Khandesh
Khandesh is a historical and geographic region in west-central India, primarily encompassing the districts of Jalgaon, Dhule, and Nandurbar in northwestern Maharashtra, along with the adjacent Burhanpur district in Madhya Pradesh.[1][2][3] The region features a plateau landscape bounded by the Satpura Hills to the north and the Ajanta Range to the south, with the Tapi River and its tributaries providing fertile alluvial soils for agriculture.[3] Historically, Khandesh gained prominence under the Faruqi dynasty, which established an independent sultanate in the late 14th century after breaking away from the Delhi Sultanate, ruling from capitals at Thalner and later Burhanpur until its conquest by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1601. The Faruqis fostered trade in textiles and maintained diplomatic relations with neighboring powers like the Bahmani Sultanate and Gujarat, contributing to the region's economic integration into broader Indian Ocean networks.[4] Following Mughal incorporation, Khandesh came under Maratha influence in the 18th century before British administration as part of the Bombay Presidency, where it was organized as a district focused on cotton cultivation.[5] Today, Khandesh remains agriculturally vital, with Jalgaon district recognized as India's leading producer of bananas and the area overall supporting extensive cotton and grain farming along river valleys, though it faces challenges from semi-arid conditions and reliance on rain-fed irrigation.[2] The region's cultural fabric includes Khandeshi dialects blending Marathi with Bhil influences, reflecting its tribal heritage and historical migrations.[6]Geography
Location and Boundaries
Khandesh is a geographic region located in the northwestern portion of Maharashtra state, India, occupying the valley of the Tapi River on the Deccan Plateau.[7] The region spans approximately the area between the Satpura Range to the north and the Ajanta Hills to the south, with coordinates roughly from 20°50' N to 22° N latitude and 74° E to 77° E longitude.[7] Historically and geographically, Khandesh is bounded on the north by the Satpura hills, separating it from the territories of Madhya Pradesh; on the south by the Western Ghats and Ajanta range adjoining Nashik and Aurangabad districts; on the east by the Wardha River and Berar region (modern Vidarbha); and on the west by the Tapi River and Gujarat state.[7] These natural features, including river valleys and hill ranges, define its topographic limits and have influenced its historical role as a transitional zone between the Deccan and northern India.[7] In contemporary terms, the core of Khandesh corresponds to the districts of Nandurbar, Dhule, and Jalgaon in Maharashtra, covering an area of about 27,000 square kilometers historically, though modern subdivisions adjust this extent.[8] [2] Some definitions extend it to include Burhanpur district in Madhya Pradesh due to historical ties.[7] The region's boundaries align with these administrative units, reflecting its position as a distinct cultural and linguistic subregion within Maharashtra.[9]Topography and Natural Features
Khandesh occupies the fertile valley of the Tapi River, forming part of the northwestern Deccan Plateau in Maharashtra, with elevations generally ranging from 200 to 500 meters above sea level in the central plains. The region features undulating terrain dominated by basaltic lava flows from the Deccan Traps, resulting in deep, black cotton soils (regur) that cover much of the Tapi basin and support intensive agriculture, particularly cotton cultivation.[10] These soils, derived from weathered basalt, are characterized by high clay content, excellent moisture retention, and cracking upon drying, which aids in natural tillage. To the north, the Satpura Range forms a prominent escarpment, rising to over 1,000 meters, with plateaus like Toranmal at approximately 1,150 meters, enclosing tablelands and gorges that transition into the riverine plains.[11] The southern boundary is marked by the Ajanta Hills, while the Satmala and Mahadeo ranges contribute to the hilly eastern and southeastern fringes, creating a saucer-like depression drained westward by the Tapi.[12] Alluvial deposits along the Tapi and its tributaries, such as the Purna and Girna rivers, form narrower fertile strips amid the plateau's rocky outcrops and residual hills.