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Coma Cluster

The Coma Cluster, formally designated Abell 1656, is a prototypical rich galaxy cluster situated in the constellation Coma Berenices, approximately 320 million light-years from Earth.^[1] It spans a diameter exceeding 20 million light-years and harbors thousands of galaxies, predominantly elliptical and lenticular types, making it one of the densest known concentrations of galaxies in the nearby universe.^[2] The cluster's core is dominated by two massive elliptical galaxies, NGC 4874 and NGC 4889, which together with surrounding dwarf galaxies and hot intracluster medium form a gravitationally bound structure with significant implications for cosmology.^[3] This cluster, part of the larger Coma Supercluster, was first systematically studied in the early 20th century and serves as a key laboratory for understanding galaxy evolution, intracluster dynamics, and the role of dark matter.^[4] Observations reveal a velocity dispersion of around 1,000 km/s among its member galaxies, far exceeding what the visible mass alone could sustain, providing early evidence for dark matter comprising about 90% of the cluster's total mass of roughly 1.5 × 10¹⁵ solar masses.^[5] The intracluster gas, heated to temperatures of approximately 90 million Kelvin (kT ≈ 8 keV), emits copious X-rays detectable across the cluster, highlighting processes like ram-pressure stripping that quench star formation in infalling spirals.^[6] Notable features include a population of over 22,000 globular clusters associated with the central galaxies and evidence of substructures, such as merging groups, that trace the cluster's assembly history.^[7] Hubble Space Telescope surveys have resolved intricate details, revealing dwarf galaxies and tidal streams that illuminate hierarchical structure formation in the local universe.^[8] As a relatively nearby and well-studied system, the Coma Cluster continues to inform models of cosmic web evolution and the distribution of baryonic versus dark matter on large scales.^[9]

Overview and Discovery

Historical Background

The brightest galaxies of the Coma Cluster were first observed by William Herschel in 1785, though not recognized as a cluster until later.^[10] The cluster was studied in detail by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in 1933, who utilized the 100-inch Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory to observe extragalactic nebulae in the region.^[11] Zwicky measured redshifts for several galaxies within the cluster, revealing a remarkably high line-of-sight velocity dispersion of around 1,000 km/s, which suggested the existence of substantial unseen mass necessary to maintain the gravitational binding of the system.^[12]^[13] This observation marked an early recognition of the cluster as a dynamically significant assembly of galaxies, distinct from isolated systems or looser groups.^[14] Building on these foundational insights, Zwicky and his collaborators expanded their efforts in the early 1950s through systematic photographic surveys conducted at Palomar Observatory, employing the 48-inch Samuel Oschin Schmidt telescope as part of the National Geographic Society-Palomar Observatory Sky Survey.^[15] These surveys meticulously cataloged galaxies and clusters across the northern sky, identifying over 1,000 member galaxies associated with the Coma Cluster in what became the multi-volume Catalogue of Galaxies and of Clusters of Galaxies (published between 1961 and 1968).^[16] Concurrently, George O. Abell's independent analysis of the same Palomar plates culminated in his 1958 catalog of 2,712 rich clusters, formally designating the Coma Cluster as Abell 1656 based on its high density and extent.^[17] These efforts established the cluster's richness and provided a comprehensive inventory that facilitated subsequent dynamical and morphological studies. By the 1970s, advancing redshift surveys integrated the Coma Cluster into a broader cosmic context, with observations demonstrating its embedding within the Coma Supercluster—a filamentary structure encompassing multiple clusters and groups spanning several megaparsecs.^[18] Pioneering work by Steve A. Gregory and Laird A. Thompson in 1978 used redshifts from 238 galaxies to map this supercluster, revealing connections to nearby aggregates like Abell 1367 and highlighting the hierarchical nature of large-scale structure.^[19] This recognition underscored the Coma Cluster's role as a central node in the emerging picture of the universe's web-like distribution of matter.

