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Coded aperture

A coded aperture is a imaging technique that employs a specially patterned mask to modulate incoming radiation, particularly in non-focusing regimes such as X-rays and gamma rays, allowing for the reconstruction of high-resolution images through computational decoding rather than traditional lenses or pinholes.^[1] This method enhances signal efficiency and angular resolution by projecting overlapping shadows of the source onto a detector, which are then processed using correlation algorithms to form the final image.^[2] The concept originated in 1968 with Robert H. Dicke's proposal of the scatter-hole camera, a random array of pinholes designed to increase light-gathering power for X-ray and gamma-ray imaging while mitigating the limitations of single-pinhole systems, such as low photon collection efficiency. Significant advancements came in 1978 when Edward E. Fenimore and Thomas M. Cannon introduced uniformly redundant arrays (URAs), binary patterns with flat autocorrelation sidelobes that minimize reconstruction artifacts and optimize signal-to-noise ratio through balanced correlation decoding.^[2] These developments addressed earlier challenges with random masks, enabling practical implementations in high-energy astronomy.^[1] At its core, coded aperture imaging operates on the principle of spatial modulation: the mask, typically composed of opaque and transparent elements arranged in pseudorandom or structured patterns like MURA (modified uniformly redundant arrays) or Fresnel zone plates, encodes the radiation field by creating a unique shadowgram on the detector plane. Image reconstruction involves cross-correlating the detected pattern with a digital replica of the mask, often via Fourier transform methods, to deconvolve the source distribution and achieve angular resolutions approaching the field of view divided by the number of mask elements, or equivalently the size of individual mask elements divided by the mask-detector separation.^[1] This approach provides a wide field of view, low distortion, and suitability for compact, lightweight systems, though it requires precise mask-detector alignment and computational resources to handle noise and sidelobe suppression. Coded apertures have found extensive applications in X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy, powering instruments on missions like the INTEGRAL satellite and Swift observatory for source localization and spectroscopy in space.^[1] In nuclear medicine, they enable single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) with improved sensitivity for diagnostic imaging, while in security and decommissioning, they facilitate real-time detection and mapping of radioactive materials using neutron or gamma-ray signatures. Emerging uses extend to infrared and optical domains for computational photography, as well as phase-contrast X-ray imaging for material science, driven by advances in detector technology and algorithms. Recent advances as of 2025 include single-shot polarization-resolved imaging and quantitative 3D gamma-ray systems for enhanced medical and security applications.^[3]^[4]

Fundamentals

Definition and Basic Principle

Coded aperture imaging is a computational imaging technique designed primarily for high-energy radiation such as X-rays and gamma rays, where traditional refractive or reflective optics are ineffective due to the short wavelengths and high penetrating power of these photons, which prevent focusing via conventional lenses or mirrors.^[5]^[6] Instead, it relies on shadow casting to encode spatial information about the radiation source.^[7] The core principle involves placing a patterned mask, known as the coded aperture, between the radiation source and a position-sensitive detector. The mask consists of opaque and transparent elements arranged in a specific pattern that modulates the incoming radiation, projecting a unique shadowgram—a superimposed pattern of shadows—onto the detector plane.^[5]^[8] This shadowgram encodes the spatial distribution of the source, which is then computationally decoded to reconstruct the image, allowing for the recovery of source location and intensity.^[7] In contrast to simple pinhole imaging, which uses a single small aperture to form a direct but dim image limited by low photon throughput, coded apertures employ multiple openings—often covering up to 50% of the mask area—to increase the collection efficiency and signal-to-noise ratio while preserving angular resolution through the decoding process.^[5]^[8] This multiplexing enables brighter images without sacrificing the fine spatial detail that would be blurred by a larger single pinhole.^[7] The reconstruction step, typically involving deconvolution, is essential to disentangle the overlapping shadows and form the final image.^[5]

Historical Development

The concept of coded aperture imaging emerged in the early 1960s as a solution for focusing non-refracting radiation like X-rays, where traditional optics fail. In 1961, Lawrence Mertz and William H. Young proposed using Fresnel zone plates to encode spatial information onto the image plane, allowing reconstruction through correlation techniques, primarily for astronomical X-ray applications.^[9] This theoretical work laid the foundation by demonstrating how modulated apertures could multiplex light from multiple directions onto a single detector, improving efficiency over single-pinhole cameras.^[10] Practical demonstrations began in the late 1960s with experiments focused on random mask designs to enhance signal-to-noise ratios. Robert H. Dicke introduced a randomly perforated mask in 1968 for gamma-ray detection, enabling broader aperture openness while maintaining resolution through probabilistic decoding.^[11] Independently, J.G. Ables proposed similar random pinhole arrays that same year, emphasizing their potential for high-energy astronomy despite reconstruction challenges from noise correlations.^[12] By the 1970s, these ideas advanced with structured codes; E.E. Fenimore and T.M. Cannon developed uniformly redundant arrays (URAs) in 1978, which minimized sidelobes in decoded images and became a cornerstone for efficient binary masks.^[2] Key milestones in space applications marked the transition to operational use. The first orbital coded aperture instrument flew on the Spacelab-2 mission in 1985, incorporating an X-ray telescope with a coded mask for high-resolution imaging.^[13] In the 1990s, integration expanded with the BeppoSAX satellite's Wide Field Cameras in 1996, which employed semi-random coded masks to monitor transient X-ray sources over wide fields.^[14] A seminal review by E. Caroli et al. in 1987 synthesized these developments, highlighting coded apertures' advantages for X- and gamma-ray astronomy and influencing subsequent designs.^[10] Post-2000 evolution incorporated hybrid systems and computational enhancements. The Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission, launched in 2004, featured the Burst Alert Telescope with a large coded mask for rapid localization of gamma-ray bursts, demonstrating improved sensitivity through advanced detectors like CdZnTe arrays.^[15] The SVOM mission, launched in June 2024, includes the ECLAIRs telescope with a coded mask for wide-field gamma-ray monitoring, providing ongoing data as of 2025 on cosmic transients.^[16] Recent advancements in the 2020s have integrated AI for decoding, as reviewed in works on incoherent coded aperture techniques, enabling faster reconstruction and noise reduction in real-time applications.^[17]