[13] Vegetation in Khandesh is adapted to semi-arid conditions, featuring southern tropical thorn forests and dry deciduous species like teak, tendu, and palas in the hillier northern and eastern areas, covering about 15-20% of the landscape where rainfall permits.[14] These forests, interspersed with scrub and grasslands, give way to cultivated plains in the core valley, with sparse tree cover reflecting annual precipitation of 500-800 mm concentrated in the monsoon season. The Tapi's floodplain supports riparian zones with acacia and babul, though deforestation for agriculture has reduced dense woodland extent since the 19th century.[11]Climate and Hydrology
The Khandesh region features a semi-arid to sub-humid climate influenced by the southwest monsoon, with approximately 80% of annual rainfall concentrated in the June to September period.[15] The peak rainy days occur in July and August, exceeding those in June and September combined across the districts of Dhule, Jalgaon, and Nandurbar.[15] Average annual precipitation varies spatially, reaching about 780 mm in western Khandesh, with higher values up to 1,219 mm in Nandurbar's Akkalkuwa tahsil due to orographic effects from the Satpura hills.[16] Khandesh exhibits pronounced rainfall variability compared to other Maharashtra regions, with more frequent below-average years that contribute to drought risks.[17] Summers are hot, with temperatures often exceeding 40°C in May, while winters remain mild. Post-monsoon dryness underscores the region's dependence on seasonal flows for agriculture and water supply. Hydrologically, Khandesh lies within the Tapi River basin, which spans 65,145 square kilometers across Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.[18] The Tapi forms the primary drainage axis, fed by tributaries including the Purna River, which originates in Betul district's Gawilgarh hills and drains extensive Khandesh areas before confluence at Changdev in Jalgaon.[19] The Purna sub-catchment covers 18,473.6 square kilometers, channeling monsoon runoff critical for irrigation and groundwater recharge.[20] Other tributaries like the Girna support localized hydrology, though basin-wide flows are monsoon-dependent, leading to seasonal flooding and dry-season scarcity.[21]Etymology and Historical Nomenclature
Origins of the Name
The name Khandesh derives from the Persianate compound "Khān-dēś," literally meaning "land of the khan" or "country of the khans," where khān refers to the honorific title adopted by the rulers of the Faruqi dynasty, and dēś (from Sanskrit deśa) denotes a region or territory.[4] This nomenclature emerged in the late 14th century following the establishment of Faruqi authority in the Tapi River valley, reflecting the dynasty's semi-independent status under titles granted by neighboring Muslim sultanates such as those of Gujarat and the Bahmani kingdom.[22] The Faruqis, claiming descent from the second caliph Umar al-Faruq, used khān as a standard regal epithet, which became synonymous with their governance of the area.[23] Historical accounts attribute the specific association of the title with the region's naming to interactions with the Gujarat Sultanate. According to Abū al-Fazl ibn Mubārak in the Aʿīn-i Akbarī (c. 1590s), the name originated from the khān title bestowed by Sultan Aḥmad Shāh I of Gujarat (r. 1411–1442) upon Malik Rāja (r. c. 1370–1399 or 1400), the dynasty's founder, who had been appointed governor of Thal and expanded control over the broader territory.[24] Malik Rāja, initially a Bahmani noble, consolidated power by 1382–1399, declaring autonomy and styling himself as a khan, which localized the term to the province under his successors like Malik Aḥmad (r. 1399–1422).[4] This etymology is corroborated in regional administrative records, where the shift from earlier designations to Khandesh aligned with the Faruqis' consolidation amid conflicts with the Bahmani, Gujarat, and later Malwa sultanates.[22] Pre-Faruqi references to the region, such as the ancient Ṛṣika in texts like Varāhamihira's Bṛhatsaṃhitā (6th century CE), indicate no direct continuity with Khandesh, underscoring the name's medieval Islamic administrative origin rather than indigenous roots.[25] The term first appears prominently in Persian chronicles like those of Firiṣhta (early 17th century), postdating the dynasty's founding but retroactively formalizing the usage during Mughal oversight after the Faruqi annexation in 1601.[26] No credible evidence supports alternative derivations, such as folk associations with local deities, which lack attestation in primary historical sources.[4]Evolution of Regional Terms
