Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Coronal consonant

A coronal consonant is a consonant sound produced by raising the blade or tip of the tongue (known as the corona) toward the coronal region of the roof of the mouth, which encompasses the upper teeth, alveolar ridge, and postalveolar area as passive articulators.^[1] This articulatory configuration distinguishes coronal consonants from other places of articulation, such as labial (involving the lips) or dorsal (involving the tongue body). Coronal consonants encompass several subtypes based on the precise part of the tongue used: apical consonants, articulated primarily with the tongue tip; laminal consonants, articulated with the underside of the tongue blade; and, in some languages, subapical consonants involving the underside of the tongue tip.^[2] Common examples in English include the alveolar stops /t/ and /d/ (as in "tin" and "din"), fricatives /s/ and /z/ (as in "sin" and "zoo"), nasal /n/ (as in "no"), lateral approximant /l/ (as in "light"), and rhotic /ɹ/ (as in "red"), as well as interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ (as in "thin" and "this") and postalveolar affricates /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ (as in "chin" and "gin").^[1] These sounds vary across languages; for instance, some languages like Arrernte distinguish apical (retroflex) from laminal (palatal) coronals, while English speakers often use a mix of apical and laminal articulations interchangeably for alveolars.^[3] In phonology, coronal consonants hold a special status as the most frequent place of articulation worldwide, appearing in inventories of nearly all languages (with rare exceptions such as Hawaiian) and often serving as the default or unmarked consonant place in phonological processes such as epenthesis and assimilation.^[4] Surveys of global consonant inventories, such as those by Maddieson, reveal that coronals constitute a significant portion of consonants in many languages and exhibit greater diversity in manners of articulation compared to labials or dorsals.^[5] This prevalence contributes to their frequent role in phonological patterns, including transparency in place assimilation and reduced markedness in some feature geometry models.^[6]

Definition and Phonetics

Definition

Coronal consonants are a class of speech sounds articulated with the tip or blade (corona) of the tongue raised as the primary articulator toward the upper teeth, alveolar ridge, or regions just behind it, such as the postalveolar area.^[7] This places them within the major division of consonants based on articulatory organs, specifically the coronal-dorsal grouping for tongue-based sounds, in contrast to labial consonants (produced with the lips) and dorsal consonants (produced with the back of the tongue).^[7] In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), coronal consonants are represented by symbols denoting their specific places of articulation, such as the dental [t̪] (as in some realizations of English "tooth"), alveolar (as in English "tip"), and retroflex [ʈ] (as in Hindi "ṭī").^[8] These notations highlight the variability within the coronal category, which can include subtypes like apical (tip-focused) and laminal (blade-focused) articulations. The term "coronal" originated in the 1970s through the work of phonetician Peter Ladefoged, who introduced it in his 1971 book Preliminaries to Linguistic Phonetics to describe this front-tongue articulation more precisely in phonological feature systems.^[9]

Articulatory Mechanism

Coronal consonants are produced by raising the front part of the tongue, known as the corona, to make contact with or approach the upper front teeth or the alveolar ridge behind them.^[1] The active articulator in this process is either the tongue tip, or apex, or the tongue blade, or lamina, depending on the speaker and the specific realization of the sound.^[1] This positioning creates the primary constriction in the vocal tract characteristic of coronal articulations. For coronal stops, such as or , the tongue forms a complete closure against the alveolar ridge, blocking the airflow and building up pressure in the oral cavity before the release, which can be oral (central burst) or, less commonly, nasal if the velum is lowered.^[10] Coronal fricatives, like or , involve a narrower stricture where the tongue approaches but does not touch the alveolar ridge, allowing air to pass through a small channel and generate turbulent noise.^[10] Affricates in coronal positions, such as [t͡s] or [d͡z], begin with the full closure of a stop and transition to the fricative stricture upon release, producing a combined stop-fricative manner.^[10] Approximants, including coronal varieties like [ɹ], feature a wider approximation between the tongue and the alveolar ridge, permitting smooth airflow with minimal obstruction or turbulence.^[10] Airflow in most coronal consonants follows a central path through the mouth after passing the stricture, but in coronal lateral approximants such as , the tongue midline remains raised to form the constriction while the sides are lowered, directing the airflow laterally around the tongue edges.^[1] Anatomical variations among speakers, including differences in tongue length, thickness, and flexibility as well as palate shape, influence the precision and variability of coronal production. These individual differences contribute to subtle variations in how the apex or lamina is employed, as noted in classifications of apical versus laminal coronals.^[1]

