Chauth
Chauth, from the Sanskrit term denoting one-fourth, constituted a tribute equivalent to 25% of the revenue or produce extracted by the Maratha Empire from territories outside direct Maratha control, primarily Mughal-held provinces in the Deccan and neighboring states.[1] Originating under Shivaji Bhonsle in the mid-17th century, it functioned as a payment demanded in exchange for forgoing raids, with non-payment prompting Maratha incursions to enforce collection.[2] This levy, often paired with sardeshmukhi—an extra 10% asserting Maratha overlordship—evolved from ad hoc exactions into a formalized system by the early 18th century, pivotal to financing the confederacy's military apparatus and territorial ambitions.[3] Under Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, the 1719 treaty with Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar conceded chauth rights over the six Deccan subahs (provinces) of Ahmednagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Ellichpur, and Khandesh, marking a diplomatic triumph that legitimized Maratha fiscal claims amid declining Mughal authority.[1] Subsequent Peshwas like Baji Rao I expanded its scope northward and eastward, applying it to Bengal, Gujarat, and Malwa, which generated substantial funds—estimated at millions of rupees annually—to support cavalry-heavy campaigns that eroded Mughal suzerainty and reshaped power dynamics in the subcontinent.[2] Enforcement relied on swift, mobile raiding parties, underscoring the Marathas' asymmetric warfare prowess rather than sustained occupation.[3] While enabling Maratha resurgence post-Shivaji, chauth provoked resistance from Mughal governors, local zamindars, and affected peasantry, who viewed it as coercive extraction amid overlapping tax demands, fueling cycles of conflict until the confederacy's internal fractures post-Panipat (1761).[1] Its instrumental role in state-building, however, highlights a pragmatic adaptation of pre-existing tribute mechanisms, prioritizing revenue generation through credible threats of force over ideological conquest.[2]Definition and Purpose
Etymology and Core Concept
The term chauth derives from the Sanskrit word chaturtha, meaning "one-fourth," reflecting its structure as a levy equivalent to 25% of a territory's revenue or produce.[4][2] This etymological basis is evident in Maratha administrative terminology, where chauthai denoted the proportional extraction, often applied to kharif (monsoon) and rabi (winter) crop yields or estimated fiscal output.[2] Conceptually, chauth functioned as a tribute system wherein Maratha forces demanded one-fourth of the land revenue from regions under nominal Mughal suzerainty or independent principalities, ostensibly in exchange for protection against external aggression and raids.[5] Non-payment typically triggered bargi expeditions—swift cavalry incursions aimed at plunder and coercion—transforming the levy into a de facto extortion mechanism to fund Maratha military expansion without full territorial conquest.[2][5] This core rationale emphasized defensive alliances over outright subjugation, allowing payers to retain autonomy while subsidizing Maratha operations, though enforcement often blurred into predatory warfare.[4]Intended Role as Protection Tribute
Chauth was levied at a rate of one-fourth (25%) of the assessed land revenue from territories not under direct Maratha administration, framed explicitly as a tribute for military protection against invasions and raids.[6] This payment was intended to secure non-aggression pacts with Maratha forces, who positioned themselves as guarantors of regional stability amid threats from the Mughal Empire and Deccan sultanates.[7] In exchange, payers received assurances of defense, including the deployment of Maratha troops to deter or repel external aggressors, particularly during the late 17th-century Mughal campaigns in the Deccan under Aurangzeb.[8] The mechanism drew from pre-existing tributary practices in the region, where weaker polities compensated stronger military powers for safeguarding trade routes and agricultural lands. Shivaji Maharaj formalized chauth around 1655–1660 during his conflicts with the Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur, demanding it from adjacent districts as remuneration for forgoing plunder and providing auxiliary forces against shared foes. Proponents of the levy, including Maratha chroniclers, argued it compensated for the opportunity costs of restraint, as Maratha horsemen could otherwise extract the full revenue through mulkgiri (raiding expeditions). Non-payment, however, typically triggered enforcement raids, underscoring the tribute's coercive undertones despite its protective rationale.[9] Over time, chauth evolved into a hereditary right claimed by Maratha sardars, with the intended protection extending to vassal states' internal security and border defense. For instance, agreements with Mughal governors in the Deccan provinces (post-1707) stipulated chauth as a fee for Maratha non-interference and alliance against rebellious zamindars or rival claimants.[10] This role distinguished chauth from standard taxation, as it was not tied to direct governance but to contractual military services, though empirical records from Maratha vakil (agents) reports indicate frequent lapses where protection was withheld pending full tribute delivery.[9]Historical Origins
Shivaji's Introduction in the Deccan