In ancient times, the region encompassing present-day Khandesh was known as Rasika, a term referenced in classical texts such as the Ramayana and supported by second-century A.D. inscriptions from Nasik identifying it as Asika or Rsika.[25][22] This area formed part of broader territorial divisions, including Vidarbha to the east and Anupa to the north, and later Seunadesa under the Yadava dynasty from the 10th to 12th centuries A.D.[22][25] The nomenclature shifted with the advent of Muslim rule in the 14th century, when the Faruqi dynasty established control around 1370 under Malik Raja, assigned Thalner and Karavanda by Firoz Tughluq.[22] The term Khandesh emerged to reflect the "Khan" title conferred upon Faruqi rulers, notably Malik Nasir by Ahmad I of Gujarat between 1411 and 1443, as documented by Abul Fazal in the Ain-i-Akbari.[24][22] This designation supplanted earlier names, marking the region's identification as the domain of khans, though Akbar briefly renamed it Dandes in 1601 after his son Daniyal.[22] During British administration following the Peshwa's surrender on June 3, 1818, the area was organized as Khandesh District within the Bombay Presidency.[22] In 1906, administrative reorganization divided it into East Khandesh (encompassing modern Jalgaon) and West Khandesh (modern Dhule and Nandurbar).[24][22] Post-independence, after inclusion in Bombay State in 1956 and Maharashtra's formation in 1960, East Khandesh was redesignated Jalgaon District on October 21, 1960, while West Khandesh became Dhule District, which further split to create Nandurbar District in 1998.[24][22] Despite these district-level changes, Khandesh endures as a cultural and geographical term denoting the collective region of Jalgaon, Dhule, and Nandurbar districts.[27]History
Prehistoric and Ancient Periods
Archaeological evidence indicates human presence in the Khandesh region during the Palaeolithic period, with stone tools discovered in the Tapti Valley gravels. A notable find includes Acheulean handaxes and flakes from laterite deposits, confirming early hominid activity in this area.[28] Upper Palaeolithic tools have also been identified across Khandesh, including in regions near the Girna and Tapi river basins, suggesting continued hunter-gatherer occupation into later prehistoric phases.[29] Systematic surveys in the middle Tapi basin, spanning Jalgaon and Dhule districts, have uncovered dozens of additional prehistoric sites, highlighting the region's potential for Palaeolithic settlements due to its riverine geography.[30] The Chalcolithic period is represented by significant sites such as Prakash, located at the confluence of the Tapti and Gomai rivers in present-day Nandurbar district. Excavations at Prakash, conducted in the 1950s, revealed a multi-phase Chalcolithic culture dating approximately 1700–1300 BCE, characterized by coarse red ware pottery, copper implements, and mud-brick structures in its early sub-phases (IA and IB).[31][32] This site yielded evidence of agrarian settlements with microliths and animal bones, indicating a transition to mixed farming and pastoralism. Other Chalcolithic localities in eastern Khandesh, featuring painted black-on-red pottery akin to the Savalda culture, further attest to widespread proto-urban development in the Tapi Valley during this era. In the ancient period, Khandesh appears linked to the Rishika janapada, an early Iron Age polity bordering Vidarbha to the west, as referenced in Puranic and epic texts describing regional interactions during invasions of Vidarbha. The region may have been peripherally incorporated into the broader Vidarbha cultural sphere, with possible ancient capitals or settlements like Bedar reflecting Vidarbhan nomenclature. Pre-Satavahana copper coins, including uninscribed types with tree-in-railing motifs from circa 200–100 BCE, have been recovered in western Khandesh, pointing to local chiefdoms or trade networks predating Deccan imperial rule.[26][33] Artifacts such as pottery and early coins suggest indirect Satavahana influence in northern Maharashtra's Khandesh tracts around the 1st century BCE to 2nd century CE, though direct administrative control remains archaeologically unsubstantiated beyond peripheral finds.[23]Medieval Dynasties and Sultanates
