 billion cubic feet of proven gas. Recent service contract awards in 2025 focus on other basins, underscoring the Celebes Sea's high-risk status without substantial investment to date.^[68]^[69]^[70]

Geopolitical Framework

Exclusive Economic Zone Delimitations

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the Celebes Sea encompasses overlapping claims primarily among Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia, governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which grants coastal states sovereign rights over resources within 200 nautical miles from baselines. Delimitations in this region have proceeded through bilateral negotiations to resolve overlaps arising from archipelagic configurations and colonial-era precedents, with Indonesia and the Philippines achieving a comprehensive agreement, while Indonesia-Malaysia boundaries remain partially unresolved.^[8] Indonesia and the Philippines concluded their EEZ boundary treaty on May 23, 2014, following two decades of technical and diplomatic talks, delineating a 627-nautical-mile (1,162 km) line spanning the Celebes Sea, Mindanao Sea, and southern Philippine Sea.^[71] ^[72] The agreement, ratified and entering force on August 1, 2019, employs equidistance principles adjusted for equitable considerations under UNCLOS Article 74, avoiding arbitration and establishing eight geographic coordinates to partition resource rights without prejudice to territorial claims.^[73] This delimitation resolved prior overlaps that had led to incidents like fishermen arrests, promoting joint resource management while preserving baselines from Indonesia's Natuna Islands and the Philippines' Mindanao. In contrast, Indonesia and Malaysia have not fully delimited their Celebes Sea EEZ, with overlaps stemming from the 1891 Anglo-Dutch treaty's imprecise Borneo-Sulawesi division, leading to competing claims east of Borneo.^[74] Negotiations advanced with a June 8, 2023, agreement on territorial sea boundaries in the Sulawesi (Celebes) Sea, but EEZ talks continue amid sensitivities over resource-rich areas, influenced by the Indonesia-Philippines precedent.^[75] These unresolved segments heighten risks of unilateral actions, such as patrols, though both states prioritize dialogue to prevent escalation, with no third-party involvement like the International Court of Justice invoked to date.^[76] No multilateral EEZ framework exists for the Celebes Sea, leaving potential encroachments from distant states like Palau unaddressed in current bilateral pacts.^[77]

Territorial Disputes and Claims

The Celebes Sea is subject to maritime boundary disputes primarily between Indonesia and Malaysia, centered on the Ambalat block, an area of approximately 15,235 square kilometers in the northeastern portion of the sea, overlapping exclusive economic zone (EEZ) claims derived from Malaysia's Sabah state and Indonesia's North Kalimantan and North Sulawesi provinces.^[8] These claims stem from differing interpretations of continental shelf boundaries established under the 1958 Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf, with Indonesia asserting rights based on the equidistance principle from its baselines and Malaysia extending claims from its offshore islands like Sipadan and Ligitan, whose sovereignty was affirmed to Malaysia by the International Court of Justice in 2002.^[78] Tensions escalated in 2005 and 2009 with naval standoffs involving Indonesian and Malaysian warships, prompted by oil and gas exploration activities by companies such as Petronas and ExxonMobil, highlighting the region's hydrocarbon potential as a driver of the conflict.^[76] As of 2025, the dispute remains unresolved through bilateral negotiations, though joint development proposals have been discussed without agreement, reflecting colonial-era divisions between Dutch and British spheres that were not fully reconciled post-independence.^[79] In contrast, the maritime boundary between Indonesia and the Philippines in the Celebes Sea has been delimited via a treaty signed on November 11, 2014, which establishes an EEZ line spanning approximately 600 nautical miles from the northern Celebes Sea corridor to the Pacific Ocean approaches, ratified by both nations in subsequent years to facilitate resource management and security cooperation.^[8] This agreement resolved overlapping claims based on archipelagic baselines under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), to which both are parties, and has enabled trilateral patrols with Malaysia in adjacent waters to combat non-state threats like piracy, though it does not extend to tri-junction points involving all three states.^[80] Philippine claims indirectly influence Celebes Sea delimitations through its ongoing territorial dispute with Malaysia over Sabah (North Borneo), where the Philippines asserts historical sultanate rights dating to the 1878 lease agreement with the Sulu Sultanate, potentially affecting EEZ extensions into the sea's southern fringes near Sabah's eastern coast.^[81] However, no active bilateral maritime clashes in the Celebes Sea proper have been reported between the Philippines and Malaysia, with focus instead on Sulu Sea overlaps; joint mechanisms under the Trilateral Cooperative Arrangement (TCA) since 2016 prioritize security over boundary resolution.^[82] Overall, while UNCLOS provides a framework for equitable delimitation, enforcement relies on bilateral diplomacy, with resource stakes—estimated at billions in untapped oil and gas—complicating progress amid asymmetric naval capabilities favoring Indonesia.^[83]

