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Coombs test

The Coombs test, also known as the antiglobulin test, is a serological laboratory procedure that detects non-agglutinating antibodies or complement proteins attached to red blood cells (in the direct variant) or circulating freely in serum (in the indirect variant), enabling the identification of immune-mediated destruction of erythrocytes.^[1] Developed in 1945 by British immunologists Robert Royston Amos Coombs, Arthur Ernest Mourant, and Robert Russell Race, the test was initially devised to identify weak or "incomplete" Rh antibodies that do not cause direct agglutination but sensitize red cells for hemolysis, revolutionizing blood typing and transfusion medicine.^[2] Named after its primary developer, the test remains a cornerstone in hematology for diagnosing immune hemolytic anemias, monitoring transfusion reactions, and screening for hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN).^[3]^[4] The direct antiglobulin test (DAT), the more commonly referenced form of the Coombs test, assesses whether a patient's red blood cells have been coated in vivo with immunoglobulins (typically IgG) or complement components (such as C3d), which can occur in autoimmune conditions or alloimmune responses.^[1] It is performed by collecting a venous blood sample, washing the red cells three times to remove unbound plasma proteins, and then adding polyspecific anti-human globulin (AHG) reagent containing antibodies against human IgG and complement, centrifuging, and examining for visible agglutination or hemolysis, which indicates a positive result.^[3] Positive DAT results are associated with disorders like warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA), drug-induced hemolytic anemia, delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions, and HDN due to maternal-fetal Rh incompatibility.^[1]^[5] In contrast, the indirect antiglobulin test (IAT) evaluates serum for unbound antibodies by mixing patient plasma with reagent red blood cells expressing known antigens, incubating at 37°C to allow binding, washing to remove unbound material, and adding AHG; agglutination detects potential reactivity, making it vital for antibody identification in prenatal care and cross-matching donor blood to prevent incompatible transfusions.^[4]^[6] Clinically, the Coombs test's sensitivity has evolved with advancements in reagents and automation, though false negatives can arise from low-affinity antibodies or prozone effects, while false positives may occur due to improper washing or non-specific protein adsorption.^[1] It is routinely integrated into blood bank protocols worldwide, with a positive DAT found in 1% to 15% of hospitalized patients, often prompting further investigation into underlying autoimmune, infectious, or neoplastic causes.^[3] Despite its age, the test's foundational role in immunohematology underscores its enduring value, with modern variants like gel column or solid-phase methods enhancing precision without altering the core antiglobulin principle established over 75 years ago.^[7]

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

The Coombs test, also known as the antiglobulin test, is a serological laboratory procedure that utilizes anti-human globulin to detect non-agglutinating (incomplete) antibodies or complement proteins bound to the surface of red blood cells (RBCs) or present in serum.^[1] This test identifies immune-mediated interactions that do not cause direct visible agglutination but can lead to RBC destruction.^[8] The test comprises two primary variants: the direct antiglobulin test (DAT), which examines patient RBCs for bound antibodies or complement already attached to their surface, and the indirect antiglobulin test (IAT), which assesses serum for unbound antibodies capable of binding to test RBCs.^[4] The DAT is particularly useful for confirming in vivo sensitization of RBCs, while the IAT evaluates potential antibody activity in vitro.^[9] The primary purposes of the Coombs test include diagnosing immune hemolytic anemias, such as autoimmune hemolytic anemia, where antibodies target and destroy the patient's own RBCs.^[10] It is essential in transfusion medicine for cross-matching donor blood to prevent hemolytic transfusion reactions by detecting incompatible antibodies.^[1] Additionally, the IAT facilitates antenatal screening in pregnant individuals to identify alloantibodies that may cause hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) through maternal-fetal RBC incompatibility.^[11] The test also aids in investigating drug-induced hemolysis, where certain medications trigger antibody formation against RBCs, leading to anemia.^[12] In transfusion medicine and immunology, the Coombs test holds significant clinical value by enabling early detection of immune-mediated RBC disorders, thereby guiding therapeutic interventions like immunosuppression or compatible blood selection to mitigate risks of hemolysis.^[1]

Basic Principle

The Coombs test, also known as the antiglobulin test, relies on the detection of incomplete antibodies that bind to red blood cell (RBC) antigens without causing direct visible agglutination. Complete antibodies, such as IgM, are capable of direct agglutination due to their large pentameric structure, which allows them to cross-link multiple RBCs effectively in saline suspension. In contrast, incomplete antibodies, predominantly IgG, possess a smaller bivalent structure with high binding affinity for RBC antigens but fail to bridge cells sufficiently for observable clumping under standard conditions, instead merely coating the RBC surface.^[13]^[14] This coating process, termed sensitization, occurs when IgG antibodies attach to specific antigens on the RBC membrane, marking the cells for immune-mediated destruction. Sensitized RBCs can undergo extravascular hemolysis through phagocytosis by macrophages in the reticuloendothelial system, which recognize the Fc portion of the bound IgG via Fc receptors. Alternatively, sensitization may activate the classical complement pathway, leading to the deposition of complement components on the RBC surface and potential intravascular lysis if the membrane attack complex forms.^[1]^[3] Complement plays a key role in certain variants of the test, where antibodies like those in cold agglutinin disease fix complement proteins (e.g., C3b) to the RBCs during sensitization. The terminal complement fragment C3d, a stable degradation product, remains bound to the membrane and can be detected using polyspecific Coombs reagents containing anti-C3d antibodies, indicating complement involvement in the immune response.^[1]^[15] The core reaction of the Coombs test involves adding anti-human globulin (Coombs reagent) to washed RBCs, which binds to the human IgG or complement components already attached to the cells. This secondary bridging by the antiglobulin antibodies cross-links sensitized RBCs, causing macroscopic agglutination that confirms the presence of bound immunoglobulins or complement, thereby visualizing the incomplete sensitization that would otherwise remain undetected.^[13]^[1]