Physical Properties

The Coma Cluster is situated in the constellation Coma Berenices, with central coordinates at right ascension 12h 59m and declination +28° (J2000 epoch).^[20] This rich galaxy cluster spans an angular extent of approximately 2 degrees across the sky, which corresponds to a physical diameter of about 6 Mpc given its distance of roughly 100 Mpc.^[21]^[22] Estimates of the cluster's total mass, derived from weak gravitational lensing and galaxy dynamics, place it at approximately $1.5 \times 10^{15} M_\odot, highlighting its status as one of the most massive nearby structures.^[23]^[24] At the cluster's core, two dominant cD-type elliptical galaxies, NGC 4874 and NGC 4889, serve as the brightest members, each harboring extensive envelopes of stars and globular clusters that contribute to the central density.^[3] The line-of-sight velocity dispersion of galaxies within the Coma Cluster measures around 1,000 km/s, a value that underscores the deep potential well and dynamically relaxed state of its core region.^[25]

Structure and Composition

Galaxy Members

The Coma Cluster hosts a rich population of galaxies, with over 1,000 confirmed members identified within a projected radius of approximately 3.8 Mpc from its center. A comprehensive 2024 catalog, derived from multiwavelength data including deep imaging from the Subaru Telescope and other facilities, has expanded this to 2,157 spectroscopically and photometrically confirmed members, providing the most extensive census to date. This population is characterized by a strong dominance of early-type galaxies, including ellipticals and lenticulars, which comprise roughly 80% of the bright members, while late-type spirals constitute a much smaller fraction owing to the cluster's dense environment.^[26]^[27]^[28] The prevalence of early-type galaxies reflects environmental processes that quench star formation in infalling spirals, transforming them into lenticulars through mechanisms such as ram-pressure stripping and galaxy harassment. For instance, the spiral galaxy D100 exhibits clear signs of ram-pressure stripping, as revealed by Hubble Space Telescope imaging in ultraviolet, blue, and red filters, which shows a prominent tail of stripped interstellar gas extending over 60 kpc behind the galaxy as it plunges toward the cluster core. This tail, containing molecular gas with a total mass of about 10^9 solar masses, hosts young stellar complexes aged 1–50 million years, indicating ongoing but inefficient star formation amid the stripping process.^[29]^[29] Substructures within the cluster highlight dynamic interactions among member galaxies. The NGC 4839 group represents an infalling subgroup southwest of the core, with its motion evidenced by a faint intracluster light (ICL) bridge connecting it to the central region, as mapped in deep 2025 observations spanning 1.5 Mpc. This stellar bridge, aligned with X-ray and radio features, suggests the group passed through the core approximately 1.2 billion years ago, stripping stars that now contribute to the diffuse ICL. Additionally, the 2023 discovery of the Giant Coma Stream—a thin, free-floating stellar structure spanning 510 kpc (over 10 times the diameter of the Milky Way)—demonstrates tidal disruptions between galaxies, likely from the accretion of a dwarf progenitor with a stellar mass of about 7 × 10^7 solar masses, consistent with hierarchical cluster assembly.^[30]^[31]

Intracluster Medium

The intracluster medium (ICM) of the Coma Cluster consists primarily of a hot, diffuse plasma composed of ionized hydrogen and helium, permeating the space between galaxies.^[32] This plasma reaches temperatures of approximately 8–9 keV, equivalent to about 100 million Kelvin, with an average density on the order of 0.001 particles per cubic centimeter.^[32]^[6] The total mass of the ICM in the Coma Cluster is estimated at around 10¹⁴ solar masses, accounting for roughly 10% of the cluster's total mass and forming the dominant component of its baryonic matter, which comprises 10–15% of the overall mass budget.^[32] This gaseous reservoir plays a crucial role in the cluster's thermal balance, where heating primarily arises from shock waves generated during galaxy group mergers, such as the ongoing infall of the NGC 4839 group. Additionally, radiative cooling of the ICM is suppressed by feedback from active galactic nuclei (AGN) in the central dominant galaxies, like NGC 4874, which inject energy through outflows and maintain the plasma's high entropy.^[33] A faint stellar component, known as intracluster light (ICL), also contributes to the ICM as diffuse stars stripped from infalling galaxies. Recent deep imaging from the HERON Coma Cluster Project in 2025 has revealed extensive ICL structures spanning 1.5 Mpc, including clumpy, filamentous distributions and diffuse bridges connecting the cluster core to substructures like the NGC 4839 group, evidencing tidal stripping over the past ~1.2 billion years.^[34] These observations highlight the ICL's role in tracing the dynamical history of the cluster's assembly.^[34]