Classification and Subtypes

Places of Articulation

Coronal consonants are articulated with the blade or tip of the tongue approaching or contacting various points along the coronal region of the upper vocal tract, spanning from the upper teeth to the hard palate. This region allows for a range of places of articulation, each characterized by distinct tongue configurations that influence the acoustic and perceptual properties of the sounds produced. The primary coronal places include dental, alveolar, postalveolar, and retroflex, with variations determined by the precise positioning of the active articulator (the tongue) relative to the passive articulator (teeth or palate).^[11] In the dental place of articulation, the tongue blade contacts the upper teeth or the area immediately behind them, often resulting in an interdental protrusion for fricatives. For example, the tongue tip or blade is positioned directly against or between the teeth, creating a constriction that produces sounds like [t̪] or [θ], where the passive articulator—the teeth—contributes to a sharper, more hissing quality in fricatives due to the narrow channel formed. This positioning contrasts with more posterior coronal places, as the tongue remains relatively low and flat in the front.^[1]^[11] The alveolar place involves the tongue tip or blade contacting the alveolar ridge, the bony prominence just behind the upper teeth. Here, the tongue is raised to meet the ridge, forming a central closure for stops like or a groove for fricatives like ; the passive articulator is the hard palate's forward edge, which allows for greater airflow control compared to dental articulation. Tongue positioning is typically more arched than in dental sounds, with the tip pressing firmly against the ridge to block or direct airflow.^[1]^[11] Postalveolar articulation occurs when the tongue blade approaches the area behind the alveolar ridge, near the forward hard palate. The tongue is positioned slightly further back and higher, creating a broader contact for affricates like [tʃ] or fricatives like [ʃ], where the passive articulator's palatal influence softens the sound relative to alveolar counterparts. This place often involves a domed tongue shape to direct airflow over the ridge's rear wall.^[11]^[1] Retroflex consonants feature the tongue tip curled backward toward the postalveolar or palatal region, with the underside of the tip contacting the hard palate. This curled positioning, distinct from the flat or raised configurations of other coronals, produces a retracted quality in sounds like [ʈ] or [ʂ], influenced by the palatal passive articulator that enhances the bunched tongue's acoustic lowering of formants. The retroflex gesture requires greater tongue flexibility, often resulting in a more posterior constriction than standard postalveolar.^[11] Phonetic studies employ imaging techniques like ultrasound to measure the precision of these places, quantifying tongue body height, front-retraction, and contact extent; for instance, dental articulations show lower front tongue positions compared to the higher, more fronted palatal-influenced coronals. These measurements reveal overlaps, such as between alveolar and retroflex, but confirm distinct trajectories for each place, aiding in cross-linguistic comparisons. The choice of passive articulator—teeth for dentals versus the harder palatal structures for others—further modulates sound quality by altering cavity resonances and frication noise.^[3]^[12]

Apical versus Laminal Coronals

Coronal consonants are classified into apical and laminal subtypes depending on the portion of the tongue involved in forming the constriction. Apical coronals are articulated primarily with the tip (apex) of the tongue making contact with the upper articulators, such as the alveolar ridge or postalveolar region. In contrast, laminal coronals involve the blade (flat underside) of the tongue, which allows for a broader area of contact. This distinction is unique to coronal places of articulation and influences both the precision of the constriction and the resulting acoustic properties.^[13] A representative example of an apical coronal is the retroflex stop [ʈ] in Hindi, where the tongue tip curls back to contact the hard palate or postalveolar area. Conversely, the alveolar stop in English is typically laminal, with the tongue blade pressing against the alveolar ridge while the tip remains lowered. These articulatory differences lead to phonetic consequences in vowel formant transitions: apical coronals, especially retroflexes, often feature a retracted tongue body that lowers the second formant (F2) frequency in adjacent vowels, promoting perceptual backness; laminal coronals, by contrast, involve a more advanced tongue body that raises F2, enhancing frontness.^[14]^[13] Apical coronals are prevalent in Dravidian languages, such as those of the Indian subcontinent including Hindi, and in many Australian Aboriginal languages, where they form part of multi-way coronal contrasts (e.g., apical alveolars versus retroflexes). Laminal coronals dominate in European languages like English and French, often serving as the default for alveolar and dental articulations. In certain languages, however, the apical-laminal distinction is underdifferentiated, with both realizations appearing as allophones of a single phoneme; for instance, English alveolar stops may vary between apical and laminal variants depending on the speaker or phonetic context, without phonemic contrast.^[13]