Environmental Pressures and Management

Pollution Sources and Impacts

Land-based pollution in the Celebes Sea primarily arises from agricultural runoff, industrial effluents, and untreated domestic sewage, which introduce excess nutrients and chemicals into coastal waters. Nutrient inputs from fertilizers and aquaculture promote eutrophication, particularly in enclosed bays and nearshore areas with limited circulation, fostering harmful algal blooms (HABs) that have been documented in regions like Sabah, Malaysia.^[43] ^[44] These blooms, including instances of paralytic shellfish poisoning, reduce oxygen levels and trigger fish kills, disrupting local food webs.^[43] Marine-based pollution sources include shipping traffic along major routes like the Makassar Strait, which carries oil tankers and generates chemical releases, ballast water discharges, and occasional spills.^[44] Discarded fishing gear and single-use plastics from vessels and coastal communities constitute a significant fraction of debris, with plastics comprising 91% of litter on coral reefs in East Sabah's Darvel Bay, where densities reach 51 items per 100 m² near urban areas.^[84] Abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear (ALDFGs) accounts for approximately 25% of this marine litter, exacerbating "ghost fishing" by continuing to trap marine organisms post-abandonment.^[84] Ecological impacts manifest as habitat degradation, with litter smothering coral reefs and reducing biodiversity in this high-marine-value area.^[84] Chemical contaminants, such as butyltin compounds from antifouling paints and heavy metals from wastewater, bioaccumulate in seafood, posing risks to predators and human consumers.^[43] Eutrophication and debris accumulation diminish reef health, while oil residues from shipping threaten pelagic species and mangroves.^[43] Economically, these pressures impair fisheries yields—vital for regional livelihoods—and tourism, with degraded ecosystems linked to annual losses in the millions from lost productivity.^[43] Transboundary nature amplifies effects, as pollutants flow across Indonesian, Malaysian, and Philippine waters, complicating mitigation.^[85]

Overfishing, IUU Activities, and Wildlife Trafficking

The Celebes Sea's fisheries, particularly for small pelagic species like sardines, face severe overexploitation, with stocks in the adjacent Sulu-Celebes area at risk of collapse due to excessive harvesting pressures exceeding sustainable yields.^[86] In Indonesia's Western Pacific Fishery Management Area 716, encompassing parts of the Celebes Sea, 2023 length-based stock assessments indicated elevated overfishing risks for deep demersal species such as snappers, where fishing mortality rates surpass biological reference points.^[87] Regional analyses confirm that near-shore capture fisheries across Southeast Asia, including the Celebes Sea basin, are broadly overfished, with vessel overcapacity and inadequate management contributing to rapid stock depletions since the early 2000s.^[88] Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing exacerbates these pressures in the Celebes Sea, a longstanding hotspot within the Coral Triangle where lax enforcement enables foreign and domestic vessels to evade quotas and gear restrictions. In the Philippines, IUU activities, including commercial trawlers encroaching on municipal waters, accounted for an estimated 300,000 metric tons of lost catch annually as of 2023, representing over half of total fishery losses and primarily affecting small pelagics vital to the Celebes Sea ecosystem.^[89]^[90] Cross-border incursions persist, such as Filipino fishers operating without permits in Indonesian waters near the Sangihe Islands as recently as 2015, undermining bilateral agreements and local artisanal livelihoods.^[91] Broader Southeast Asian IUU estimates suggest pirate fishing removes up to 2.5 million tons yearly, equivalent to one-third of legal catches, with the Celebes Sea's tuna and reef fish aggregations particularly vulnerable due to destructive methods like blast fishing.^[92] Wildlife trafficking compounds fishery declines by targeting protected marine species endemic or abundant in the Celebes Sea, with the Sulu-Celebes seascape serving as a transshipment hub for smuggled goods.^[93] From September to December 2021, online monitoring detected rampant trade in marine turtles (28% of seizures), giant clams, seahorses, and sharks/rays, often extracted via poaching in Philippine and Indonesian EEZs overlapping the sea.^[94]^[95] These activities, facilitated by porous borders and weak port controls, threaten keystone species like hawksbill turtles and hammerhead sharks, whose populations have plummeted amid unreported harvests feeding regional black markets.^[96] Enforcement data from 2023 highlight the Sulu-Celebes Seas as a priority for intervention, given the high seizure volumes and links to organized crime networks.^[97]