Principles of Operation

Imaging Mechanism

In coded aperture imaging, the process begins with incoming radiation, typically X-rays or gamma rays from a distant source, incident on a coded mask positioned between the source and the detector. The mask, composed of opaque and transparent elements arranged in a predefined pattern, selectively attenuates the radiation: photons passing through transparent regions are transmitted, while those encountering opaque regions are blocked. This modulation creates a projected shadow on the detector plane, known as a shadowgram, where the intensity pattern encodes the spatial distribution and direction of the source. For a point source, the shadowgram replicates the mask pattern but shifted according to the source's angular position relative to the instrument axis; multiple sources produce superimposed, overlapping shadows that form a unique composite intensity distribution.^[18] The detector plays a critical role in capturing this shadowgram by recording the position, and often the energy, of individual photons. Position-sensitive detectors, such as charge-coupled devices (CCDs) for soft X-rays (0.1–10 keV) or cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) arrays for hard X-rays and gamma rays (>10 keV), convert photon interactions into electrical signals via photoelectric absorption. CCDs accumulate charge in pixel arrays for high spatial resolution, while CZT detectors offer room-temperature operation and energy discrimination through direct conversion in a semiconductor matrix. Noise considerations are paramount: photon shot noise arises from Poisson statistics of the signal itself, background noise from cosmic rays or environmental radiation degrades contrast, and read-out or dark current noise in CCDs further reduces signal-to-noise ratio, necessitating shielding and cooling in low-flux scenarios.^[18]^[1] The source-mask-detector geometry is fundamental to shadowgram formation and image fidelity. The mask is fixed at a specific distance from the detector, often 0.7–1.71 m in astronomical configurations, which scales the shadow pattern and defines the angular resolution (e.g., ~0.05° per pixel for matched pixel sizes). The detector plane is typically parallel to the mask to ensure uniform projection, with relative sizes determining the fully coded field of view (e.g., 25° × 25°). Sources are generally assumed far away (effectively at infinity), producing parallel rays and a 1:1 shadow-to-mask scaling; however, finite source distances, such as 9 m in laboratory setups, introduce non-parallel incidence, causing pattern distortion and reduced point source location accuracy off-axis (e.g., angular resolution worsening by ~0.003° per degree of incidence angle).^[18]^[19] Reconstruction involves a high-level decoding step where the measured shadowgram is correlated with the known mask transmission pattern, effectively demultiplexing the overlapped projections to localize and map source positions in the field of view. This process suppresses noise and background by leveraging the mask's unique coding properties, yielding a reconstructed image that reveals source intensities without traditional optics.^[18]^[1] Practical implementation faces challenges in alignment and environmental stability. The mask and detector must be precisely co-aligned (e.g., perpendicular within millimeters) to avoid shadowgram shifts that degrade resolution (e.g., 1 mm misalignment causing ~2 arcminute errors); monitoring systems are often required for in-flight adjustments. Real-world distortions arise from detector imperfections like pixel gaps or dead zones, which must be modeled during processing, and in space environments, thermal flexure or vibrational shifts in the mask structure can introduce further pattern aberrations, demanding robust mechanical designs.^[19]^[18]

Mathematical Foundation

The encoding process in coded aperture imaging mathematically models the formation of the shadowgram on the detector as a linear operation on the source distribution. Specifically, the detected intensity g(x,y) is given by the convolution of the source intensity s(u,v) with the mask's point spread function m(x,y), plus additive noise:

g(x,y) = \iint s(u,v) \cdot m(x-u, y-v) \, du \, dv + n(x,y),

where n(x,y) represents background noise and detector imperfections. This discrete form, often used in practice, becomes \mathbf{g} = \mathbf{M} \mathbf{s} + \mathbf{n}, with \mathbf{M} as the encoding matrix derived from the mask pattern. Decoding reconstructs an estimate \hat{s}(x,y) of the source from the shadowgram g(x,y) by inverting the encoding operation. A foundational approach is cross-correlation with a decoding filter m^{-1}(x,y), yielding