Examples in Languages

Semitic Languages

In Semitic languages, coronal consonants form a core part of the phonological inventory, with Arabic serving as a prominent example due to its retention of a diverse set of coronal articulations. These include alveolar fricatives such as /s/ and /z/, interdental fricatives like /θ/ and /ð/, and dental emphatic stops /tˤ/ and /dˤ/, the latter characterized by pharyngealization or velarization as a secondary articulation that contrasts with plain coronals and influences adjacent vowels through emphasis spread.^[15] Emphatic coronals, including /tˤ/, /dˤ/, /sˤ/, and /ðˤ/, are particularly salient in Arabic, where they originate from Proto-Semitic emphatics and maintain phonemic contrasts, as evidenced by minimal pairs like /saːra/ "to walk" versus /sˤaːra/ "to become."^[16] Coronal consonants play a significant role in Semitic root-and-pattern morphology, appearing with high frequency in triliteral verbal roots, which constitute the foundational units of word formation. Analysis of 3,775 Arabic triliteral roots reveals that coronals such as /n/ (335 occurrences across positions), /r/ (157), /t/ (157), /d/ (157), and /s/ (196) rank among the most common.^[17] This prevalence facilitates morphological productivity, as roots with coronal radicals often participate in templatic patterns like the faʕala form for intensive actions. Dialectal variations in Semitic languages, particularly Arabic, affect coronal realizations, with urban varieties frequently exhibiting mergers between dental and alveolar coronals. For instance, in many urban Arabic dialects, such as those in Egypt and the Levant, the interdental /θ/ and /ð/ merge with alveolar /t/, /d/, or /s/, /z/, resulting in pronunciations like /tabaʕ/ for classical /θabaʕ/ "he followed," a shift not present in conservative rural or Bedouin dialects. These changes reflect ongoing simplification in urban speech while preserving emphatic distinctions. The coronal inventory in modern Semitic languages largely retains the Proto-Semitic system, which included a rich array of coronals: voiceless and voiced stops *t and *d alongside emphatic *ṭ, fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ (emphatic), and interdentals *θ, *ð, *θ̣ (emphatic). Arabic conserves nearly all of these, with minimal losses compared to Hebrew (where interdentals shifted to sibilants) or Aramaic (where some merged into stops), ensuring continuity in the emphatic coronal series central to Semitic phonology.^[18]

Indo-European Languages

In Indo-European languages, coronal consonants predominate among the alveolar and postalveolar places of articulation, forming a core part of their consonant inventories. These include stops, nasals, fricatives, and approximants produced with the tongue blade or tip contacting the alveolar ridge or the area immediately behind it.^[1] English exemplifies this pattern with alveolar stops as in "tab" and as in "dab," alongside the alveolar nasal as in "noose," the alveolar lateral approximant as in "loose," and postalveolar affricates [tʃ] as in "chip" and [dʒ] as in "judge."^[1]^[19] These sounds are typically laminal in English articulation, with the blade of the tongue raised to the alveolar ridge for stops and nasals.^[20] Variations in coronal realization occur across Indo-European branches. In French, the voiceless stop is dental [t̪], articulated with the tongue tip against the upper teeth, contrasting with the alveolar in German, where the tongue contacts the alveolar ridge.^[21]^[22] Some Slavic dialects, such as Polish, feature retroflex fricatives like [ʂ] and [ʐ], produced with the tongue tip curled back toward the palate, often derived from earlier palato-alveolar shifts.^[23] Coronals frequently serve as syllable onsets in Indo-European languages, adhering to sonority principles that favor their placement at word-initial positions, as reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European where alveolar stops and resonants commonly initiated syllables.^[24] Diachronically, palatalization processes in Romance languages transformed coronal and velar consonants into postalveolars; for instance, Latin /kj/ evolved into [tʃ] in Italian "chiave" (key) and Spanish "llave," reflecting a second palatalization wave that affected stops before front glides.^[25]^[26]