Conservation Efforts and Challenges

The Sulu-Celebes Sea Sustainable Fisheries Management Project, funded by the Global Environment Facility and implemented under the Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI), targets integrated tri-national management among Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines to improve fisheries conditions and habitats across approximately one million square kilometers, including the Celebes Sea.^[98] The CTI, a multilateral partnership of six countries launched in 2009, designates the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion as a priority seascape, with a Comprehensive Action Plan published in October 2009 emphasizing sustainable fisheries, MPA networks, and threat reduction.^[43] Indonesia has established 76 marine protected areas (MPAs) covering 13.5 million hectares as of 2025, including networks in North Sulawesi such as Bunaken National Park and the Banggai MPA, which aim to regenerate coral reefs and protect migratory species like sea turtles.^[99]^[100] The ASEAN Regional Plan of Action to Promote Responsible Fishing Practices (RPOA-IUU), adopted in 2017, coordinates efforts to combat illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing in the Sulu-Sulawesi Seas, focusing on capacity building, monitoring, and enforcement collaboration.^[101] Tripartite initiatives between Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, supported by organizations like WWF and TRAFFIC, address wildlife trafficking, with a 2023 baseline report documenting seizures and advocating for enhanced port controls and intelligence sharing.^[102] Conservation International's Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape program promotes transboundary MPAs and ecosystem-based management within the Coral Triangle's biodiversity hotspot.^[103] Persistent challenges include rampant IUU fishing, which undermines habitat health through destructive practices and exceeds sustainable yields in tuna and reef fish stocks, exacerbated by limited enforcement capacity in remote areas.^[104] Wildlife trafficking volumes exceed 120,000 tonnes annually in the Sulu-Celebes Seas as of 2023, involving species like sea turtles and live reef fish, driven by weak border controls and high demand in Asian markets.^[102] Transboundary cooperation faces barriers from territorial disputes and differing national priorities, hindering unified MPA enforcement and fisheries quotas, as noted in analyses of marine governance in the region.^[105] Additional pressures stem from abandoned, lost, and discarded fishing gear (ALDFGs), which contribute to ghost fishing and entanglement, alongside sedimentation from coastal development and plastic pollution degrading coral ecosystems that cover 6.17% of global reefs in the area.^[106] Maritime insecurity, including piracy risks, further complicates patrol efforts and investment in monitoring technologies.^[107]

Historical Context

Naming and Early Recognition

The Celebes Sea derives its name from the island of Celebes, the historical European appellation for Sulawesi to its south. Portuguese explorers introduced the name "Celebes" for the island in the early 16th century during expeditions from the Moluccas seeking gold and spices, possibly adapting it from indigenous toponyms they encountered.^[108] The indigenous term Sulawesi, meaning "island of iron" from sula (island) and besi (iron), reflects local associations with iron resources or ironwood trees, but European cartography extended "Celebes" to the adjacent sea by the 17th century.^[55] Archaeological evidence points to human presence in the Celebes Sea region by 4000 B.C., with settlements on islands like Minahasa and Talaud indicating early maritime awareness among Austronesian peoples.^[55] Chinese annals provide the earliest written references to the area, including 3rd-century A.D. accounts by envoy Kang Tai describing eastern extensions of Funan—potentially encompassing northern fringes like North Borneo or Cotabato—and later 12th–13th-century texts by Zhao Rugua noting toponyms in Sulawesi and nearby Maluku, highlighting trade routes across the sea.^[55] European recognition intensified with 16th-century voyages: Antonio Pigafetta's chronicle of Ferdinand Magellan's 1521 circumnavigation expedition documents passage through Sulu Archipelago waters bordering the sea, while Portuguese captain Dom Jorge de Menezes navigated it successfully in 1526 en route to Papua.^[55] These traversals, driven by quests for the Spice Islands, marked the sea's integration into global maps, though pre-colonial dominance by Makassarese and Mindanaon traders and raiders had long shaped its role in regional exchange networks.^[55]