Direct Coombs Test

Procedure

The direct Coombs test, also known as the direct antiglobulin test (DAT), is a single-stage laboratory procedure to detect immunoglobulins (typically IgG) or complement proteins (such as C3d) bound to the surface of a patient's red blood cells (RBCs) in vivo. The process begins with collecting a venous blood sample, preferably in an EDTA-anticoagulated tube (lavender top), to prevent clotting while preserving RBC integrity.^[1]^[3] The RBCs are prepared as a 2-5% suspension in isotonic saline. The cells are then washed three to four times with large volumes of saline (approximately 10-20 times the cell volume per wash) to remove unbound plasma proteins and globulins, with complete decantation of the supernatant after each wash to avoid dilution of the detection reagent.^[1]^[3] After washing, one drop of polyspecific anti-human globulin (AHG) reagent—containing antibodies against human IgG and complement C3d—is added to the RBC button, gently mixed, and centrifuged at 800-1000 rpm (or 70-100 x g) for 15-30 seconds.^[1]^[3] The tube is then gently resuspended and examined immediately under macroscopic and microscopic observation for agglutination (clumping of RBCs) or hemolysis. Agglutination is graded on a scale from 0 (negative, no clumping) to 4+ (strong, solid clump), where 1+ indicates small aggregates and 4+ indicates a single solid mass. A positive result signifies immune-mediated coating of the RBCs. If positive with polyspecific AHG, the test is repeated with monospecific reagents (anti-IgG and anti-C3d separately) to identify the specific antibody or complement involved.^[1]^[3] For negative results with polyspecific or anti-IgG phases, check cells (RBCs pre-coated with IgG) are added to verify adequate washing and AHG reactivity; these must agglutinate to validate the test. Similarly, complement check cells are used for anti-C3d negative results. Quality controls include running positive controls with known sensitized RBCs and negative controls with unsensitized cells in parallel.^[3] In modern laboratories, the traditional tube method may be replaced by gel column agglutination technology or solid-phase assays, where washed RBCs are added to microcolumns containing AHG-embedded gel, centrifuged, and interpreted by the position of RBCs (e.g., agglutination at the top indicates positive). These methods reduce variability and improve throughput while maintaining equivalent sensitivity.^[1]

Clinical Applications

The direct Coombs test is primarily used to diagnose immune-mediated hemolytic anemias by confirming antibody or complement coating on RBCs, distinguishing immune from non-immune causes of hemolysis. It is indicated in cases of unexplained anemia with evidence of hemolysis, such as elevated bilirubin, low haptoglobin, or reticulocytosis.^[1]^[3] Key applications include evaluating warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA), where DAT is positive for IgG in about 70-80% of cases, and cold AIHA or paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria, often positive for complement. It also detects drug-induced immune hemolytic anemia (e.g., from penicillin or cephalosporins), delayed hemolytic transfusion reactions (positive 7-10 days post-transfusion), and hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (HDN) due to maternal alloantibodies like anti-D.^[1]^[3] Additionally, a positive DAT supports diagnosis in transfusion reactions, investigation of hemolytic anemia in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and monitoring post-transfusion patients.^[3] The test is routinely performed in blood banks for pre-transfusion compatibility assessment and in neonates suspected of HDN. A positive DAT in approximately 0.1-0.2% of hospitalized patients often prompts further testing for underlying autoimmune, infectious (e.g., mycoplasma), or neoplastic causes. Limitations include false negatives from low antibody density (<200-500 IgG molecules per RBC) or IgA/IgM involvement, and false positives from improper technique or conditions like multiple myeloma.^[1]^[3]

