Country code top-level domain
A country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is a top-level domain in the global Domain Name System (DNS) assigned to a country, sovereign state, or dependent territory, typically consisting of a two-letter code derived from the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 standard for representing names of countries and their subdivisions, or an internationalized variant in a non-Latin script.[1] These domains serve to identify online resources associated with specific geographic or national entities, facilitating localized internet addressing and supporting national digital sovereignty.[2] Examples include .us for the United States, .uk for the United Kingdom, and .de for Germany.[2] The establishment of ccTLDs originated in the early development of the DNS, with their formal proposal outlined in RFC 920 in October 1984, which recommended using ISO 3166-1 codes to create a hierarchical structure for domain names corresponding to countries.[3] The first ccTLD, .us, was delegated in 1985, followed by others such as .uk and .il later that year, marking the beginning of national domain infrastructures.[4] Over time, the system evolved to include internationalized domain names (IDN ccTLDs), allowing non-Latin scripts; the first such delegations occurred in 2010 under ICANN's IDN program.[5] Management of ccTLDs is coordinated by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), an operational arm of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), which oversees the root zone of the DNS and processes delegation requests from governments or designated local entities.[6] Each ccTLD is typically administered by a national registry or manager responsible for policy, registration, and technical operations, ensuring alignment with local laws and public interests.[1] As of 2024, there are over 300 delegated ccTLDs, including both Latin-script and internationalized variants, representing nearly every recognized country and territory.[7] Some ccTLDs, such as .tv (Tuvalu) and .io (British Indian Ocean Territory), have gained international popularity for their acronymic appeal in industries like broadcasting and technology.[2]Fundamentals
Definition and Purpose
A country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is a two-letter top-level domain in the Domain Name System (DNS) root zone, generally reserved for and used by a specific country, sovereign state, or dependent territory.[6] These domains form the highest level in the DNS hierarchy, immediately below the root, and are distinguished by their concise, country-specific identifiers that facilitate organized namespace allocation within the global internet infrastructure.[2] ccTLDs are primarily based on the two-letter alpha-2 codes defined in the ISO 3166-1 standard, ensuring a standardized mapping to geographic entities; for instance, .us represents the United States, while .uk denotes the United Kingdom.[6] This correspondence provides a structured foundation for associating domains with national boundaries, though some exceptions exist for territories or special cases, as explored in related standards. The core purpose of ccTLDs is to establish dedicated national or regional internet namespaces that enable localized domain name registrations, fostering digital sovereignty and tailored management to serve the interests of local internet communities.[6] By delegating authority to designated managers, ccTLDs support equitable access and stability in the DNS, allowing countries to promote national identity through domain usage, facilitate local business promotion via region-specific branding, and deliver essential government services under protected subdomains.[6] As of the third quarter of 2025, approximately 316 ccTLDs have been delegated worldwide, encompassing both ASCII and internationalized variants, and they account for 144.8 million active domain registrations—representing roughly 38% of the global total of 378.5 million domain names across all top-level domains.[8] This scale underscores their significant role in diversifying the internet's address space while prioritizing community-driven governance over generic alternatives.[8]Distinction from Generic TLDs
Country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) differ fundamentally from generic top-level domains (gTLDs) in their structural purpose and eligibility requirements. ccTLDs are two-letter domains assigned to represent specific countries, territories, or geographic locations, as defined by the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 standard, and are typically intended for use by entities associated with those areas.[2] In contrast, gTLDs, such as .com and .org, are not geographically tied and serve broader, unrestricted purposes for global audiences.[9] Many ccTLDs impose registration restrictions based on nationality, residency, or local presence, requiring registrants to demonstrate ties to the corresponding country, whereas gTLDs generally allow open registration without such geographic or demographic limitations.[2] Governance of ccTLDs and gTLDs also contrasts sharply, reflecting their distinct scopes. ccTLDs are delegated and managed by national authorities, local internet communities, or designated trustees within the respective country, with policies tailored to national interests and regulations.[9] The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) maintains the root zone database for ccTLDs but leaves operational control to these local entities, often without formal ICANN contracts.[2] gTLDs, however, fall under direct ICANN oversight through standardized contracts with registry operators, such as VeriSign for .com, ensuring uniform global policies on registration, dispute resolution, and technical standards.[9] In terms of usage, ccTLDs primarily facilitate local targeting and national branding, such as .de for German businesses to signal relevance to domestic users.[10] gTLDs support international branding and commerce without geographic connotations, exemplified by .com's widespread adoption for unrestricted global enterprises.[9] Some ccTLDs, however, blur these lines through open registration policies; for instance, .io—originally designated for the British Indian Ocean Territory—has gained popularity among technology companies worldwide due to its evocation of "input/output," despite its country-code origins. These distinctions influence the Domain Name System (DNS) ecosystem, particularly in geographic segmentation. ccTLDs enable search engines like Google to infer and prioritize content for specific regions, providing an automatic geotargeting signal that enhances local visibility in search results and affects email routing protocols.[10] gTLDs lack this inherent localization, requiring alternative signals like hreflang tags or Search Console settings for international targeting.[11]History
Early Development