The region of Khandesh fell under the sway of the Seuna (Yadava) dynasty of Devagiri during the 12th and 13th centuries, as the Yadavas expanded their influence across northern Maharashtra and adjacent territories up to the Narmada River.[25] The dynasty, which traced its origins to feudatories of the Western Chalukyas, achieved its territorial peak under Simhana II (r. c. 1210–1247), incorporating Khandesh through military campaigns against local chieftains and rival powers like the Hoysalas and Kakatiyas.[34] Yadava administration emphasized agrarian revenue from the fertile Tapti valley, fortified key sites such as Thalner, and patronized temple architecture, though specific inscriptions from Khandesh remain sparse. Their rule ended in the early 14th century following submission to Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate, who captured Devagiri in 1296 and imposed vassalage on King Ramachandra (r. 1271–c. 1309), with full integration occurring under subsequent Khalji and Tughlaq campaigns.[34][22] Following the Delhi Sultanate's conquest, Khandesh was administered as a peripheral province (iqta) under the Khaljis and Tughlaqs, with authority delegated to local governors amid weakening central control by the early 14th century due to revolts and distant oversight from Delhi.[23] Under Muhammad bin Tughlaq (r. 1325–1351), the region saw intensified revenue extraction and military garrisons to suppress Rajput and Bhil resistance, but administrative instability persisted after his death. Firuz Shah Tughlaq (r. 1351–1388) appointed Malik Raja, son of a Bahmanid noble claiming descent from Caliph Umar al-Faruq, as governor of Thalner around 1370, granting him autonomy to manage local affairs.[35] The Faruqi dynasty established the independent Khandesh Sultanate following Firuz Shah's death in 1388, with Malik Raja declaring sovereignty by 1382 and consolidating power against residual Tughlaq claims.[35] Originating from Bahmanid service, the Faruqis initially allied with the Bahmani Sultanate but asserted independence, subduing Rajput strongholds like Asirgarh and fostering trade in textiles and cotton via the Tapti River. Nasir Khan (r. c. 1431–1432), grandson of Malik Raja, founded Burhanpur as the new capital in 1400 and Zaynabad as a commercial hub, enhancing the sultanate's economic prosperity.[35] Successive rulers, including Miran Muhammad I (d. 1537), who briefly positioned himself as heir to the Gujarat Sultanate, and Mubarak Shah II (d. 1566), navigated vassalage to Gujarat while resisting Deccan incursions.[35] The sultanate's later phase involved precarious balancing between the Mughals, Gujarat, and Deccan states, with Raja Ali Khan (Adil Shah I, d. 1597) acknowledging Akbar's nominal overlordship in 1576 to avert invasion, though conflicts persisted in 1562 and 1564.[35] Internal divisions weakened the Faruqis, culminating in Mughal annexation: Akbar's forces occupied Burhanpur in 1599, and the final ruler, Bahadur Shah, surrendered the fortress of Asirgarh on 27 January 1601 after a prolonged siege, ending the dynasty's 219-year rule.[35] The Faruqis promoted Chishti Sufism, with Burhanpur emerging as a spiritual center, but their governance relied heavily on tribal alliances and revenue from 1,200 villages, often contested by Bhil and Gavli communities.[36]Mughal Integration and Faruqi Rule
The Faruqi dynasty, tracing its lineage to the second caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab (known as Faruq), emerged as the ruling house of the Khandesh Sultanate following the fragmentation of the Delhi Sultanate. Malik Raja, a governor of Khandesh under the Tughlaq dynasty, declared independence around 1382, establishing the sultanate with Burhanpur as its capital and Asirgarh as a key fortress.[37][38] The dynasty maintained sovereignty for over two centuries, navigating alliances with neighboring Deccan states like Gujarat and Ahmadnagar while expanding control over fertile Tapti River valleys through military campaigns and tribute systems.