\hat{s}(x,y) = g(x,y) \star m^{-1}(x,y) = \iint g(u,v) \cdot m^{-1}(x-u, y-v) \, du \, dv,

where \star denotes the correlation operator, and m^{-1} is typically the inverse of the mask's autocorrelation function to minimize sidelobes in the reconstruction.^[1] This method assumes a known mask and operates in the Fourier domain for efficiency, where convolution becomes multiplication: \hat{S}(f_x, f_y) = G(f_x, f_y) \cdot M^{-1}(f_x, f_y).^[20] The angular resolution \theta of a coded aperture system is fundamentally limited by the mask element size d and the mask-to-detector distance f, approximated as \theta \approx d / f for small angles, ensuring that projections from adjacent source points remain separable after decoding. The maximum field of view \phi derives from the overall mask diameter D_m, given by \phi \approx D_m / f, which bounds the angular extent over which the encoding remains valid without aliasing or vignetting.^[1] Coded aperture imaging enhances the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) relative to a single-pinhole camera by leveraging multiple mask elements. For a point source, the SNR scales as \sqrt{N}, where N is the number of transmitting elements, as the signal accumulates coherently during decoding while noise adds incoherently, yielding an efficiency gain without resolution loss.^[2] For scenarios with significant noise or non-ideal masks, advanced iterative reconstruction methods improve upon direct correlation. The Richardson-Lucy algorithm, adapted for coded apertures under a Poisson noise model, iteratively refines the source estimate via

s^{k+1}(x,y) = s^k(x,y) \cdot \left( m^T \star \frac{g(x,y)}{m \ast s^k(x,y)} \right),

where \ast is convolution, ^T denotes the adjoint (transposed PSF), and convergence typically requires 10–50 iterations to suppress artifacts and enhance contrast.^[21]

Types of Coded Masks

Binary Amplitude Masks

Binary amplitude masks represent the simplest and most commonly implemented form of coded masks in aperture imaging systems, consisting of opaque and transparent regions that modulate incoming radiation in a binary fashion—either fully transmitting or fully blocking it. These masks typically feature a grid of square elements, with patterns designed to encode spatial information while maximizing photon collection. The open area fraction is optimized at approximately 50% to achieve a balance between transmission efficiency and the diversity required for effective decoding, as higher fractions reduce coding contrast and lower fractions diminish signal throughput.^[22]^[23] A key design requirement for these masks is orthogonality in their pattern, achieved through arrays that exhibit a periodic autocorrelation function with ideally flat sidelobes; this minimizes reconstruction artifacts by ensuring uniform redundancy across the field of view and suppressing noise amplification during decoding.^[22]^[23] Such properties allow binary masks to outperform random pinhole arrays in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for low-flux sources, as the sidelobes do not introduce position-dependent biases.^[2] The Modified Uniformly Redundant Array (MURA), proposed by Gottesman and Fenimore in 1989, extends the utility of binary masks by enabling construction of square arrays for any prime order p \equiv 1 \pmod{4}, using a modified encoding algorithm based on quadratic residues that produces unimodular decoding coefficients, ensuring that noise variance in the reconstructed image is independent of the source distribution and equal to that of a URA.^[24] Their autocorrelation function features a central peak with constant sidelobes, providing flat noise distribution and artifact-free imaging comparable to URAs.^[24]^[23] For practical implementation, linear MURA patterns can be tiled into hexagonal configurations (hexagonal MURAs or HMURAs) by mapping the linear array onto a hexagonal grid, which suits circular detectors and maintains the desirable autocorrelation properties.^[24] A representative example is the 17×17 MURA, a square array with 144 open elements arranged in a pattern derived from the prime 17, widely used in prototypes due to its compact size and robust performance in simulations and hardware tests.^[25] The Uniformly Redundant Array (URA), introduced by Fenimore and Cannon in 1978, forms another foundational binary mask type, constructed via quadratic residues in the Galois field GF(p^w) for odd prime p, yielding two-dimensional arrays of size N = p^{w_1} \times p^{w_2} with K = (N-1)/2 ones and constant sidelobe level \lambda = (N-3)/4 in the periodic autocorrelation function.^[22]^[23] For instance, a basic URA combines one-dimensional Legendre sequences modulo primes r and s (with r - s = 2) into a rectangular pattern, such as 43×41, which can be refolded for larger sizes. This quadratic residue approach ensures flat sidelobes, enabling efficient matched-filter decoding without aliasing. URAs excel with rectangular detectors due to their adaptable near-square geometries that minimize unused sensor area, but they face limitations in hexagonal setups, where only specific orders congruent to 1 mod 6 allow folding into hexagonal URAs (HURAs) without degrading the autocorrelation.^[23] Fabrication of binary amplitude masks often employs high-density materials like tantalum for X-ray and gamma-ray applications, given its excellent absorption properties (density ~16.6 g/cm³) and machinability into precise patterns.^[27]^[28] Masks are typically produced via photolithography, electron-beam lithography, or mechanical machining on substrates like silicon or thin metal foils, with thicknesses of 0.5–1 mm to ensure opacity at target energies. Overall sizes range from 10 to 50 cm, scaled to match detector dimensions and source distances in specific systems, such as the ~20 cm masks in satellite instruments. Challenges include achieving sub-millimeter element precision (e.g., 2.5 mm pixels) to avoid diffraction blurring and maintaining uniformity across large areas, often requiring multi-layer deposition or etching processes.^[27]^[29] Performance metrics for binary amplitude masks highlight their efficiency: throughput is approximately 50%, reflecting the open fraction and allowing collection of half the incident flux compared to an open aperture, which is superior to non-redundant pinhole arrays (throughput ~1/N). The peak-to-sidelobe ratio in the autocorrelation is ideally high, with the central peak at K and sidelobes at \lambda, yielding a ratio approaching 2 for large arrays, which translates to SNR gains of \sqrt{K} over single-pinhole imaging without introducing structured noise.^[23]^[30] These properties make binary masks particularly effective for high-angular-resolution tasks where sidelobe suppression is critical.^[22]