Australian Aboriginal Languages

Australian Aboriginal languages are renowned for their complex coronal consonant systems, which often feature a four-way phonemic contrast among stops, distinguishing laminal dental, apical alveolar, apical retroflex, and laminal postalveolar or alveopalatal places of articulation.^[27] This pattern is particularly prevalent in Pama-Nyungan languages, the largest subgroup covering much of the continent, where these contrasts extend to nasals and laterals as well.^[28] For instance, in languages like Alyawarra, the coronal stops are realized as /t̪/, /t/, /ʈ/, and /c/, each serving as phonemically distinct units in the inventory.^[28] In Arrernte, a Pama-Nyungan language spoken in Central Australia, the coronal inventory exemplifies this richness, including apical alveolar stops and flaps like and [ɾ], laminal postalveolar stops such as and [ɟ], and apical retroflex stops [ʈ] and [ɖ].^[29] These contrasts are maintained through subtle articulatory differences: apical articulations involve the tongue tip and show greater variability in contact patterns, while laminal ones use the tongue blade with more consistent raising and fronting.^[29] Phonemic oppositions are crucial for lexical distinctions, as seen in minimal pairs differing only in coronal place, such as those involving dental [t̪] versus alveolar .^[30] Acoustic and perceptual cues play a key role in sustaining these fine-grained contrasts despite their articulatory similarity. In Arrernte, measures like center of gravity in spectral analysis help differentiate postalveolar coronals from others, while electropalatographic data reveal coarticulatory effects, such as retroflexion influencing preceding alveolars.^[29] Perceptually, native speakers of languages like Wubuy excel at discriminating the four coronal stops (/t/, /ʈ/, /t̪/, /c/), even when acoustic differences are minimal among the apical and laminal dento-alveolars, due to attuned sensitivity shaped by frequent exposure.^[27] Non-native listeners, by contrast, struggle more with these subtle distinctions, highlighting language-specific perceptual categories.^[27] Typologically, the prevalence of such extensive coronal inventories sets Australian Aboriginal languages apart from global norms, where most languages feature only two or three coronal places of articulation, rarely exceeding a four-way contrast.^[28] This "coronal salience" correlates with small vowel systems (often just three phonemes) and a peripheral organization of non-coronal consonants, emphasizing place-of-articulation contrasts as a core phonological strategy.^[31]

Phonological Distribution

Frequency Across Languages

Coronal consonants represent the most prevalent place of articulation for consonants across the world's languages, comprising 44.5% of all consonant segments in the UPSID database of 317 languages.^[32] This high frequency is underscored by the near-universal presence of coronal sounds, with no languages in Maddieson's 1984 sample of 317 languages entirely lacking them, though rare exceptions exist in smaller inventories.^[5] Within coronal articulations, alveodental and alveolar places dominate, accounting for approximately 15.3% and 9.9% (apico-alveolar) of segments respectively, with lamino-alveolar adding 3.4%, establishing alveolars as the prototypical or default coronal variant in phonological systems.^[32] Cross-linguistic patterns reveal a higher incidence of coronal consonants among obstruents compared to sonorants, with voiceless coronal plosives like /t/ occurring in 97.5% of languages in the UPSID sample, far exceeding the prevalence of coronal nasals or liquids.^[32] Recent typological analyses using expanded databases like PHOIBLE, covering over 3,000 inventories, confirm this trend, showing coronal obstruents such as /t/ in 68% of 2,186 languages, while coronal sonorants like /n/ appear in 78%.^[33] These disparities highlight universal tendencies where coronals favor obstruent manners, likely due to their compatibility with rapid closure and release in stop and fricative production. The elevated frequency of coronal consonants can be attributed to their articulatory ease and perceptual salience. The coronal articulator—the flexible tip or blade of the tongue—allows for quick adjustments with minimal effort, facilitating sequences that require only minor tongue repositioning, such as alternating coronal gestures with central vowels.^[34] Perceptually, coronals generate robust cues through distinct formant transitions and burst spectra, enhancing discriminability in diverse phonetic contexts without excessive energy expenditure.^[34] These functional advantages, as modeled in functionalist approaches to inventory optimization, promote coronals' retention and spread across language families.^[34] Modern surveys reinforce these patterns, with coronal consonants present in virtually all languages sampled in databases like PHOIBLE, underscoring their role as a phonological cornerstone despite minor variations in sub-place realizations.