Indirect Coombs Test

Procedure

The indirect Coombs test, also known as the indirect antiglobulin test (IAT), involves a two-stage laboratory protocol to detect and quantify antibodies in patient serum or plasma that may react with red blood cell (RBC) antigens. The process begins with obtaining a blood sample from the patient, separating the serum or plasma, and mixing it with reagent RBCs suspended in a low-ionic-strength solution or saline; these reagent cells express a panel of known clinically significant antigens to screen for alloantibodies or autoantibodies.^[16] In the first stage, known as sensitization or the antibody-binding phase, the mixture of patient serum (typically 2 volumes) and reagent RBCs (1 volume, 2-5% suspension) is incubated at 37°C for 15 to 60 minutes to promote the binding of any IgG antibodies to the RBC antigens, mimicking physiological conditions.^[16]^[17] After incubation, the tubes may be briefly centrifuged and examined for direct agglutination or hemolysis at 37°C, though this is optional in standard protocols.^[17] The second stage, or antiglobulin phase, follows to detect non-agglutinating antibodies bound to the RBCs. The sensitized cells are washed three to four times with isotonic saline or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) to remove unbound globulins from the serum, ensuring no interference with the detection reagent; the final wash supernatant is fully decanted to prevent neutralization of the antiglobulin.^[18]^[3] One drop of polyspecific or monospecific anti-human globulin (AHG) reagent—typically anti-IgG with or without anti-C3d—is added to the washed cell button, mixed gently, and centrifuged at approximately 1000 rpm for 15-30 seconds (or 70-100 x g for 10-20 seconds).^[18]^[19] The tubes are then gently resuspended and examined macroscopically and microscopically for agglutination (clumping), with grading from 0 (negative) to 4+ (strong); a positive reaction indicates antibody coating, while check cells (IgG-sensitized RBCs) are added to negative results to confirm adequate washing and AHG activity.^[20] To assess antibody strength, titration is performed by preparing serial twofold dilutions of the patient serum (e.g., 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, up to 1:1024 or higher) in saline or diluent, then conducting the full IAT on each dilution using antigen-positive reagent RBCs specific to the identified antibody.^[21]^[22] The antibody titer is defined as the reciprocal of the highest dilution showing macroscopic agglutination, typically at least a 1+ reaction strength, providing a quantitative measure of clinical significance (e.g., titers ≥16 for anti-D in pregnancy).^[21]^[22] Quality controls are essential throughout the procedure. Positive and negative controls are run in parallel: the positive control uses serum known to contain antibodies against the reagent RBC antigens, while the negative control uses antibody-free serum to verify no false positives.^[23] An auto-control, consisting of the patient's serum incubated with their own washed RBCs, is included to rule out autoantibodies that could confound alloantibody detection.^[24] Reagent checks involve testing the AHG with IgG-coated RBCs to ensure potency and the reagent RBCs with known antisera to confirm antigen expression.^[20]^[16] In contemporary laboratories, traditional tube-based methods have been largely supplemented by automated or semi-automated techniques such as gel column agglutination (e.g., using microcolumns with anti-IgG-embedded gel) or solid-phase red cell adherence assays, which integrate incubation, washing, and detection in a single card or plate for higher throughput, reproducibility, and reduced hands-on time while maintaining sensitivity equivalent to tube testing.^[25]^[26]^[27] Emerging methods as of 2025 include flow cytometry-based assays, which provide more precise quantification of RBC-bound IgG antibodies.^[28]

Clinical Applications

The indirect Coombs test plays a central role in transfusion medicine by serving as an antibody screening panel to detect unexpected alloantibodies in patient serum that could react with donor red blood cells, thereby preventing hemolytic transfusion reactions.^[1] This screening is routinely performed prior to blood transfusions to identify clinically significant antibodies, such as those against Rh or other blood group antigens, ensuring compatibility between donor units and recipient.^[29] In cross-matching procedures, a positive indirect Coombs test result indicates incompatibility, prompting selection of alternative donor units or further antibody identification to mitigate risks like acute hemolysis.^[1] In prenatal care, the indirect Coombs test is a standard component of antenatal screening, typically conducted at around 28 weeks of gestation in Rh-negative women to detect anti-D antibodies or other alloantibodies that could lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN).^[30] If the test is positive, indicating maternal sensitization, administration of Rho(D) immune globulin (RhoGAM) is recommended to prevent further antibody production and reduce the risk of fetal red blood cell destruction in subsequent pregnancies.^[31] This routine testing has significantly lowered HDN incidence by identifying at-risk pregnancies early and guiding prophylactic interventions. Beyond transfusion and routine prenatal screening, the indirect Coombs test aids in investigating recurrent pregnancy loss potentially linked to maternal red blood cell alloantibodies, where positive results may reveal underlying immune incompatibilities contributing to fetal loss.^[32] It also supports compatibility assessments in organ transplantation, particularly hematopoietic stem cell transplants, by identifying antibodies that could cause hemolysis in the recipient post-procedure.^[1] Representative examples of detected antibodies include anti-Kell, which can cause severe HDN even at low titers, and anti-Fy^a (Duffy), both identifiable via the indirect Coombs test during antibody screening panels.^[30]^[33] Antibody titers exceeding 1:16 are often considered indicative of elevated HDN risk for most alloantibodies, such as anti-D, triggering intensified fetal monitoring like middle cerebral artery Doppler studies.^[34] For anti-Kell, critical thresholds may be lower (e.g., >1:4 to 1:8), reflecting its potency in suppressing erythropoiesis.^[35] The prevalence of a positive indirect Coombs test in pregnancies is approximately 1%, primarily due to Rh or other alloimmunization, underscoring its importance in averting hemolytic complications that could otherwise affect fetal or neonatal outcomes.^[36] This low but critical positivity rate highlights the test's value in targeted preventive strategies within obstetrics and transfusion services.^[32]