Phase and Multi-Level Masks

Phase masks in coded aperture imaging employ diffractive elements to modulate the phase of incoming light rather than its amplitude, thereby minimizing absorption losses and enhancing light throughput compared to traditional amplitude-based designs. These masks often integrate patterns such as Fresnel zone plates with coding schemes to produce structured diffraction patterns that enable image reconstruction while preserving more photons for detection. For instance, phase-modulated Fresnel zone apertures have been demonstrated to suppress unwanted diffraction artifacts, improving resolution in lensless camera systems by altering the phase distribution across the aperture.^[31]^[32] Multi-level amplitude masks extend beyond binary transmission by incorporating grayscale or stepped levels of light attenuation, such as 0%, 25%, 50%, and 100% transmittance, to optimize signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in varied illumination conditions. These masks are typically constructed using materials with variable thickness absorbers, allowing for tailored modulation that adapts to energy-dependent absorption in applications like X- and gamma-ray imaging. By varying transmission inversely with absorber thickness, multi-level designs achieve more uniform coding efficiency across a broader energy spectrum, reducing noise from inhomogeneous backgrounds.^[10]^[33] Coded mask hybrids combine amplitude and phase modulation to leverage the strengths of both, particularly in high-energy regimes where pure amplitude masks suffer from low efficiency. In gamma-ray astronomy, multi-layer configurations using materials like tungsten and uranium provide stepped amplitude modulation alongside inherent phase effects from material interfaces, enabling imaging over wide energy bands such as 10-100 keV with reduced losses. A notable example is the integration of phase-shifting elements with amplitude gratings in hybrid systems, which enhances contrast and extends depth of field in wavefront-coded setups. These hybrids improve detection efficiency for low-flux sources by balancing absorption and diffraction, achieving up to 50% higher photon utilization in simulated low-light scenarios.^[1]^[34]^[17] Recent innovations since 2010 have focused on adaptive and tunable masks to enable real-time reconfiguration for dynamic environments. Liquid crystal-based spatial light modulators (SLMs) serve as programmable phase masks, allowing on-the-fly adjustment of coding patterns via voltage-controlled birefringence, as demonstrated in phase-coded aperture cameras for extended depth-of-field imaging. Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) enable tunable amplitude masks through micro-shutter arrays, facilitating subpixel superresolution in mid-wave infrared applications with switching speeds under 1 ms. Prototypes in the 2020s, such as programmable Fresnel zone apertures using liquid crystals, have shown feasibility for ground-based lensless imaging, achieving resolutions below 10 μm while adapting to scene variability. As of 2025, advances include single-shot polarization-resolved coded aperture imaging using dual orthogonal polarization phase-modulation for 3D and polarization-sensitive applications.^[35]^[36]^[32]^[3] These developments prioritize efficiency in low-flux regimes, with reported SNR gains of 20-30% over static masks in wide-band operations.

Applications

Astronomical Imaging

Coded apertures have revolutionized high-energy astronomical imaging by enabling wide-field observations of gamma-ray and hard X-ray sources without focusing optics, which are challenging at these wavelengths due to the short wavelengths and lack of suitable materials for lenses or mirrors. In space-based telescopes, coded aperture systems project shadow patterns from distant sources onto detector planes, allowing reconstruction of sky images through deconvolution algorithms. This technique is particularly suited for transient phenomena like gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) and variable sources such as black hole binaries, providing simultaneous imaging and spectroscopy across energy bands.^[37]^[38] A seminal implementation is the INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL), launched by the European Space Agency on October 17, 2002, into a high-eccentricity orbit. INTEGRAL's science operations concluded on February 28, 2025. INTEGRAL's Imager on Board the INTEGRAL Satellite (IBIS) employed a tungsten coded-aperture mask positioned 3.2 meters above the detection plane, utilizing Modified Uniformly Redundant Array (MURA) patterns for the ISGRI layer (15-40 keV) and Uniformly Redundant Array (URA) for the PICsIT layer (up to 10 MeV), achieving an angular resolution of 12 arcminutes full width at half maximum (FWHM). The Spectrometer aboard INTEGRAL (SPI) complemented this with a hexagonal coded mask at approximately 1.7 meters from its 19 germanium detectors, enabling energy-resolved imaging with coarser ~2.5-degree resolution for spectroscopy in the 20 keV to 8 MeV range. These configurations facilitated the detection of over 600 GRBs during the mission, localizing them to arcminute precision for follow-up observations. Data processing involved standard pipelines that apply cross-correlation techniques to decode shadowgrams, accounting for mask-detector geometry and background rejection via active shielding.^[39]^[40]^[41]^[42] Another key mission is the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory, launched on November 20, 2004, into low-Earth orbit. Swift's Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) features a coded-aperture mask of ~52,000 randomly arranged lead tiles, 1 millimeter thick, located 1 meter above a 32,768-element cadmium-zinc-telluride detector array, operating in the 15-150 keV band with 17 arcminute pixel resolution across a 2.4 steradian partially coded field of view. This setup excels at detecting X-ray transients and GRBs, triggering rapid slews for multi-wavelength follow-ups, and integrates spectroscopy by binning events in energy channels for resolved imaging. BAT's pipeline processes event data through energy-dependent focal length corrections and iterative deconvolution, achieving source localizations accurate to 1-4 arcminutes for bright events. As of November 2025, BAT has detected 1,747 GRBs, enabling studies of their afterglows in X-ray, optical, and UV bands.^[38]^[43]^[44] Coded apertures in these missions have contributed to landmark discoveries in high-energy astrophysics. INTEGRAL's IBIS and SPI provided detailed imaging and spectroscopy of black hole binaries, including Cygnus X-1, revealing its hard-state spectrum up to 800 keV and evidence of gamma-ray emission from relativistic jets, refining models of accretion and outflow processes. Similarly, Swift's BAT has localized numerous GRB afterglows, such as those from long-duration events like GRB 080319B and short bursts like GRB 090510, facilitating redshift measurements and multi-messenger correlations up to events in 2025, which have constrained GRB progenitor models and cosmology. These capabilities demonstrate the integration of imaging with spectroscopy, yielding energy-dispersive maps that reveal source variability and polarization hints.^[45]^[46]^[47] Looking ahead, proposed missions like newASTROGAM, an enhanced concept for an ESA medium-class observatory targeting MeV-GeV gamma-ray astronomy, aim to build on these foundations with improved sensitivity—up to 100 times better than INTEGRAL in the MeV band—for deeper surveys of transients and nucleosynthesis sites. As of November 2025, newASTROGAM has advanced past the Step-1 proposal assessment in October 2025 for potential selection in ESA's future calls, with ongoing studies emphasizing wide-field imaging to address gaps in the 0.2-3 MeV range. Such advancements promise enhanced localization and spectroscopic resolution for next-generation high-energy astronomy.^[48]^[49]