Multiwavelength Observations

Optical and Radio Studies

Optical observations of the Coma Cluster have utilized the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), particularly through the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) Treasury Survey, to obtain deep, high-resolution imaging in the F475W and F814W bands across a 278 arcmin² region in the cluster core.^[35] This survey resolves fine structures in galaxy cores, including nuclear star clusters, bars, and disks in dwarf galaxies at scales of approximately 50 parsecs, revealing a population of compact stellar systems and intergalactic globular clusters that provide insights into the cluster's dynamical history.^[36] Such resolved imaging highlights the morphological diversity of early-type galaxies and the stripping effects on infalling members, contributing to understanding environmental influences on galaxy evolution within the dense cluster environment.^[37] Spectroscopic studies, leveraging data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), have measured redshifts for over 20,000 galaxies in the Coma region, confirming cluster membership for approximately 8,000 objects with velocities around 7,000 km/s and identifying velocity substructures indicative of ongoing mergers and infalling groups. These observations reveal distinct kinematic components, such as the main body and subgroups like the NGC 4839 group, with velocity dispersions supporting a complex dynamical state.^[38] Complementary weak-lensing analyses from optical surveys, including SDSS Data Release 5, have mapped the projected mass distribution, estimating a virial mass of (1.88 ± 0.6) × 10^{15} h^{-1} M_⊙ within r_{200} ≈ 2 h^{-1} Mpc, tracing substructures aligned with galaxy overdensities.^[39] In 2024, observations with the Subaru Telescope's Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) provided a weak-lensing detection of intracluster filaments at the Coma Cluster's edges, spanning several million light-years and connecting to the larger cosmic web, with significance greater than 3σ based on shear and convergence maps from a 12 deg² field. These filaments, aligned with large-scale structure predictions, exhibit overdensities correlated with the cluster's mass reconstruction and highlight the role of accretion in cluster growth.^[40] Radio studies of the Coma Cluster, conducted with the Very Large Array (VLA), have detected diffuse synchrotron emission from relativistic electrons in the intracluster medium, manifesting as a central radio halo and peripheral relics associated with merger-induced shocks.^[41] The VLA observations at 1.4 GHz reveal a radio halo extending over 2 Mpc with a spectral index of approximately -1.0, powered by turbulent reacceleration during cluster mergers, while relics show steeper spectra indicative of shock acceleration at infall regions.^[42] These non-thermal emissions trace shock fronts with Mach numbers around 2-3, linking radio structures to the cluster's dynamical substructures observed optically.^[43]

X-ray Emissions

The first detection of X-ray emission from the Coma Cluster occurred in 1966 through a balloon-borne experiment launched by the Goddard Space Flight Center, which identified an extended source centered on the cluster. This initial observation was confirmed and quantified in 1971 by the Uhuru satellite, revealing an X-ray luminosity of $2.6 \times 10^{44} erg/s in the 0.1–4.0 keV energy band, consistent with thermal bremsstrahlung from hot intracluster gas.^[44] High-resolution observations with the Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton telescope have mapped the extended morphology of the emission, showing diffuse, elongated structures tracing the intracluster medium out to large radii.^[45]^[46] These data indicate a central flux of (319.20 \pm 2.6\% ) \times 10^{-12} erg s^{-1} cm^{-2} in the 0.1–2.4 keV band, with temperature gradients revealing cooler gas near the core (around 7–8 keV) transitioning to hotter regions (up to 10–12 keV) toward the northwest, suggestive of ongoing mergers.^[46] Comparisons between X-ray images and radio observations highlight shocks and low-density cavities in the intracluster medium, linked to past active galactic nucleus outbursts from the central dominant galaxy NGC 4874, whose wide-angle-tail radio source aligns with these features.^[47]^[48] Spectral fitting of the X-ray data yields metal abundances of approximately 0.3 solar in the intracluster medium, primarily from enrichment by Type Ia and core-collapse supernovae in cluster member galaxies.^[49]