[39] Under rulers such as Hasan Gangu (r. circa 1500s) and later ʿĀdil Khān, the Faruqis fortified the region against external threats, constructing irrigation works and mosques that supported agricultural output of cotton, millet, and opium, which bolstered trade routes to Gujarat ports. However, internal successions and fiscal strains from wars weakened the state by the mid-16th century. Mughal Emperor Akbar's expansionist policies initiated pressure, with early incursions by imperial forces probing Khandesh borders in the 1560s, prompting diplomatic submissions like tribute payments to avert full invasion.[40] The decisive phase of Mughal integration unfolded after the death of Raja ʿAlī Khān in 1597, as his successors, including Bahadur Shāh, resisted subordination amid Akbar's Deccan campaigns. In late 1600, Mughal armies under Prince Dāniyāl and ʿAbd al-Raḥīm Khān-i Khānān besieged Asirgarh, the sultanate's impregnable hill fort; internal plague and supply shortages forced its surrender by January 1601.[41][42] Bahadur Shāh capitulated, ceding the territory without pitched battle, leading to Khandesh's formal annexation as a Mughal subah (province) administered from Burhanpur, which Akbar designated a key garrison and revenue hub.[43] This integration incorporated Khandesh's 20,000 square miles into the empire, enhancing Mughal control over western trade corridors while ending Faruqi autonomy.Maratha Expansion and Conflicts
In the early 18th century, Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath secured imperial sanads from the Mughal emperor in 1719–1720, granting the Marathas rights to collect chauth (one-fourth of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (an additional tenth) across six Deccan subahs, including Khandesh, in exchange for military protection against rebellions.[26][44] This formalized Maratha fiscal influence over the region, previously limited to sporadic raids, such as Shivaji's campaigns in the 1670s that introduced chauth collection and Prataprao Gujar's enforcement efforts.[26] Balaji Vishwanath personally managed revenue from Khandesh and Balaghat, using these funds to stabilize Maratha power amid ongoing skirmishes with Mughal governors and local zamindars.[44] Under Peshwa Baji Rao I (r. 1720–1740), Maratha military campaigns intensified against the Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan, whose control extended into Khandesh's strategic forts like Burhanpur. The Battle of Palkhed on February 28, 1728, saw Baji Rao's forces of approximately 20,000 cavalry outmaneuver and defeat the Nizam's larger army of 40,000 near the Godavari River, compelling the Treaty of Mungi Shevgaon on March 6, 1728, which ceded Maratha claims to Deccan territories including parts of Khandesh.[44] These victories disrupted Mughal administrative hold, enabling Maratha sardars to extract tribute and garrison outposts, though full territorial sovereignty remained contested due to Nizam counteroffensives.[26] Peshwa Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb, r. 1740–1761) accelerated consolidation through the Udgir Campaign (October 1759–February 1760), where Maratha armies under his command defeated Nizam Salabat Jung's forces, leading to the Treaty of Udgir that transferred Burhanpur and surrounding Khandesh territories to Maratha control.[44] In 1752, following earlier victories over Salabat Jung, Marathas annexed nearly all of Khandesh via treaty stipulations, marking a shift from tribute extraction to direct administration.[26] By 1760, the capture of Asirgarh Fort, a key Mughal stronghold overlooking the Tapi River valley, solidified Maratha supremacy, with sardars establishing revenue farms and fortifications amid persistent low-level conflicts with Nizam loyalists and Bhil tribes resisting centralization.[26] Post-1761 Third Battle of Panipat setbacks prompted recovery under Peshwa Madhavrao I (r. 1761–1772), who repelled Nizam Ali Khan's 1762 invasion of Pune and secured the Treaty of Aurangabad in 1763, restoring Maratha jagirs in Khandesh worth 82 lakh rupees annually.[44] The Battle of Rakshasbhuvan on August 10, 1763, exemplified these defensive-offensive engagements, where Madhavrao's forces eliminated key Nizam commanders, reinforcing control over Khandesh's trade routes and agrarian base.[44] Internal Maratha confederacy rivalries, such as between Peshwa and sardars like the Holkars, occasionally fragmented enforcement, but overall, these conflicts entrenched Maratha dominance until British interventions in the early 19th century.[26]British Colonial Administration