Non-Astronomical Uses

Coded aperture technology has found significant applications in medical imaging, particularly in single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) for small animals. In the 2000s, prototypes were developed to enable high-resolution imaging of radiotracer distributions in mice and rats, such as for detecting tumors using common isotopes like technetium-99m.^[50] These systems employ multiple pinholes in a mask to project coded patterns onto a gamma camera, achieving resolutions as fine as 1.7 mm—superior to the 4-6 mm of conventional collimators—while maintaining sensitivity around 4.2 × 10³ counts per second per becquerel.^[50] A key advantage is dose reduction; by improving signal-to-noise ratios, the technique allows lower radiation exposure to subjects, potentially by factors related to the square of the mask's open fraction, without compromising image quality.^[51] More recent implementations, such as those using tungsten masks for imaging actinium-225 daughters in tumor-bearing mice, demonstrate non-invasive tracking of low-activity distributions (e.g., 20 kBq injections) over hours, supporting preclinical evaluation of radiopharmaceuticals with minimal animal use.^[52] In security and defense, coded apertures facilitate gamma-ray imaging for detecting nuclear threats, including in cargo screening. Handheld and portable systems developed in the 2010s by Sandia National Laboratories utilize high-Z masks (e.g., tungsten or lead) with position-sensitive detectors like cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) to modulate and reconstruct images of special nuclear materials, offering high angular resolution for low-flux sources.^[53] These devices enable real-time identification of gamma emitters in cluttered environments, such as shipping containers, by correlating shadow patterns to source locations, with sensitivities suitable for standoff distances of tens of centimeters.^[53] Complementary neutron-coded aperture approaches have also been explored for passive detection of fissile materials, enhancing discrimination against background radiation in border security scenarios.^[54] Industrial applications leverage coded aperture X-ray imaging for non-destructive testing (NDT) of materials, including welds and pipelines in the oil and gas sector. The technique projects coded diffraction or transmission patterns to reveal internal defects like cracks or voids without physical disassembly, providing higher throughput than single-pinhole methods.^[55] For instance, fan-beam coded aperture systems have been applied to inspect metallic components, combining absorption and phase-contrast imaging to assess material integrity in high-pressure environments, such as pipeline welds where traditional radiography may require extensive setup.^[56] This approach supports rapid, on-site evaluations, reducing downtime in industrial operations. Emerging uses in the 2020s integrate coded apertures with artificial intelligence for real-time decoding, particularly in robotics and environmental monitoring. In robotics, AI-optimized reconstruction networks accelerate image recovery from coded patterns, enabling low-latency processing (e.g., milliseconds per frame) for autonomous navigation or threat assessment in confined spaces.^[57] For environmental applications, stereo coded-aperture gamma imagers have mapped radionuclides post-Fukushima, localizing hotspots in 3D with near-field setups to guide decontamination efforts while minimizing worker exposure.^[58] These systems, often drone- or robot-mounted, use maximum-likelihood algorithms enhanced by machine learning to handle noisy data from distributed sources like cesium-137, achieving quantitative flux estimates in real time.^[59] Adaptations for non-astronomical uses emphasize compact designs optimized for near-field imaging, contrasting with the far-field configurations typical in astronomy. Near-field coded apertures mitigate artifacts from overlapping projections by incorporating depth-dependent decoding, such as modified uniformly redundant arrays, allowing flat, portable detectors to achieve sub-millimeter resolutions at distances under 100 mm.^[60] This enables integration into handheld or robotic platforms, where the source-to-mask distance is short, prioritizing sensitivity and field-of-view over the extended baselines required for celestial observations.^[61]