Languages Lacking Coronals

Coronal consonants are nearly universal across the world's languages, with comprehensive surveys such as the UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database (UPSID) documenting their presence in all 317 languages of Maddieson's 1984 sample.^[5] However, exceptions exist, rendering the complete absence of coronals a typological rarity estimated at less than 1% of known languages, often resulting from historical phonological reductions within language families.^[35] As of recent databases like PHOIBLE (v2.0, 2019), Northwest Mekeo remains the only documented language lacking phonemic coronals, reinforcing their near-universal status.^[36] The most well-documented case is Northwest Mekeo, an Oceanic language spoken in Papua New Guinea, which lacks phonemic coronal consonants entirely.^[35] Its consonant inventory consists solely of labial, velar, and glottal phonemes (/p, m, b, β, k, ŋ, ɡ, ʔ/), with no underlying coronals in native vocabulary. Surface coronal realizations, such as or , occur predictably as allophones of velar stops and nasals before front vowels or in specific prosodic environments, serving as a compensatory mechanism to maintain articulatory ease without introducing new phonemic categories.^[35] This reduction appears historical, as related Mekeo dialects retain coronal phonemes like /l/, suggesting a progressive merger or loss over time within the family.^[35] In Austronesian languages, Northwest Mekeo represents an outlier, challenging assumptions in phonological theory about the unmarked status of coronals as the default place of articulation.^[35] Recent analyses of Oceanic varieties, including 2020s fieldwork on Papuan contact influences, highlight how such gaps can arise from substrate effects or chain shifts, where former coronals velarize or merge with dorsals, impacting syllable structure and vowel harmony patterns.^[37] These cases underscore the role of historical contingency in phonological inventories, prompting revisions to universalist models that previously deemed coronal absence impossible.^[35]