Following the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818), Khandesh was ceded to the British East India Company through the Treaty of Mandsaur on 6 January 1818, under which Holkar surrendered territories south of the Satpuda range, including the province of Khandesh.[45] Full administrative control was secured after Peshwa Baji Rao II's surrender on 3 June 1818, integrating the region into the Bombay Presidency as Khandesh District, with Dhulia (now Dhule) established as the headquarters by July 1818.[22] [45] Initial British administration encountered resistance from Bhil tribes, who rebelled from 1818 to 1843 due to disruptions in traditional forest access, hunting rights, and the imposition of new land revenue systems that replaced Maratha-era collections without immediate changes in the first three years.[45] [46] To counter this, a Bhil Corps was formed in 1825, expanding to 690 personnel by 1827 for policing and pacification efforts, alongside the dismantling of forts like Sindkhed and Laling to curb insurgencies.[45] Dry crop revenue rates were revised in 1821–1822, and a comprehensive land survey in the mid-19th century provoked the Survey Riot of 1852 in areas like Savda, Raver, and Chopda, which was suppressed by military intervention under Major Morris. [45] Administrative divisions were reorganized in 1906, splitting Khandesh into East Khandesh (encompassing present-day Jalgaon, area approximately 4,544 square miles) and West Khandesh (present-day Dhule and Nandurbar, area 5,497 square miles) to improve governance efficiency.[24] Infrastructure developments included the opening of the railway line in 1860, boosting cotton exports, particularly during the American Civil War (1861–1865), when Jalgaon emerged as a key cotton market.[45] Education initiatives began with the first vernacular school in Dhulia in 1826, followed by an English school in 1853 and a girls' school in 1864, under the oversight of the Director of Public Instruction.[45] During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, localized Bhil uprisings occurred under leaders like Kajarsing, but were quelled by 1859 through combined military and administrative measures.[45] The region remained sparsely populated compared to other Presidency districts, with ongoing management of tribal areas via special agencies, such as those established for Bhils in 1825, reflecting adaptations to local ethnic dynamics until independence in 1947.[45] [45]Post-Independence Integration and Developments
Following India's attainment of independence on August 15, 1947, the Khandesh region, comprising the districts of East Khandesh and West Khandesh under the former Bombay Presidency, was seamlessly incorporated into the bilingual Bombay State without significant administrative disruption.[24] This integration preserved the existing district structure inherited from British rule, where East Khandesh encompassed areas now forming Jalgaon district and West Khandesh covered present-day Dhule and Nandurbar.[24] The southern fringes of historical Khandesh, including Burhanpur, fell under the Central Provinces and Berar, which evolved into Madhya Pradesh through subsequent reorganizations.[47] The States Reorganisation Act of 1956, aimed at linguistic alignment, reaffirmed Khandesh's placement within Bombay State, prioritizing Marathi-speaking demographics for the northern districts while assigning the Hindi-dominant Burhanpur area to Madhya Pradesh.[24] On May 1, 1960, the Bombay Reorganisation Act bifurcated Bombay State into Maharashtra and Gujarat along linguistic lines, redesignating East Khandesh as Jalgaon district and West Khandesh as Dhule district within Maharashtra.[24] Burhanpur, integrated into Madhya Pradesh since 1956, remained part of the Nimar division until it was elevated to independent district status on July 15, 2003, to enhance local governance amid growing population pressures.[48] In Maharashtra, further refinement occurred on July 1, 1998, when Nandurbar district was carved from Dhule to address administrative needs in tribal-heavy terrains.[49] Post-integration developments emphasized agricultural modernization and infrastructure, though regional disparities persisted. Maharashtra's early post-independence cooperative movement, initiated in the 1950s, took root in Khandesh, promoting collective farming and marketing of cash crops like cotton in Dhule and bananas in Jalgaon, transforming subsistence patterns into commercial ones.