Advantages and Limitations

Key Benefits

Coded aperture systems offer significant advantages over traditional pinhole cameras and focusing optics, particularly in high-energy imaging regimes, by leveraging multiple apertures to enhance signal collection while preserving image quality through computational reconstruction. One primary benefit is high throughput, achieved through larger effective aperture areas that allow for greater photon collection efficiency. Unlike a single pinhole, which limits openness to a tiny fraction, coded masks such as uniformly redundant arrays (URAs) can achieve up to 50% open fraction, leading to sensitivity improvements of up to four times compared to single-pinhole systems.^[62] This results in higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) for weak sources, as the multiple pinholes collectively gather more photons without proportionally increasing noise in the decoded image.^[62] Coded apertures maintain fine angular resolution comparable to pinhole imaging, on the order of arcminutes, without relying on refractive or reflective elements that are impractical at short wavelengths.^[9] This resolution is determined by the mask-detector distance and pinhole size, enabling detailed imaging of compact sources in regimes where diffraction limits conventional optics.^[9] These systems provide a wide field of view, often spanning several degrees, allowing simultaneous imaging of large areas without mechanical scanning.^[62] For instance, configurations can achieve fully coded fields exceeding 40 degrees, far surpassing the narrow FOV of single pinholes or the limited views of focusing telescopes.^[4] Coded apertures are insensitive to photon energy across broad spectra, functioning effectively from keV to MeV ranges where mirrors and lenses fail due to absorption or fabrication challenges.^[9] This versatility stems from their reliance on geometric shadowing rather than focusing, making them suitable for X-ray and gamma-ray detection.^[9] Finally, the design offers cost-effectiveness and simplicity by eliminating the need for complex focusing elements, shifting the imaging burden to post-detection computational decoding.^[9] This approach uses straightforward masks paired with position-sensitive detectors, reducing hardware complexity and enabling compact implementations.^[62]

Challenges and Drawbacks

One significant challenge in coded aperture imaging is the presence of sidelobe artifacts, which manifest as unwanted ghost images in the reconstructed output due to imperfect autocorrelation functions of the mask pattern. These artifacts arise from sidelobes in the point spread function, degrading image contrast and introducing false features that can obscure true sources, particularly in high-contrast scenarios like gamma-ray astronomy. Mitigation strategies include the use of optimized mask codes, such as uniformly redundant arrays (URAs), which minimize sidelobe levels, or post-processing techniques like mismatched filtering to suppress these ghosts without significant loss in signal-to-noise ratio. Certain mask types, such as phase or multi-level designs, can further reduce these artifacts by improving the autocorrelation properties compared to simple binary masks. Coded aperture systems also suffer from limited depth resolution, as the imaging process inherently assumes a far-field approximation where source distance does not affect the shadow pattern, making it difficult to determine the axial position of objects without additional measurements. In near-field applications, such as medical SPECT or industrial inspections, this leads to blurring and distortion because the coded shadow varies with distance, requiring multiple views or stereo configurations to achieve 3D localization. For instance, single-view coded aperture setups can only provide 2D projections, necessitating advanced reconstruction algorithms to estimate depth, though with reduced accuracy in low-signal environments. Noise sensitivity poses another key limitation, particularly from Poisson-distributed photon noise and background radiation, which amplify reconstruction errors in low-count regimes typical of X-ray or gamma-ray imaging. Background contributions degrade the signal-to-noise ratio during decoding, leading to noisier images where faint sources may be lost amid statistical fluctuations, especially when the mask's multiplexing advantage is offset by incomplete coding. This issue is exacerbated in photon-limited scenarios, where iterative reconstruction methods like maximum likelihood expectation maximization (MLEM) are employed to suppress noise, but at the cost of increased processing time. The computational demands of coded aperture decoding represent a substantial hurdle for real-time applications, as inverting the large correlation matrix or applying iterative algorithms requires significant processing power, evolving from offline methods in the 1970s using basic computers to modern GPU-accelerated techniques in the 2020s that enable faster convergence. Early systems relied on direct correlation decoding, which scaled poorly with image size, while contemporary approaches leverage parallel computing on GPUs to handle high-resolution reconstructions in seconds rather than hours, though this still limits deployment on resource-constrained platforms like spacecraft. Fabrication and calibration of coded aperture masks present practical challenges, demanding sub-micron precision in patterning and alignment to ensure the mask's shadow accurately matches the decoding template, as even minor deviations can introduce systematic errors in the reconstructed image. In space-based systems, environmental factors like vibrations can cause mask-detector misalignment over time, necessitating robust mechanical designs and periodic recalibration to maintain imaging fidelity. Advanced fabrication techniques, such as photolithography for thin-film masks, have improved tolerances, but scaling to larger apertures while preserving uniformity remains technically demanding.