Dark Matter and Dynamics

Evidence for Dark Matter

The foundational evidence for dark matter in the Coma Cluster stems from Fritz Zwicky's 1933 application of the virial theorem to the cluster's galaxy motions, revealing a significant discrepancy between dynamical and luminous mass estimates.^[50] Zwicky measured redshifts for galaxies in the Coma Cluster, determining a line-of-sight velocity dispersion \sigma \approx 1000 km/s, far exceeding expectations for a gravitationally bound system based on visible matter alone.^[13] He invoked the virial theorem, which for a self-gravitating system equates twice the total kinetic energy to the absolute value of the gravitational potential energy, to derive a dynamical mass estimator. The specific form used for galaxy clusters is M_{\vir} = \frac{3 \pi \sigma^2 R_h}{G}, where R_h is the harmonic mean radius of the system and G is the gravitational constant; this estimator assumes an isotropic velocity distribution and projects the three-dimensional dynamics from observed line-of-sight data.^[51] Applying this to Coma with \sigma \approx 1000 km/s and an estimated radius yielded M \approx 10^{15} M_\odot.^[13] In comparison, Zwicky's estimate of the visible mass—based on approximately 800 galaxies each with an assumed mass of $10^{11} M_\odot from their luminosities—totaled about $10^{14} M_\odot, implying that non-luminous "dark matter" comprised roughly 90% of the cluster's total mass to account for the observed velocities.^[50] This mass-to-light ratio, exceeding 400 in solar units within the cluster's characteristic radius, highlighted the need for unseen mass to prevent the galaxies from escaping.^[52] Contemporary analyses using expanded galaxy velocity samples and refined distance measurements (placing Coma at ~100 Mpc) confirm Zwicky's inference, with dynamical masses from virial methods estimating (1-3) \times 10^{15} M_\odot h^{-1} and baryonic contributions (from stars and intracluster gas) limited to 10-20% of the total, yielding a dark matter fraction of 80-90%.^[53] These results, derived from comparing galaxy counts and luminosity functions to kinematic data, underscore the dominance of dark matter in maintaining the cluster's stability without invoking modified gravity.^[54]

Mass Distribution and Filaments

Gravitational lensing studies of the Coma Cluster have provided detailed maps of its mass distribution, revealing concentrations of dark matter that align closely with overdensities of galaxies. Using weak-lensing data from the Subaru Telescope's Suprime-Cam, researchers identified multiple mass peaks corresponding to subhalos, where the total mass is dominated by dark matter, particularly in the cluster's outskirts beyond the central regions.^[55] These peaks demonstrate that dark matter traces the large-scale structure of the cluster, with subhalo masses ranging from $10^{11} to $10^{14} M_\odot, emphasizing the dominance of non-baryonic matter in shaping the gravitational potential.^[55] Recent observations with Subaru's Hyper Suprime-Cam have extended these mappings to detect dark matter filaments at the cluster's periphery, marking the first direct weak-lensing evidence of such structures in a nearby cluster environment. In 2024, intracluster filaments were identified with significances of 3.1σ to 6.6σ, stretching across millions of light-years and connecting the Coma Cluster to the broader cosmic web of the Coma Supercluster.^[56] These terminal filament segments, aligned with large-scale overdensities greater than 10 Mpc, confirm theoretical predictions of matter accretion along the cosmic web, with dark matter concentrations correlating strongly with weak-lensing shear signals.^[56] X-ray observations enable the derivation of hydrostatic mass profiles, assuming the intracluster medium is in equilibrium, to quantify the dark matter halo's extent. The enclosed mass within radius r is given by

M(<r) = -\frac{r k T}{G \mu m_H} \left( \frac{d \ln \rho}{d \ln r} + \frac{d \ln T}{d \ln r} \right),

where k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the gas temperature, G is the gravitational constant, \mu is the mean molecular weight, and m_H is the hydrogen atom mass; this yields a consistent Navarro-Frenk-White-like dark matter halo profile extending to R_{200} \approx 2.1 Mpc.^[48] Recent SRG/eROSITA data, analyzing surface brightness and temperature profiles in the 0.4–2 keV band, reveal the structure of this massive halo, with M_{500} \approx 6 \times 10^{14} M_\odot from Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect measurements, where dark matter accounts for the majority of the total mass.^[48]^[57] Substructure analysis highlights infalling groups, such as the NGC 4839 group merging with Coma from the southwest, where weak-lensing and X-ray data reveal offsets between dark matter and baryonic components. Chandra and XMM-Newton observations show a prominent tail of stripped hot gas extending ~600 kpc behind the group, separated from the dark matter peak traced by lensing, consistent with ram-pressure stripping during infall.^[58] Numerical simulations of this post-merger scenario predict that the dark matter remains bound to the galaxy core moving northeast, while baryonic gas is displaced southwest, reproducing the observed morphology and supporting the group's recent passage through the cluster core.^[58]