Reagents and Enhancements

Coombs Reagent

The Coombs reagent, also known as anti-human globulin (AHG), consists of antibodies directed against human immunoglobulins and complement components, typically including polyclonal or monoclonal anti-IgG targeting the gamma chain or anti-C3d for complement detection.^[16] These reagents are formulated as either polyspecific blends, which combine anti-IgG and anti-C3d to detect multiple sensitization types, or monospecific versions focused on a single target such as anti-IgG alone.^[37] Modern formulations often incorporate rabbit-derived polyclonal anti-IgG, purified through absorption to eliminate non-specific reactivities, alongside mouse monoclonal anti-C3d for enhanced precision.^[38] Production of the Coombs reagent involves immunizing non-human animals, classically rabbits or goats, with purified human gamma globulin or whole serum to elicit antibody responses against human immunoglobulins.^[39] The resulting antiserum is harvested, fractionated, and rigorously purified—often via pepsin digestion and chromatography—to isolate the gamma globulin fraction while removing undesired antibodies that could cause non-specific agglutination.^[37] For monoclonal components, hybridoma technology from immunized mice produces consistent anti-C3d antibodies, ensuring batch-to-batch uniformity in contemporary reagents.^[16] In function, the Coombs reagent acts by binding to the Fc portions of human antibodies or complement proteins already attached to red blood cell surfaces, thereby cross-linking adjacent sensitized cells to form visible agglutinates that indicate antibody or complement coating.^[15] This bridging mechanism amplifies submicroscopic antigen-antibody interactions into detectable reactions, essential for identifying immune-mediated hemolysis.^[1] Specificity of the reagent is tailored to the clinical context: anti-IgG variants primarily detect warm-reactive (IgG-mediated) antibodies associated with conditions like autoimmune hemolytic anemia, while anti-C3d targets complement activation in cold agglutinin disease or drug-induced reactions where IgM or complement predominates.^[40] Polyspecific reagents offer broad screening by combining these, but monospecific testing follows to confirm the sensitizing agent.^[41] Coombs reagents are stored refrigerated at 2-8°C to maintain potency, with a typical shelf life of approximately two years from manufacture, though individual lots may vary based on formulation stability.^[42] Prior to use, reagents must undergo potency testing against standardized check cells to verify reactivity, as exposure to temperatures outside the recommended range can accelerate degradation and reduce effectiveness.

Enhancement Media

Enhancement media and techniques are employed in the Coombs test to augment the detection of weak or low-avidity antibodies that may not produce visible agglutination under standard conditions, thereby improving the test's sensitivity for clinically relevant alloantibodies.^[43] Low-ionic strength solution (LISS) reduces the ionic strength of the reaction medium, accelerating the uptake of IgG antibodies onto red blood cell (RBC) surfaces by minimizing electrostatic repulsion, which shortens incubation times to as little as 5-15 minutes at 37°C.^[44] Polyethylene glycol (PEG), a high-molecular-weight polymer, promotes antibody-mediated agglutination by dehydrating RBCs and concentrating serum proteins, enhancing reactions particularly for Rh and Kidd antibodies, though it requires careful dilution to avoid false positives.^[45] Albumin supplementation mimics physiological plasma conditions by stabilizing colloids and reducing the zeta potential on RBCs, facilitating closer antigen-antibody interactions in immediate spin or low-temperature phases.^[44] Enzymatic treatments, such as with papain or ficin, proteolytically cleave sialic acid residues and other glycoproteins on RBC membranes, exposing cryptic epitopes and enhancing the binding of certain antibodies like those in the Rh, Kidd, and Duffy systems during antibody identification panels.^[46] Papain, derived from papaya, and ficin, from figs, are commonly used at concentrations of 0.1-1% for 15-30 minutes at 37°C, increasing sensitivity for non-complement-binding IgG but potentially destroying antigens like MNS or reactivity against others like Duffy.^[47] These enzymes are particularly valuable in resolving complex antibody mixtures where standard media fail to detect weak specificities.^[46] Modern enhancements include gel column centrifugation systems, such as DG Gel cards, where RBCs and serum are mixed in microcolumns filled with silica beads or dextran acrylamide gel suspended in low-ionic medium; centrifugation traps agglutinates in the gel matrix, providing a stable, gradated readout that standardizes interpretation and reduces subjective error.^[48] Solid-phase adhesion assays immobilize antigens on solid substrates like microwells coated with synthetic or RBC-derived membranes, allowing antibodies to bind and be detected via indicator RBCs that adhere only upon specific reaction, enabling automation and high-throughput screening with minimal hands-on time.^[49] These methods integrate enhancement principles like LISS within the platform for consistent performance.^[50] Emerging techniques as of 2025 include flow cytometry-based assays for the direct antiglobulin test, which use fluorescent-labeled anti-human globulins to quantify IgG bound to RBCs with higher sensitivity than traditional methods, particularly useful in research and cases of low-level sensitization.^[28] The primary advantages of these enhancements lie in their ability to detect low-titer antibodies (often below 1:4 dilution) that could lead to hemolytic transfusion reactions, thereby reducing false negatives in pretransfusion antibody screening by up to 20-30% compared to saline controls in some studies.^[45] However, they carry limitations, including the risk of non-specific agglutination due to over-enhancement, particularly with PEG or enzymes, which may necessitate confirmatory testing, and they are often superfluous for strongly reactive antibodies where standard techniques suffice.^[43]