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Coded apertures or coded-aperture masks are grids, gratings, or other patterns of materials opaque to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.Rationale · Well known types of masks · Coded-aperture space...
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[PDF] The Wide Field Cameras onboard the BeppoSAX X-ray Astronomy ...
The optimum open fraction of a coded aperture de- pends on the spatial response of the instrument. For the. BeppoSAX WFCs the optimum open fraction lies between.
[13]
[PDF] The Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission - NASA Technical Reports Server
The Swift mission is a multiwavelength observatory for gamma-ray bursts, observing over 100 bursts per year, and is a rapid-slewing satellite.Missing: advancements | Show results with:advancements
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SVOM (Space Variable Objects Monitor) Mission - eoPortal
Jun 1, 2017 · SVOM is a joint Chinese-French mission to study Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) and other cosmic transients using multi-wavelength instruments.
[15]
Recent Advances in Spatially Incoherent Coded Aperture Imaging ...
In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the recently developed CAI techniques in the framework of incoherent digital holography.
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[PDF] Simulation of Coded Mask Imaging - Dr. Karl Remeis-Sternwarte
Jul 11, 2013 · Image reconstruction theory. As already said, coded aperture imaging involves two steps: the encoding of the incident radiation by the ...
[17]
[PDF] Imaging with the Test Setup for the Coded-Mask INTEGRAL ...
'Coded aperture camera imaging concept (March 1996 version)'. available on the World-. Wide-Web at ”http://lheawww.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/cai/coded intr.html”(1996).
[18]
[PDF] Coded Aperture Imaging - White Rose eTheses Online
May 4, 2022 · Here, coded apertures are used to investigate novel approaches to high-energy high-resolution aperture based imaging. Firstly, coded aperture ...
[19]
Non-linear adaptive three-dimensional imaging with ...
The reconstruction results of the NLR technique are compared with the well-known deconvolution technique based on the Richardson-Lucy iterative algorithm (RLA) ...<|separator|>
[20]
Coded aperture imaging with uniformly redundant arrays
### Abstract
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[PDF] UNIFORMLY REDUNDANT ARRAYS 1. Introduction Coded ...
This term was originally introduced by. Fenimore and Cannon (1978) for a particular type of binary arrays with flat periodic autocorrelation sidelobes. Today, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[22]
New family of binary arrays for coded aperture imaging
MURAs are new binary arrays for coded aperture imaging, with unimodular decoding coefficients, equal to URA in performance, and not PN sequences.Missing: 1970s | Show results with:1970s
[23]
Coded Aperture Imaging / Bibliography - NASA/GSFC
Aug 4, 2011 · No X-ray lens is known and image formation by reflection requires glancing incidence optics which have small fields of view and are extremely ...Missing: traditional fail
[24]
[PDF] OG 9.2-1 295 Hexagonal Uniformly Redundant Arrays for Coded ...
Uniformly redundant arrays are used in coded-aperture imaging, a technique for forming im- ages without mirrors or lenses. This technique is especially ...
[25]
[PDF] Coded Aperture Mask and collimator for the CZT detector array of ...
Nov 5, 2003 · These detectors have very good detection efficiency (close to 100% up to 100 keV) and have a superior energy resolution (∼3% at 60 keV) compared ...
[26]
[PDF] New 3D coded aperture collimator for X/gamma-ray wide-field imaging
This paper focuses on the second approach of coded aperture imaging, which allows for imaging radioactive sources across a wide energy range, from a few keV to ...
[27]
[PDF] Coded Aperture Imaging for Fluorescent X-rays-Biomedical ...
Coded apertures encode the angular direction of x-rays, and given a known source plane, allow for a large Numerical. Aperture x-ray imaging system. The ...
[28]
https://inis.iaea.org/records/j93wh-ay098/files/epjconf_animma2023_07011.pdf
[29]
Phase Modulation Fresnel Zone Aperture for Image Resolution ...
Abstract: Use of phase modulation Fresnel zone aperture (FZA) is proposed for suppressing diffraction in FZA-based lensless camera. The effectiveness of the ...
[30]
Lensless imaging with a programmable Fresnel zone aperture
Mar 21, 2025 · Our method combines the phase-shifting method in digital holography to obtain both the intensity and phase information of the subaperture ...
[31]
Spatial Ensemble Mapping for Coded Aperture Imaging—A Tutorial
The phase distribution obtained at the sensor plane by Fresnel propagation is combined with the ideal phase distribution. The process is iterated to obtain a ...
[32]
An optimal binary amplitude-phase mask for hybrid imaging systems ...
Nov 26, 2008 · The design of a circularly symmetric hybrid imaging system that exhibits high resolution as well as extended depth of field is presented.
[33]
A Phase-coded Aperture Camera with Programmable Optics
We use a reflective phaseonly liquid crystal-based Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) for phase modulation. Via encoding a grayscale image on the SLM, the refractive ...
[34]
Adaptive Coded-Aperture Imaging With Subpixel Superresolution
Mar 1, 2012 · We describe an adaptive coded-aperture imager operating in the midwave IR. This consists of a coded-aperture mask, a set of optics, and a 4k ...Missing: MEMS liquid crystals post- 2010
[35]
Instruments IBIS - INTEGRAL - ESA Cosmos