Cosmological Importance

Distance Measurements

The Coma Cluster has a mean redshift of z = 0.0235, corresponding to an observed recession velocity of approximately 7,050 km/s. This value requires correction for the Local Group's peculiar velocity of about 300 km/s toward the Virgo Cluster, yielding a Hubble flow velocity suitable for distance estimation via the Hubble law. Assuming a Hubble constant of H_0 \approx 70 km/s/Mpc, the redshift-based distance is roughly 100 Mpc, though this depends on the adopted H_0 value and highlights the interplay between velocity corrections and cosmological parameters.^[59] Traditional distance estimates to the Coma Cluster relied on the Tully-Fisher relation for spiral galaxies, calibrated using Cepheid variable stars in nearby galaxies. These methods produced distances in the range of 99–103 Mpc (equivalent to 321–336 million light-years), providing a benchmark for the cluster's position in the local universe and enabling derivations of its physical scale and mass. For instance, B-band Tully-Fisher applications to Coma member galaxies yielded a distance modulus consistent with this range, establishing the cluster as a key calibrator for extragalactic distance ladders.^[60]^[61] In January 2025, observations of 13 Type Ia supernovae in the Coma Cluster, calibrated with the Hubble Space Telescope distance ladder, yielded a distance of 98.5 ± 2.2 Mpc (approximately 321 ± 7 million light-years), consistent with prior estimates but with higher precision. This measurement serves as an anchor for the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) distance ladder.^[62]^[63] Refinements to the surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) method continue, with a July 2025 study using JWST tip-of-the-red-giant-branch distances to nearby galaxies to update the HST SBF zero-point calibration, reducing systematic uncertainties. The JWST SBF Coma Cluster Survey (Cycle 3, observations starting late 2025) targets 39 early-type member galaxies to provide precise SBF distances and further validate the method. A proposed JWST Cycle 4 extension aims to measure additional Coma galaxies for 1% precision.^[64]^[65] This distance has significant implications for the Hubble constant H_0, as the Coma Cluster serves as an intermediate anchor in local distance ladders. Applying the 98.5 Mpc distance to the cluster's corrected recession velocity yields local H_0 estimates of approximately 76 km/s/Mpc from DESI calibration, exacerbating the Hubble tension with cosmic microwave background-derived values of approximately 67 km/s/Mpc from Planck data—a discrepancy of about 9 km/s/Mpc that challenges standard \LambdaCDM cosmology.^[62]^[63]

Role in Galaxy Cluster Research

The Coma Cluster serves as a prototype for rich, relaxed galaxy clusters, characterized by its dynamical equilibrium and absence of recent major mergers, in contrast to unrelaxed systems like the Bullet Cluster, which exhibit prominent merger dynamics and separated gas and gravitational mass components. This relaxed state makes Coma an ideal benchmark for studying the steady-state evolution of massive clusters, including intracluster processes such as galaxy harassment and tidal stripping.^[66] The cluster plays a key role in testing dark matter models, where hydrodynamic simulations demonstrate that the observed filamentary accretion of gas and the buildup of intracluster light (ICL) align closely with predicted dark matter distributions in relaxed environments.^[67] Recent deep imaging reveals a clumpy, filamentous ICL network in Coma, connecting galaxy groups and reflecting ongoing dynamical interactions that match simulation outcomes for dark matter halo evolution. The JWST Surface Brightness Fluctuation (SBF) Coma Cluster Survey (Cycle 3, observations starting late 2025) targets 39 early-type member galaxies to refine their distances, providing an independent calibration for the SBF method that enhances the accuracy of Type Ia supernova distances in cosmology. This effort builds an alternative precision distance ladder, extending SBF applicability beyond previous Hubble Space Telescope limits.^[65] Compared to the nearer Virgo Cluster, Coma is more distant yet significantly richer in galaxies, positioning it as a benchmark for investigating intracluster medium evolution and active galactic nucleus feedback processes in denser environments.^[68]^[69] Ongoing research with the Euclid mission, launched in 2023, includes mapping faint cluster members in fields encompassing Coma, enabling the detection of ultra-diffuse galaxies and further probing low-surface-brightness populations.^[70]^[71]