Interpretation and Limitations

Result Analysis

The results of the Coombs test are interpreted based on the presence and degree of red blood cell (RBC) agglutination observed after the addition of anti-human globulin (AHG) reagent and centrifugation. Grading is performed on a scale from 0 to 4+, where 0 indicates a negative result with no agglutination (a smooth RBC button or pellet at the bottom of the test tube), 1+ represents small, loosely aggregated clumps visible macroscopically with the majority of RBCs free, 2+ shows larger clumps with some free RBCs, 3+ features multiple large clumps, and 4+ denotes a solid mass of agglutinated RBCs with no free cells.^[1]^[15] Weak reactions (e.g., 1+ or microscopic agglutination) may require examination under a microscope to detect fine aggregates not visible to the naked eye, distinguishing them from macroscopic reactions that are evident without magnification.^[51] A positive direct antiglobulin test (DAT) signifies that the patient's RBCs are coated in vivo with immunoglobulins (typically IgG) or complement components (such as C3), indicating immune-mediated sensitization.^[3] To further characterize the coating, testing is performed using monospecific AHG reagents, such as anti-IgG to detect immunoglobulin or anti-C3d to identify complement activation, which helps differentiate underlying mechanisms like warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia (associated with IgG) from cold agglutinin disease (associated with C3).^[3]^[52] For the indirect antiglobulin test (IAT), a positive result indicates the presence of unexpected antibodies in the patient's serum that can bind to RBCs in vitro, prompting further identification of antibody specificity through a panel of reagent RBCs with known antigen profiles to match reactions and determine the clinically significant alloantibody (e.g., anti-D or anti-Kell).^[51] Antibody titers, expressed as the reciprocal of the highest serum dilution showing agglutination, correlate with disease severity; for instance, in hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN), a titer greater than 1:32 often warrants intervention such as fetal monitoring or intrauterine transfusion to mitigate risks of severe anemia or hydrops fetalis.^[53]^[34] Clinical interpretation requires correlation with patient history and laboratory findings, as a positive DAT or IAT does not always indicate active hemolysis; for example, a positive result without evidence of RBC destruction may reflect a resolved infection, recent transfusion, or benign immune coating in otherwise healthy individuals.^[54]^[55] Conversely, a negative result generally rules out an immune-mediated cause of hemolysis in most cases, given the test's high negative predictive value.^[15] The DAT demonstrates approximately 95% sensitivity for detecting immune hemolytic anemia, with about 5% of cases being DAT-negative due to low-affinity or low-level antibodies, though its specificity is lower as positive results occur in 1-15% of hospitalized patients without hemolysis.^[52]^[3] False-positive results can arise from technical issues like inadequate washing (leaving residual unbound immunoglobulins that mimic coating) or interference from cold autoantibodies activated during testing at lower temperatures.^[15]^[1]

Common Pitfalls

False negatives in the Coombs test can arise from inadequate washing of red blood cells, which leaves unbound antibodies that neutralize the antiglobulin reagent, preventing detection of bound immunoglobulins.^[56] The prozone effect, caused by excess antibody concentrations, may also mask agglutination, resulting in a false-negative outcome unless samples are appropriately diluted.^[57] Additionally, weak antigens or antibodies of non-IgG classes, such as IgA or low-affinity types, contribute to false negatives, as standard reagents primarily target IgG and complement.^[58] These issues are often mitigated through enhancement techniques like low-ionic-strength saline or enzyme treatment.^[1] False positives occur due to bacterial contamination of reagents or samples, which can cause nonspecific agglutination mimicking antibody binding.^[3] Improper centrifugation, such as over-centrifugation, may lead to false aggregation of cells, while dirty glassware or autoagglutinins from cold antibodies can produce erroneous clumping.^[3] Elevated serum proteins in conditions like multiple myeloma further increase the risk of nonspecific reactions.^[1] The Coombs test has inherent limitations, as it does not precisely quantify antibody levels, providing only qualitative or semiquantitative results based on agglutination strength.^[15] It may miss IgA or IgM-mediated hemolysis without complement activation, since routine reagents focus on IgG and C3d.^[54] Drug-induced immune hemolytic anemias are rare (incidence ~1 in 1 million annually), and while most are DAT-positive, sensitivity can be reduced in cases involving nonimmunologic mechanisms or low-titer antibodies that evade standard detection.^[3] Manual Coombs testing is prone to subjectivity in interpreting agglutination patterns, leading to interobserver variability and errors in grading.^[25] The shift to automated systems, such as gel column or solid-phase adherence methods, enhances precision and reduces human error by standardizing washing and reading processes, though validation against manual results remains essential.^[25] Recent developments highlight the Coombs test's incompleteness in integrating point-of-care alternatives and molecular approaches; post-2020 advancements in next-generation sequencing for blood group genotyping enable antigen prediction without serological testing, offering a complementary tool for complex cases like recently transfused patients. As of 2025, flow cytometry-based assays have emerged as a more sensitive and precise method for detecting low-level RBC-bound IgG, potentially improving diagnostic accuracy in challenging cases.^[59]^[28]

History and Development

Discovery

The Coombs test, also known as the antiglobulin test, was developed in 1945 by British immunologists Robert Royston Amos (Robin) Coombs, Arthur Ernest Mourant, and Robert Russell Race while working at the University of Cambridge.^[60] Their work occurred amid World War II, when improving blood typing for safe transfusions was critical to support military medical efforts, building on Karl Landsteiner's foundational 1901 discovery of the ABO blood group system that had first enabled compatible transfusions.^[61] The recent 1940 identification of the Rh blood factor by Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener had revealed challenges with "incomplete" Rh antibodies, which bound to red blood cells without causing visible agglutination but could trigger severe hemolytic reactions during transfusions or in hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN).^[62] The breakthrough came from experiments demonstrating that these non-agglutinating antibodies could be detected by adding anti-human globulin derived from rabbit serum, which targeted the human antibodies coating the red blood cells and induced observable agglutination.^[2] This method specifically addressed Rh sensitization in HDN, where maternal anti-Rh antibodies attacked fetal red blood cells, often leading to fatal outcomes without prior detection.^[63] Coombs, Mourant, and Race detailed their findings in a seminal paper published in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in 1945, titled "A new test for the detection of weak and 'incomplete' Rh agglutinins," marking the first full description of the antiglobulin technique.^[2] The test's introduction revolutionized blood banking by enabling routine screening for incompatible antibodies, drastically reducing transfusion-related hemolytic events and improving outcomes in Rh-incompatible pregnancies.^[64] It was soon named the Coombs test in recognition of Robin Coombs' pivotal role, though the collaborative effort underscored its origins in wartime immunology research.^[65]