IBIS is a coded-aperture instrument for fine imaging, source identification, and spectral sensitivity between 15 keV and 10 MeV, with two detector planes.Missing: amplitude- phase hybrid
[36]
About Swift - BAT Instrument Description
Feb 14, 2012 · Since the BAT coded aperture ... While searching for bursts, the BAT performs an all-sky hard X-ray survey and monitors for hard X-ray transients.
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INTEGRAL (INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory)
Nov 23, 2017 · A hexagonal coded aperture ... It consists of two identical instruments and, like IBIS and SPI, uses the coded-mask technique for imaging.
[38]
[PDF] SPI Observer's Manual
Mar 1, 2021 · SPI is a coded mask spectrometer, composed of the following main subsystems: - the camera, with 19 cooled, hexagonally shaped, high purity ...
[39]
The INTEGRAL/IBIS scientific data analysis [*]
We report here the general description of the IBIS coded-mask imaging system and of the standard IBIS science data analysis procedures.
[40]
[PDF] The Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) on the Swift MIDEX mission - arXiv
The BAT also performs an all-sky hard x- ray survey with a sensitivity of ~2 mCrab (systematic limit) and it serves as a hard x-ray transient monitor. Keywords: ...
[41]
Swift GRB Stats - NASA
Jun 11, 2025 · Swift GRB Stats: ; XRT Detections, 1423 ; XRT Non-Detections (slew < 300 secs), 34 ; UVOT Observations, 1473 ; UVOT Detections, 540 ; UVOT Detections ...
[42]
The broad-band spectrum of Cygnus X-1 measured by INTEGRAL
The INTEGRAL satellite extensively observed the black hole binary Cygnus X-1 from 2002 November to 2004 November during calibration, open time and core program.
[43]
THE AFTERGLOWS OF SWIFT-ERA GAMMA-RAY BURSTS. I ...
We have gathered optical photometry data from the literature on a large sample of Swift-era gamma-ray burst (GRB) afterglows including GRBs up to 2009 September ...
[44]
Swift » GRBs - NASA
Any detections by Swift's instruments are also recorded in this table. Indicate which observatories you'd like included in the table. Select ...
[45]
e-ASTROGAM : towards a new space mission for gamma-ray ...
The proposed space telescope is design to cover a wide spectral band (200 keV to 3 GeV) with a sensitivity in the MeV range about 100 times better than the ...
[46]
The e-ASTROGAM mission Exploring the extreme Universe with ...
Nov 1, 2025 · The mission is based on an advanced space-proven detector technology, with unprecedented sensitivity , angular and energy resolution, combined ...
[47]
Coded aperture nuclear scintigraphy: a novel small animal imaging ...
We introduce and demonstrate the utility of coded aperture (CA) nuclear scintigraphy for imaging small animals. CA imaging uses multiple pinholes in a ...Missing: SPECT portable tumor detection 2000s
[48]
Reduction in Irradiation Dose in Aperture Coded Enhanced ... - NIH
This means that we can reduce the irradiation dose by a factor of M2 and then have effectively the same number of rays passing through the same voxel of ...
[49]
[PDF] Coded Aperture and Compton Imaging for the Development ... - arXiv
Dec 15, 2022 · This paper includes images of 221Fr and 213Bi in tumor-bearing mice injected with 225Ac-based radiopharmaceuticals. These results are the first ...<|separator|>
[50]
[PDF] Aperture-based radiation imaging techniques - OSTI.GOV
Jul 23, 2020 · Time-encoded imaging (TEI) is analogous to coded aperture imaging: • The spatial modulation of a particle flux induced by a fixed mask on a ...
[51]
[PDF] Fast-Neutron Coded-Aperture Imaging of Special Nuclear Material ...
In the past year, a prototype fast-neutron coded-aperture imager has been developed that has sufficient efficiency and resolution to make the counting of ...
[52]
Medicine, material science and security: the versatility of the coded ...
Mar 6, 2014 · To date, we have applied the technique to mammography, materials science, small-animal imaging, non-destructive testing and security. In this ...
[53]
X-ray fan beam coded aperture transmission and diffraction imaging ...
May 19, 2021 · Applications of this technology are reported in geological imaging, pharmaceutical inspection, and medical diagnosis. The performance of the ...
[54]
[PDF] Coded-Aperture Computational Millimeter-wave Image Classifier ...
Sep 3, 2021 · A classification latency of 3.8 ms per frame is achieved, paving the way for real-time automated threat detection (ATD) for security-screening.
[55]
Coded-aperture based stereo gamma-ray imager for near field 3-D ...
These maps can contribute to reducing the exposure of radiation workers to ensure efficient decontamination during the decommissioning of nuclear power plants.
[56]
Quantitative gamma-ray imaging with coded aperture method - NIH
Apr 26, 2025 · In particular, sophisticated coded aperture imaging techniques have been researched, and numerous coded aperture gamma imaging instrument types ...
[57]
Near-field artifact reduction in planar coded aperture imaging
These arrays, however, guarantee a perfect point-spread function in far-field applications only. When these arrays are used in the near-field, artifacts arise.Missing: compact | Show results with:compact<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Design of a near-field coded aperture cameras for high-resolution ...
When the coded apertures successful in far-field problems are used in near-field geometry, images are affected by extensive artifacts. The classic remedy is to ...Missing: compact | Show results with:compact
[59]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12032228/
[60]
Quantitative gamma-ray imaging with coded aperture method - Nature
Apr 26, 2025 · A multi-sensor radiation imaging system that fuses gamma-ray images, optical pictures, and 3D point clouds into a single vision is what we have created.