References

[1]
10. Describing Consonants: Place of Articulation
Note that all apical and laminal consonants are also coronal, so thin and chin can also be said to begin with coronal consonants. Passive articulators. The ...
[2]
[PDF] Toronto Working Papers in Linguistics - University of Toronto
Both coronal consonants and front vowels have been argued to show special properties with respect to phonological patterning as well, showing asymmetries when.
[3]
[PDF] coronals.pdf - UCLA Linguistics
If half of the consonants in a language are coronal, then any given consonant is more likely to be coronal than any other place class. In phonetic terms, ...
[4]
[PDF] 1. Introduction What the unmarked place of articulation is for ...
This key aspect of the theory allows for language specific variability concerning which consonant surfaces as unmarked; either coronal or velar may be unmarked ...
[5]
[PDF] Lecture 2: Phonetics - Stanford University
Coronal (using tip or blade of tongue). — Dorsal (using back of ... From Ladefoged “A Course in Phonetics”. Page 50. — 1. lots of high ...
[6]
None
### Classification of Consonants: Labial, Coronal, Dorsal
[7]
Preliminaries to Linguistic Phonetics - The University of Chicago Press
The book Preliminaries to Linguistic Phonetics, Peter Ladefoged is published by University of Chicago Press ... pdf. $34.99. ISBN: 9780226221892. Published ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[8]
3.3 Describing consonants: Place and phonation – Essentials of Linguistics, 2nd edition
### Summary of Stricture and Production for Consonants
[9]
https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo27778535.html
[10]
An ultrasound study of coronal places of articulation in Central Arrernte
This study presents ultrasound data from six female speakers of Arrernte, a language which has four coronal places of articulation: dental, alveolar, retroflex ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
An ultrasound and formant study of manner contrasts at four coronal ...
Nov 30, 2020 · This study examines consonant manner of articulation at four coronal places of articulation, using ultrasound and formant analyses of the ...C. Formant Analyses · Iii. Results · C. Formant Data
[12]
[PDF] The relationship between coronal place and vowel backness* - MIT
We have seen that the place of a coronal consonant can affect vowel backness, but vowel backness is also predicted to affect the place of articulation of ...
[13]
[PDF] Retroflex fricatives in Slavic languages - Fon.Hum.Uva.Nl.
Hindi retroflex stops (figure 1a) are articulated with the tongue tip against the region behind the alveolar ridge, whereas Tamil retroflex stops (cf. figure 1b) ...<|separator|>
[14]
[PDF] Arabic Emphatics: Phonetic and Phonological Remarks
Sep 4, 2013 · Arabic has a set of complex coronals, /s/, /d/, /ð/ and /t/, which are the emphatic sounds of their plain counterparts /s/, /d/, /ð/, ...
[15]
Acoustics of Arabic Uvulars and Emphatic Coronals - ResearchGate
Nov 3, 2021 · Emphatic consonants in Arabic are coronal obstruents with a debated secondary articulation, contrasting with plain coronals and affecting ...
[16]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349709767_Acoustics_of_Arabic_Uvulars_and_Emphatic_Coronals_Evidence_for_Uvularization_of_Emphatics_in_Qatari_Arabic
[17]
[PDF] Observations on the Phonological Reconstructions of Proto-Semitic ...
Jan 17, 2025 · ABSTRACT. This paper describes the reconstruction of the Proto-Semitic (PS) consonantal phonemic inventory via comparative methods.
[18]
11.4.3 Post-Alveolar Affricates: /tr,dr - American English Phonetics
GA /tr/ is usually realized as a voiceless post-alveolar affricate, [t̠ɹ̥], except when /s/ precedes in the same syllable.
[19]
[PDF] English Phonetics and Phonology: English Consonants
Alveolar sounds are pronounced with the tongue near or touching the alveolar ... For example, the manner feature of “nasal” entails “voiced.” This is because ...
[20]
[PDF] Acoustic-phonetics of coronal stops: A cross-language study of ...
In this study, only burst intensity and spectral measures, one set of cues relating to stop place of articulation, were measured for CE and CF coronal stops.
[21]
[PDF] Phonetic Variation and Phonological Theory: German Fricative ...
Jun 13, 2006 · Hence, there is no syllable-final devoicing of stops: all stops are voiceless unless (variably) voiced by passive voicing when between sonorants ...
[22]
Retroflex fricatives in Slavic languages | Journal of the International ...
Jun 7, 2004 · According to these criteria, Polish and Russian have retroflex fricatives (i.e., /[small s with hook]/ and /[small z with retroflex hook]/), ...
[23]
[PDF] Reconstructing Indo-European Syllabification - UKnowledge
MAXIMUM SYLLABLE TEMPLATE. The maximum PIE syllable consists of two consonants in the onset and two consonants in the coda. The onset may violate the SSP;.
[24]
[PDF] Palatalization in Romance - Roberto Petrosino
The first and second palatalizations are responsible for synchronic alternations in the. Romance languages. Note that in many Romance languages such as Italian, ...
[25]
(PDF) Palatalizations in the Romance Languages - ResearchGate
Feb 24, 2023 · In Romance languages, the origins of palatalization can be found in Late Latin: this process is known as the 2 nd Romance palatalization.
[26]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368715030_Palatalizations_in_the_Romance_Languages
[27]
[PDF] Revisiting 'The role of features in phonological inventories'
Jan 18, 2013 · Four-way coronal stop contrasts. Contrast. Language. Genus, Root. Features needed t t̪ ʈ t̠. Eastern Arrernte. Pama-Nyungan, Australian anterior ...
[28]
https://dan.mccloy.info/pubs/McCloyEtAl2013_cunyFeatureConf.pdf
[29]
https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4777757
[30]
Australian Aboriginal languages: Consonant salient phonologies ...
Australian languages typically have small vowel inventories and very unusual consonant systems. They have no close vowels, no voicing contrast and no manner-of ...
[31]
[PDF] CONSONANT SYSTEMS: FROM UNIVERSAL TRENDS TO ...
Voiceless oral coronal plosives (type /t/) are the most frequent (they are present in 97.5% of the languages); bilabials and coronal nasals (types /m/ et /n/) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
The sounds of prehistoric speech - PMC - NIH
Mar 22, 2021 · Based on the 2186 languages in PHOIBLE, /m/ is found in 96% of languages, /k/ in 90%, /p/ in 86%, /n/ in 78% and /t/ in 68% [9]. Despite such ...
[33]
[PDF] MODELLING THE DISTRIBUTION OF CONSONANT INVENTORIES ...
We shall now see how the three optimization principles of articulatory ease and perceptual salience and distinctivity co-operate on obstruent consonants. As ...
[34]
Global patterns in consonant inventories: Frequency distributions ...
Previous work has documented substantial variation: Maddieson (2013) reported consonant inventory sizes ranging from as few as six phonemes (/p, b, t, d, k, g/ ...
[35]
[PDF] Another Universal Bites the Dust: Northwest Mekeo Lacks Coronal ...
Consonant Universal #4: Every phonological system has coronal phonemes. In this squib, I present counterevidence to Consonant Universal #4.
[36]
Another Universal Bites the Dust: Northwest Mekeo Lacks Coronal ...
Aug 10, 2025 · In this study, Northwest Mekeo, an Oceanic language of Papua New Guinea, is shown to be a counterexample. Northwest Mekeo lacks coronal phonemes ...