Key Advancements

In the 1970s, the introduction of low ionic strength saline (LISS) as an enhancement medium significantly improved the sensitivity of the indirect antiglobulin test by accelerating antibody uptake during incubation, allowing shorter test times and better detection of weak antibodies.^[66] Standardization efforts by organizations such as the American Association of Blood Banks (AABB) and the World Health Organization (WHO) established guidelines for antiglobulin testing in transfusion laboratories, including the routine use of polyspecific reagents to detect both IgG and complement components like C3d.^[67] Monospecific reagents, such as anti-IgG and anti-C3d, became available in the 1960s, enabling more precise identification of the type of coating on red blood cells and reducing false positives from non-specific reactions.^[1] The 1980s and 1990s marked a shift toward automation and enhanced detection methods. Microcolumn agglutination technology, exemplified by systems like the gel test developed by Lapierre et al. in 1988 and commercialized as Ortho BioVue, replaced traditional tube methods with gel-filled microtubes that improved reproducibility, reduced hands-on time, and minimized subjective interpretation of agglutination patterns.^[1] Enhancements like polyethylene glycol (PEG), introduced in 1989, further boosted sensitivity for detecting low-titer antibodies by promoting protein precipitation and antibody binding.^[68] These innovations standardized antiglobulin testing in blood banks, with the Coombs test becoming routine in pre-transfusion compatibility assessments worldwide by the early 2000s. From the 2010s to 2025, integration with molecular diagnostics has refined the test's utility, particularly for RhD typing. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based RHD genotyping resolves serological ambiguities in weak D or partial D variants, reducing unnecessary RhD-negative blood usage and transfusion risks.^[69] Emerging adaptations, such as flow cytometry-based direct antiglobulin tests, offer rapid results by quantifying IgG coating on red blood cells with higher sensitivity than traditional methods.^[28] Artificial intelligence applications, including convolutional neural networks for classifying incomplete antibody reactions since 2022, address challenges in interpreting rare antibody panels by automating pattern recognition and improving accuracy over manual reading.^[70] Contributions from researchers like Ruth Sanger, who collaborated with Race from 1947 on blood group serology, further advanced applications in HDN prevention. Global adoption reached near-universal status in blood banks by 2000, with ongoing updates like the 2023 AABB Standards (34th edition) reinforcing requirements for antiglobulin testing in immunohematology protocols.^[71]