[50] In Jalgaon, banana production surged after the adoption of drip irrigation in 1989 and high-density planting techniques, rising from 1.2 million tonnes annually to 3.4 million tonnes by 2015, positioning the district as India's leading banana hub and contributing over 70% of Maharashtra's output.[51] [52] Irrigation enhancements, including canal extensions and minor dams under state water plans, supported this growth, though uneven implementation exacerbated imbalances compared to Maharashtra's more industrialized west.[53] Infrastructure expansion included railway doublings and road networks to integrate Khandesh into national trade corridors, with post-1960 investments facilitating cotton exports via Bhusawal and improved access to markets in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.[54] Despite these advances, economic growth lagged behind state averages, with agriculture still dominating employment—over 70% of the workforce—amid challenges like drought vulnerability and limited industrialization, underscoring persistent underdevelopment in eastern Maharashtra regions.[53] In Madhya Pradesh's Burhanpur, similar agrarian focus prevailed, with incremental irrigation aiding soybean and wheat, but without the cooperative scale seen in Maharashtra.[47]Demographics
Population Composition
The population composition of Khandesh features a notable proportion of Scheduled Tribes (STs), concentrated in the districts of Nandurbar and Dhule, where they comprise 68.9% and 47.4% of the respective populations according to the 2011 Census of India. In contrast, Jalgaon district has a lower ST share at 7.4%, resulting in an approximate regional average of 25% STs across the core Maharashtra portion of Khandesh. These tribes primarily inhabit rural, forested, and hilly terrains, reflecting the region's ecological diversity and historical indigenous settlement patterns. The predominant ST groups include the Bhils, who form the largest tribal community in Khandesh and much of western Maharashtra, with significant numbers in Dhule and Nandurbar; the Pawra (or Pawara), concentrated in Nandurbar's tehsils such as Dhadgaon, Taloda, and Akkalkuwa, as well as parts of Jalgaon; and the Korku, alongside smaller populations of Vasava and Rathwa.[55] Bhils, known for their agrarian and semi-nomadic traditions, account for a substantial share of the ST demographic, often exceeding other tribes in density within the Satpura and Ajanta hill ranges.[56] Among non-ST groups, the Maratha-Kunbi cluster dominates the rural and agricultural sectors, comprising a key segment of the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and general category Hindus engaged in farming cotton, bananas, and other crops. Scheduled Castes (SCs) represent 6-9% of the population across districts, including communities like Mahars and Chambhars, while upper castes such as Brahmins (e.g., Deshastha and Karhada sub-groups) hold smaller but influential shares in urban and administrative roles.[57] Other OBC castes, including Malis, Lohars, and Dhangars, contribute to the diverse caste mosaic, with historical migrations shaping community distributions.[58]Religious Distribution
Hinduism constitutes the predominant religion across Khandesh, encompassing the districts of Jalgaon, Dhule, and Nandurbar in Maharashtra, as well as Burhanpur in Madhya Pradesh, with shares ranging from 72.91% to 92.31% of the population according to the 2011 Census of India.[59][60][61][62] Islam represents the largest minority faith, varying from 5.84% in Nandurbar to 23.86% in Burhanpur, reflecting historical influences from the Faruqi Sultanate and Mughal periods in the region.[59][60][61][62] Smaller communities include Buddhists (notably 3.40% in Jalgaon), Jains (around 0.65% in Jalgaon), and negligible proportions of Christians and Sikhs across districts.[59][60][61][62] The following table summarizes the 2011 Census data for major religious groups by district:| District | Total Population | Hindus (%) | Muslims (%) | Buddhists (%) | Jains (%) | Others (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jalgaon (MH) | 4,229,917 | 81.74 | 13.25 | 3.40 | 0.65 | 0.96 |
| Dhule (MH) | 2,050,862 | 89.01 | 9.16 | 1.25 | 0.18 | 0.40 |
| Nandurbar (MH) | 1,648,295 | 92.31 | 5.84 | 1.09 | 0.04 | 0.72 |
| Burhanpur (MP) | 757,847 | 72.91 | 23.86 | 0.32 | 0.22 | 2.69 |