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Discovery of "Dark Matter" In Clusters of Galaxies
In his 1933 paper, he had concluded (in van den Bergh's ... clusters, would have a significantly larger velocity dispersion than they in fact have.
[52]
The Dynamical Mass of the Coma Cluster from Deep Learning - arXiv
Jun 29, 2022 · Here, we present new estimates for the dynamical mass of the Coma cluster based on Bayesian deep learning methodologies developed in recent years.Missing: visible 14 fraction
[53]
[PDF] Clusters of Galaxies Ch 7 S&G ! Coma Cluster-the nearest massive ...
By the early 1970's it became clear that clusters of galaxies were dominated by dark matter with galaxies representing less than 5% of the total mass and that ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage<|separator|>
[54]
Subaru Weak-lensing Survey of Dark Matter Subhalos in the Coma ...
Abstract. We present a 4 deg2 weak gravitational lensing survey of subhalos in the very nearby Coma cluster using the Subaru/Suprime-Cam.
[55]
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ApJ...784...90O/abstract
[56]
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41550-023-02164-w
[57]
The Velocity Dispersion Function of Very Massive Galaxy Clusters
The Coma cluster has a redshift of z = 0.0235 and a velocity dispersion of ∼ 950 km s −1 (Sohn et al. 2017 ). We will use the standard cosmological parameters ...
[58]
The distance to the Coma cluster using the B-band Tully-Fisher ...
For the three calibrators without Cepheids distance (NGC 247, 253, 7703), we assigned an error of 1.0 mag. Attempts have often been made to increase the ...
[59]
Tully-Fisher distances to M31-like galaxies in the Coma cluster
The distance moduli of these seven galaxies obtained by application of a blue-band Tully-Fisher (TF ) relation are used to measure the distance to the Coma ...
[60]
The TRGB−SBF Project. III. Refining the HST Surface Brightness Fluctuation Distance Scale Calibration with JWST - IOPscience
### Summary of Coma Cluster Distance and Related Information
[61]
[PDF] 5989 - The JWST SBF Coma Cluster Survey
The Coma cluster is the nearest rich cluster in the universe and a key touchstone for the extragalactic distance scale. Precise extragalactic distances are at ...
[62]
The Hubble Tension in Our Own Backyard: DESI and the Nearness ...
Jan 15, 2025 · The Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) collaboration measured a tight relation between the Hubble constant (H 0 ) and the distance to the Coma cluster.
[63]
DESI and the Nearness of the Coma Cluster - ADS
This distance results in H0 = 76.5 ± 2.2 km s‑1 Mpc‑1 from the DESI FP relation. Inverting the DESI relation by calibrating it instead to the Planck+ΛCDM value ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
Our Best Friend, the Coma Cluster (A Historical Review) - A. Biviano
The lower limit he set to the velocity dispersion of Coma, sigma v > 630 km/s, was still too high to get rid of the dark matter problem. 4 Throughout this ...
[65]
Tracing Dark Matter in the Central Regions of Galaxy Clusters Using ...
Our findings reveal that the spatial distributions of ICL combined with the BCG and gas closely resemble the dark matter distribution, with higher fidelity ...
[66]
A DEEP VERY LARGE ARRAY RADIO CONTINUUM SURVEY OF ...
At z = 0.0231 (Struble & Rood 1999) it is nearby, yet significantly richer than Virgo and more accessible than Perseus (A426), which lies near the Galactic ...
[67]
Groups and Cluster of Galaxies
The Coma Cluster is a much richer cluster, about six times farther away than the Virgo Cluster. central 1 Mpc of Coma in optical · central 1 Mpc of Coma in Xray ...
[68]
Euclid Consortium – A space mission to map the Dark Universe
The Euclid Consortium has been planning, constructing and will be running the Euclid Dark Universe mission, that has been launched on 1 July 2023.Euclid STAR Prize 2023 · Euclid Videos · Euclid community · The Euclid BlogMissing: Coma Cluster faint ultra- diffuse
[69]
Euclid: Early Release Observations -- Dwarf galaxies in the Perseus ...
May 22, 2024 · A relatively high fraction of galaxies, 8%, are categorised as ultra-diffuse galaxies. The majority of the dwarfs follow the expected ...Missing: telescope | Show results with:telescope