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[PDF] Anti-Human Globulin Anti-IgG,-C3d; Polyspecific - FDA
The indirect antiglobulin test will detect, after incubation of serum or plasma with red blood cells, IgG antibodies and/or complement component C3 bound to red ...
[17]
Saline–indirect antiglobulin test - Paradigm Publishing Services
Feb 16, 2020 · Incubate 30–60 minutes at 37°C. Centrifuge, and perform 37°C reading (if desired). Wash three to four times in isotonic saline/PBS.
[18]
Indirect Antiglobulin (Indirect Coombs) Test - Merck Manuals
The patient's plasma is incubated with reagent RBCs; then Coombs serum (antibodies to human IgG, or human anti-IgG) is added. If agglutination occurs, IgG ...
[19]
[PDF] DIRECT AND INDIRECT COOMB'S TESTS Blood Grouping
All blood samples should be washed at least twice with PBS before being tested. ASSAY PROCEDURE. Direct Antiglobulin Technique (DAT). 1. Wash test red cells 4 ...
[20]
Check Cells - Blood Bank Guy Glossary
Check cells are the antibody-coated red cells used as a quality control measure for negative indirect or direct antiglobulin tests performed in test tubes.Missing: controls auto
[21]
Defining critical antibody titre in column agglutination method to ...
Antibody titration was performed by serial twofold dilution of serum by ... Antibody screen (Indirect coombs test) was performed using 3 cell panel (ID ...
[22]
[PDF] Defining critical antibody titre in column agglutination method to ...
Antibody titration was performed by serial twofold dilution of serum by both column and tube method and were correlated with middle cerebral artery peak ...
[23]
Coombs Test- Principle, Types, Procedure and Result Interpretation
Aug 10, 2022 · Procedure of Indirect Coombs Test · Label three test tubes as T (test serum) PC (Positive control) and NC (negative control). · In the tube ...
[24]
Indirect Coombs Test - LearnHaem | Haematology Made Simple
Apr 6, 2020 · The patient's serum is incubated with a panel of red cells (test cells) which express a variety of known antigens. After this, the Coombs reagent is added.Missing: auto control
[25]
Comparison between the Manual Method of Indirect Coombs via Gel ...
Solid-phase red cell adherence assay is more precise and capable of detecting red cell adherence assay than tube method and indirect Coombs test gel technology.
[26]
Strategies to overcome the diagnostic challenges of autoimmune ...
May 23, 2023 · Although still used, this DAT method is nowadays replaced/supported by semi-automated methods such as the gel microcolumn and solid-phase tests ...Missing: modern | Show results with:modern
[27]
Comparison of automated solid phase versus manual saline indirect ...
Nov 3, 2023 · This study compares the established gold standard method of manual tube saline indirect antiglobulin testing (SIAT) with the newer automated solid phase (ASP) ...
[28]
Red Blood Cell Antibody Screen: MedlinePlus Medical Test
Jan 21, 2025 · An RBC antibody screen is used to check your blood for RBC antibodies before you have a blood transfusion or when you're pregnant.What Is An Rbc Antibody... · What Is It Used For? · What Do The Results Mean?
[29]
[PDF] The management of women with red cell antibodies during pregnancy
Anti-D immunoglobulin should be given to RhD-negative women with non-anti-D antibodies for routine antenatal prophylaxis, for potential antenatal sensitising ...
[30]
Hemolytic disease of the newborn - Blood Groups and Red Cell ...
The test is named for Robin Coombs, who first developed the technique of using antibodies that are targeted against other antibodies.
[31]
Erythrocyte Alloimmunization and Pregnancy - Medscape Reference
Aug 1, 2023 · Every pregnant woman should have her ABO blood group, Rh type, and antibody screen (indirect Coombs test) checked at the first prenatal visit of ...
[32]
[PDF] Advice from the Expert Panels on high-risk medical devices
Dec 11, 2023 · The indirect antiglobulin test can be used to detect anti-Fya and anti-Fyb antibodies. This system is significant in blood transfusion and ...
[33]
Hemolytic disease of newborn (HDN), and coombs test - Labpedia.net
Coombs' test is used to detect antibodies in Rh-negative mothers or newborns. One can monitor the presence of the antibody during pregnancy.Missing: antenatal | Show results with:antenatal
[34]
HDFN Hemolytic Disease of the Fetus and Newborn/Alloimmunization
If the titer levels rise to the critical titer level of 16 for most antibodies, or 4 for anti-K, then the fetus will have MCA dopplers to monitor for fetal ...
[35]
[PDF] Maternal and perinatal outcome in Rh-Negative women
Indirect Coomb's test was positive in one grand multiparous woman with ... Rhesus negative rate was 1.68% and proven isoim- munization rate was 1%.
[36]
[PDF] Chapter 11: Reagent manufacture - JPAC
Conventional (polyclonal) anti-human globulin or anti-human globulin containing monoclonal IgG anti-. C3d that attain adequate reactivity with an optimal ...<|separator|>
[37]
Anti-Human Globulin (AHG) coombs sera | AHG Test Reagent
Anti-Human Globulin Elite Green reagents contain anti-IgG derived from rabbits with nonspecific activity removed by absorption and mouse monoclonal IgM anti-C3 ...Missing: polyclonal | Show results with:polyclonal
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THE PRODUCTION OF ANTI-HUMAN GLOBULIN SERUM ...
Oct 22, 2025 · (1957), 10, 29. THE PRODUCTION OF ANTI-HUMAN GLOBULIN. SERUM (COOMBS REAGENT) IN GOATS. BY. I. DUNSFORD AND C. C. BOWLEY. From the National ...
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Direct Coombs test - eClinpath
Nov 14, 2021 · In a direct Coombs test, we are looking for the presence of antibodies (IgM or IgG) or opsonic complement components (C3b, C3d, not shown) bound to red blood ...<|separator|>
[40]
[PDF] Package Insert - Anti Human Globulin Anti-IgG, C3d - FDA
PRINCIPLE OF THE TEST The direct and indirect antiglobulin test methods are based on the principle of hemagglutination. The addition of the reagents induces ...
[41]
[PDF] Anti-Human Globulin Anti-IgG, -C3d; Polyspecific (Rabbit/Murine - FDA
Anti-Human Globulin, Anti-IgG,-C3d; Polyspecific is intended for use in the ... Expiry Date/Shelf Life. Two years from the start date of the. Table 5 IVP ...
[42]
Enhancement Strategies - LearnHaem | Haematology Made Simple
Apr 6, 2020 · The purpose of enhancement media is to increase detection of IgG antibodies, which are often thought to be more clinically-significant since they are optimally ...
[43]
Indirect antiglobulin test-crossmatch using low-ionic-strength saline ...