Shivaji Maharaj, born in 1630 at Shivneri Fort in the Deccan, began consolidating Maratha power against the Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur and Mughal encroachments in the region during the 1640s and 1650s. Following early conquests such as Torna Fort in 1646 and Javli in 1655, which secured his base in the western Deccan ghats, Shivaji shifted from outright plunder to structured tribute extraction to sustain his expanding forces without overextending administrative control. By 1657, he introduced Chauth as a war tax equivalent to one-fourth of the land revenue, initially imposed on Mughal territories in the Deccan during raids like the sack of Junnar in Ahmednagar province, framing it as payment for protection against further Maratha incursions.[11] This levy targeted vulnerable border areas, allowing Shivaji to weaken adversaries economically while funding campaigns, as evidenced by collections in regions like Chamargunda and Raisin that year.[11] The practice gained traction amid Shivaji's conflicts with Bijapur, whose forces he decisively repelled, such as the defeat of Afzal Khan in 1659 at Pratapgad. Rather than annexing distant Deccan territories, Shivaji extended Chauth demands to Bijapuri uplands and Konkan fringes, as formalized in negotiations like the 1665 Treaty of Purandar with Mughal general Jai Singh, which conditionally granted him revenue rights—including Chauth equivalents—from specified Bijapur lands yielding around 9 lakhs of hun in installments.[11] By 1670, systematic collections occurred in Deccan locales such as Karinja, Nandurbar, Berar, and Baglana, where locals paid one-fourth of revenue to avert raids, reflecting Shivaji's strategy of coercive diplomacy.[11] This approach, justified by claims of hereditary sardeshmukhi (overlordship) rights over Deccan revenues, transformed sporadic looting into a predictable fiscal tool, amassing funds for fort maintenance and cavalry without direct governance burdens. Shivaji's Deccan-focused application of Chauth peaked in the 1670s, exemplified by the 1675 annexation of South Konkan and North Kanara, where the Rani of Bednur agreed to annual tributes akin to Chauth for protection.[11] Alliances, such as his 1677 pact with Golconda Sultan Abul Hasan against Mughals, further embedded the levy in Deccan interstate relations, extracting resources from sultanate peripheries during Karnatak expeditions that yielded up to 20 lakhs of hurt annually from areas like Jinji and Vellore.[11] Unlike internal Maratha revenues, Chauth emphasized extraterritorial extortion, enabling Shivaji to control over 240 forts by 1680 while preserving mobility against larger empires, though its legitimacy rested on military deterrence rather than legal precedent.[11] This innovation laid the groundwork for Maratha fiscal expansion beyond the Deccan core.Legal and Hereditary Justifications
Shivaji positioned chauth as a legitimate levy equivalent to one-fourth of a district's revenue, justified legally as compensation for military protection against external threats and exemption from Maratha incursions themselves. This rationale framed the tax as a contractual safeguard, where payers secured defense services from Maratha forces, reflecting a pragmatic adaptation of medieval Indian customs under which dominant powers extracted tributes for security or passage rights.[12][13] The legal foundation rested on Shivaji's emerging sovereignty and overlordship claims, often secured through conquests or diplomatic agreements, such as the peace treaty with Bijapur's Sultan Ali Adil Shah II, which explicitly granted collection rights over Deccan territories. Historians interpret this variably: as a protective measure against third-party invasions per R.V. Ranade, a tribute from subjugated areas per G.S. Sardesai, or a means to avert aggression per Jadunath Sarkar, but all emphasize its tie to Shivaji's military authority rather than abstract legal precedents.[3][13] Hereditary justifications intertwined chauth with sardeshmukhi, an additional 10% levy Shivaji asserted based on his family's longstanding tradition as hereditary tax overseers and paramount sardars of Maharashtra, lending ancestral legitimacy to the combined system. While chauth originated as Shivaji's strategic innovation for funding expeditions, its pairing with hereditary overlordship claims ensured its transmission as an inherited right to successors, embedding it within Maratha dynastic fiscal prerogatives despite lacking formal imperial sanction during his lifetime.[3][13]Collection Mechanisms
Revenue Assessment and Rates
Chauth revenue was assessed as one-fourth of the standard land revenue, known as mal or jama, derived from the official or revised jamabandi (settled revenue assessment) of the targeted territories, which primarily encompassed agricultural produce yields estimated through local surveys and records.[8] [14] This method leveraged existing Mughal or provincial administrative frameworks to estimate the total revenue potential without requiring Maratha officials to conduct independent cadastral surveys in most cases, though revisions occurred to reflect updated yields or disputes.[8] Non-agricultural extras, termed siwai (such as customs or miscellaneous levies), were explicitly excluded from the base to focus solely on core land revenue.[8] The fixed rate for Chauth stood at 25%, equivalent to one-fourth of the assessed mal, a proportion rooted in the term's etymological meaning and applied consistently across Maratha claims from Shivaji's era onward.[14] [15] In practice, this yielded specific figures tied to pargana-level assessments; for example, in the Mughal Deccan province of Pargana Wadhun, Chauth amounted to 131 rupees and 8 annas from a mal base of 394 rupees and 4 annas.[8]| Territory Example | Base Mal (Rupees/Annas) | Chauth Amount (Rupees/Annas) | Rate Applied |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pargana Wadhun | 394/4 | 131/8 | 25% of mal |