Scientific Exploration and Key Expeditions

The Snellius Expedition of 1929–1930, organized by the Netherlands to survey oceanography and geology in the waters of the eastern Dutch East Indies, conducted extensive measurements in the Celebes Sea, including bathymetric profiling of deep basins, analysis of bottom deposits, and salinity observations revealing a maximum of over 35‰ at 150 meters depth in August.^[109] This effort provided foundational data on the sea's physical structure and circulation patterns prior to modern instrumentation.^[110] Geological exploration advanced significantly with Ocean Drilling Program Leg 124 in early 1989, which targeted the northern Celebes Sea and drilled Sites 767 and 770 to basaltic basement, confirming the basin's origin as an isolated oceanic crust formed around 42 million years ago in the middle Eocene, with minimal terrigenous input until Miocene turbidites from approaching continental margins.^[111]^[112] These cores revealed a depositional history shifting from pelagic oozes to quartz-rich sands, linking basin evolution to regional tectonics without reliance on continental rifting models alone.^[10] Biological investigations intensified in the 21st century, exemplified by the "Exploring the Inner Space of the Celebes Sea 2007" expedition, a U.S.-Philippine collaboration led by NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution aboard the R/V Presbitero. Starting from Manila in late September 2007 and focusing on unexplored deep waters south of the Philippines, the team used remotely operated vehicles, net tows, and vertical profiles to document mesopelagic and bathypelagic fauna, including a 3-centimeter isopod crustacean collected at 2,000 meters depth, underscoring the sea's potential for undescribed species in its biodiversity hotspot.^[113]^[3] Concurrently, the Integrated Survey of the Seas Pelagic (ISSP) component surveyed the water column to assess zooplankton contributions to the deep scattering layer, building on prior Dutch efforts like Snellius II in 1984–1985.^[114] These findings highlighted the Celebes Sea's role in global marine diversity without overstating novelty amid established Coral Triangle patterns.^[3]

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Indonesia Marine Protected Areas (2025) - Boatique Charters
Sep 12, 2025 · Indonesia has 76 Marine Protected Areas covering 13.5M hectares. Discover why MPAs matter, and the 2030 target of 32.5M hectares.
[100]
North Sulawesi - WCS Indonesia - Wildlife Conservation Society
One of the 36 global biodiversity hotspots, it is home to a magnificent wealth of biodiversity, where 98% of mammals, 33% of birds, and almost 80% of amphibians ...
[101]
ASEAN Regional Plan of Action (RPOA)-IUU - IMCS NETWORK
unregulated (IUU) fishing in the areas of the South China Sea, Sulu-Sulawesi Seas (Celebes Sea) and the Arafura-Timor Seas. ... Both overfishing and illegal ...
[102]
High wildlife trafficking levels in the Sulu-Celebes Seas call for ...
May 25, 2023 · Alarming rates of wildlife trafficking have been discovered in the Sulu-Celebes Sea within Southeast Asia, amounting to over 120,000 tonnes ...
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Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape - Conservation International
The Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape is located within the globally significant Coral Triangle, an area considered the center of the world's marine biodiversity.
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[PDF] IUU Fishing Risk Profile for the Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape
IUU fishing causes damage to overall marine habitat health due to low enforcement capacity of regulatory requirements and poor management of fisheries resources ...
[105]
Potential barriers and windows of opportunity for transboundary ...
This study highlights some continuous and persistent challenges facing transboundary conservation, particularly in marine environments. Marine management in ...
[106]
Addressing abandoned, lost, and discarded fishing gears (ALDFGs ...
Marine debris can harm or kill marine and coastal wildlife, destroy habitats, obstruct safe navigation, increase the fishing and maritime sectors' economic ...
[107]
The Forgotten Key to Maritime Security in the Sulu-Celebes Seas
Mar 21, 2019 · Maritime insecurity in the Sulu and Celebes Seas is a persistent challenge. These waterways have recently been used to conduct incursions into Lahad Datu.
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(PDF) Geological investigations of Sulawesi (Celebes) before 1930
Aug 6, 2025 · This paper is an overview of the early discoveries of the geology of Sulawesi, from the first naturalist expeditions in the 1820s until the 1930s.<|separator|>
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The Snellius Expedition.
In consequence we observed in the middle of the Celebes Sea in August a maximum salinity of more than 35.0 °/oO at 150 m., which decreases gradually to the ...
[110]
The Snellius Expedition.
The principal object of the expedition was the accurate determination of the configuration of the deep basins and the intervening ridges, bottom deposits, ...
[111]
News Release - Ocean Drilling Program
The scientists discovered that the Celebes Sea is a piece of an ancient ocean basin that formed 42 million years ago in a setting far from any land mass. By 20 ...
[112]
Depositional history of the Celebes Sea from ODP Sites 767 and 770
A major continental influence is first documented in middle Miocene time as a thick sequence of quartzose, mud-rich turbidites accumulated on the deeper basin ...
[113]
Photo & Video Log - NOAA Ocean Exploration
New marine species may have been discovered in the world's most biologically diverse region, the Celebes Sea. A slide show of what life aboard the Presbitero ...
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[PDF] Project Report: ISSP Celebes Sea - Census of Marine Zooplankton
Jan 30, 2008 · The goal of the ISSP Celebes Sea expedition was to make a vertical survey of the water column in the. Celebes Sea to determine whether the ...