Indirect antiglobulin test-crossmatch (IAT-XM) using enhancement media such as low-ionic-strength saline (LISS) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) usually requires ...
[44]
Analysis of the routine use of polyethylene glycol (PEG ... - PubMed
This study compared the performance of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and low-ionic saline solutions (LISS) as enhancement media for routine use in a large ...Missing: Coombs | Show results with:Coombs
[45]
Enzyme treatment of red blood cells: use of ficin and papain - PubMed
Sep 22, 2022 · Ficin and papain can increase the sensitivity of antibody detection by modifying the RBC membrane. Enzyme treatment and test methods can be ...
[46]
Transfusion medicine - Enzyme treatment - Pathology Outlines
Oct 15, 2025 · In practice, ficin or papain are most often used for antibody identification and these 2 enzymes produce the classic pattern (enhancement of ...
[47]
[PDF] Anti-Human Globulin DG GEL 8 ANTI-IgG (Rabbit) - FDA
In this case the serum or plasma sample should be diluted in Grifols Diluent in order to prepare the set of dilutions before performing the Indirect ...
[48]
Comparison of the solid-phase red cell adherence assay and tube ...
Sep 3, 2024 · The study compared tube (PEG-IAT) and solid-phase methods for detecting red blood cell antibodies. Discordant results were low, with some ...Missing: adhesion | Show results with:adhesion
[49]
Solid Phase Red Cell Adherence Assay: A tubeless method for ...
Solid Phase Red Cell Adherence Assay (SPRCA) is one of the two tubeless methods developed to improve sensitivity and specificity in blood group serology.Missing: adhesion | Show results with:adhesion
[50]
Antibody Screening: Overview, Clinical Indications/Applications ...
Aug 12, 2025 · Agglutination is graded on a scale from 0 to 4+. A: 4+ reaction = red blood cell agglutinates (RBCAs) remain at the top of the gel; B: 3+ ...
[51]
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia - Hematology and Oncology
The test is highly sensitive for autoimmune hemolytic anemia with an estimated ~5% of AIHA cases being direct antiglobulin test-negative (1); false-negative ...Symptoms And Signs... · Diagnosis References · Treatment References
[52]
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn Treatment & Management
Jun 3, 2024 · As a rule, serial maternal antibody titers are monitored until a critical titer of 1:32, which indicates that a high risk of fetal hydrops has ...
[53]
A critical step in the evaluation of hemolysis - Wiley Online Library
Apr 4, 2012 · The direct antiglobulin test (DAT) is a laboratory test that detects immunoglobulin and/or complement on the surface of red blood cells.Test Method · Selected Clinical... · Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
[54]
A Study of Clinical and Serological Correlation of Positive Direct ...
Thus, the interpretation of positive DAT should include patient's history, clinical data, and results of other laboratory investigations.Missing: implications | Show results with:implications
[55]
The Direct Antiglobulin Test: Indications, Interpretation, and Pitfalls
Feb 1, 2017 · The antiglobulin test is a method of demonstrating the presence of antibody or complement bound to red blood cell (RBC) membranes by the use of ...
[56]
Coombs test - eClinpath
... Coombs' test due to the prozone effect (high concentrations of bound antibody or complement may result in a false negative Coombs' test if not diluted).
[57]
Interference in the indirect antiglobulin test and direct ... - NIH
The indirect antiglobulin test (IAT) and direct antiglobulin test (DAT) have been used as common tests for transfusion. Recently, we have found that in ...
[58]
Application of Blood Group Genotyping by Next-Generation ... - NIH
NGS-based blood group genotyping can be used for identifying ABO subgroup alleles, low levels of blood group chimerism, and antibodies to HFAs.
[59]
Karl Landsteiner – Facts - NobelPrize.org
He explained in 1901 that people have different types of red blood cells, that is, there are different blood groups. The discovery led to safe blood ...
[60]
A Brief History of Human Blood Groups - PMC - NIH
Landsteiner in his 17th scientific paper in 1901 reported blood group ABO which was displayed at the beginning with the letters ABC. In 1930, he received the ...
[61]
Transfusion Medicine History - AABB
1945 Coombs, Mourant, and Race describe the use of antihuman globulin (later known as the “Coombs Test”) to identify “incomplete” antibodies.
[62]
History of Blood Transfusions - Red Cross Blood Donation
Robin Coombs, Arthur Mourant and Rob Race describe the use of anti-human globulin to identify incomplete antibodies. The process became known as the Coombs test ...
[63]
[PDF] Potentiators Low Ionic Strength Solution (LISS) (+ Additives)
Low and Messeter in 1974 showed that the use of a low ionic strength solution enhances the rate of antibody uptake in first stage of agglutination, allowing ...
[64]
[PDF] Direct antiglobulin (“Coombs”) test-negative autoimmune hemolytic ...
Dec 5, 2013 · In 1945, Coombs, Mourant, and Race showed the utility of an anti ... The complement-fixing, antibody consumption test was the first to.Missing: original | Show results with:original
[65]
[PDF] Package Insert - DG Gel 8 Direct Coombs (Anti-IgG, -C3d) - FDA
The DG Gel 8 Direct Coombs card is used for the evaluation of the Direct Antiglobulin Test of two different human blood samples. It allows to differentiate red ...Missing: enhancement PEG albumin papain solid- adhesion
[66]
Integrating RHD Genotyping for More Accurate Rh(D) Antigen ... - NIH
Apr 5, 2025 · The reclassification of patients to Rh(D)-positive alleviates pressure on Rh(D)-negative blood supplies, particularly during critical shortages.
[67]
A new way of the Coombs test using flow cytometry-based assay to ...
Jan 6, 2025 · The Coombs test is important in hematology for detecting erythrocyte-bound IgG antibodies or in serm through agglutination methods, ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[68]
Convolutional neural network-based automatic classification ... - NIH
Mar 7, 2022 · This study uses a deep learning model with five CNNs to classify incomplete antibody reaction intensity (IARI) in a Coombs test, achieving high ...
[69]
[PDF] proposed-35th-edition-of-standards-for-blood-banks-and ... - AABB
Aug 12, 2025 · antigens and shall include an antiglobulin test as described in. Standard 5.14.3.. 5.16.1.1 If no clinically significant antibodies were ...