The development of country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) emerged in the mid-1980s as part of the broader evolution of the Domain Name System (DNS), which addressed limitations in the earlier ARPANET hostname system. Prior to formal TLDs, network hosts relied on a centralized hosts file maintained by the Network Information Center (NIC), but this approach proved unscalable as the ARPANET expanded. In 1984, RFC 920 outlined requirements for establishing domains in the ARPA-Internet, proposing a hierarchical structure with top-level domains including country-specific codes derived from the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 standard to enable localized administration.[3] This framework shifted management from a flat namespace to a tree-structured one, facilitating delegation to responsible entities with technical expertise and authority.[3] Jon Postel, serving as the de facto manager of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) at the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute, played a pivotal role in the initial ccTLD assignments, personally handling delegations based on ISO 3166-1 codes to academic and research contacts in various countries. The first ccTLD, .us for the United States, was delegated on February 15, 1985, directly to Postel himself. Later that year, .uk (United Kingdom) and .il (Israel) followed on July 24 and October 24, respectively, marking the inception of international ccTLDs.[12][13] These early delegations were informal, often based on direct communication with Postel, reflecting the collaborative, pioneer-driven nature of the nascent internet.[14] By 1986, additional ccTLDs were established, including .au (Australia) in March, delegated to computer science researcher Robert Elz at the University of Melbourne.[15] This period saw rapid but selective growth, with delegations prioritizing countries with active academic and government involvement in networking research. Approximately 25 ccTLDs had been delegated by the end of 1988, though adoption remained limited to institutional users due to the internet's primary role in supporting scientific collaboration.[16] A key milestone occurred between 1985 and 1986, when these initial ccTLDs were integrated into the DNS root zone, enabling global resolution of country-specific domains and solidifying the hierarchical DNS architecture for international use.[17] This integration, managed by Postel, laid the foundation for ccTLDs as sovereign extensions of the global namespace, distinct from generic TLDs.[14]Expansion and Internationalization
The expansion of country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) accelerated in the 1990s amid the rapid commercialization of the internet, as nations sought to establish national digital identities distinct from generic TLDs like .com. Delegations grew from 46 ccTLDs in 1990 to 108 by 1993, reaching over 240 by the end of the decade as Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) processes formalized under RFC 1591 enabled quicker approvals for ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes.[18] In the 2000s, ccTLD growth shifted toward increased registrations and policy liberalization, influenced by World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements such as the TRIPS Agreement, which promoted harmonized intellectual property protections and dispute resolution mechanisms for domain names. By 2010, total ccTLD registrations had surged, with .de (Germany) and .cn (China) leading globally at approximately 14.9 million and 12.3 million domains, respectively, reflecting national priorities for online presence in e-commerce and government services.[19][20] The introduction of Internationalized Domain Names (IDNs) marked a pivotal step in ccTLD internationalization, with RFC 3490 in 2003 standardizing Punycode encoding to support non-ASCII characters in domain labels. This enabled the delegation of the first IDN ccTLDs in 2010, with .امارات (United Arab Emirates), .السعودية (Saudi Arabia), and .مصر (Egypt) delegated on May 5, followed by .рф (Russia) on May 12 as the inaugural Cyrillic top-level domain, facilitating native-script addressing for Russian users.[21][22] From 2023 to 2025, ccTLD developments remained modest, with minor reactivations and delegations for previously unused or exceptional ISO codes, maintaining stability at approximately 316 active ccTLDs amid a total of 1,264 delegated top-level domains by March 2025. Global domain registrations across all TLDs reached 378.5 million in Q3 2025, underscoring sustained growth driven partly by ccTLD adoption.[7][23] This expansion has profoundly impacted the multilingual web, with IDN ccTLDs addressing non-Latin scripts and enabling over 60 such delegations by 2024, thereby enhancing accessibility for non-English-speaking populations and promoting digital inclusion worldwide.[7]Administration
Delegation by IANA
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), as the root zone manager, is responsible for delegating country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) to designated managers upon formal requests tied to ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes.[6] This delegation process ensures that ccTLDs are assigned to entities capable of operating them in the public interest, serving as a foundational step for global DNS stability.[24] IANA coordinates with ICANN and VeriSign to implement changes in the DNS root zone, maintaining the authoritative list of ccTLDs.[6] Requests for delegation or redelegation must originate from relevant governments, authorized entities, or local Internet communities, demonstrating a clear need and operational capability.[6] Key criteria, outlined in RFC 1591, include the proposed manager's technical competence to operate name servers with IP and email connectivity, administrative presence in the country, and commitment to equitable, non-discriminatory handling of domain requests.[24] Additional requirements involve documented support from significantly interested parties and a statement of consent or non-objection from the relevant government authority.[6] These guidelines emphasize stability, with managers acting as trustees for both national and global Internet users.[24] The delegation process begins with submission of a formal request to IANA via email ([email protected]), accompanied by a standardized form and supporting documentation, including certified government statements.[6] IANA reviews the application for compliance with policies, verifies stakeholder support, and assesses technical plans to ensure minimal disruption.[6] Upon approval, VeriSign updates the root zone files, and IANA publishes the delegation in the WHOIS database, typically completing the process in 1-2 months, though complex cases may extend longer.[25] For instance, the .su ccTLD was delegated on September 19, 1990, to the Soviet Union Association of UNIX Users, and retained post-USSR dissolution due to demonstrated ongoing need. IANA provides ongoing oversight by maintaining accurate WHOIS records and facilitating redelegations when geopolitical or administrative changes occur.[6] Redelegations follow similar steps but require a transition plan to protect existing registrants, as seen in the 2007 case where .yu was redelegated to a caretaker for Serbia (.rs) following Montenegro's independence, with .yu fully retired by 2010 after a two-year migration period.[26] More recently, in March 2025, IANA initiated the retirement process for the .su ccTLD, notifying its operator of removal by 2030 after new registrations ceased in 2022, in line with policies for obsolete codes.[27] Current policies prohibit new two-letter ccTLD delegations without corresponding ISO 3166-1 updates, prioritizing root zone stability and orderly retirements, with a default five-year grace period for obsolete codes post-ISO removal.[28]Management and Policies
Once delegated, country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) are managed by local registry operators who assume full responsibility for their operation. These operators, such as DENIC for the .de domain, handle domain registrations, maintain the DNS infrastructure including authoritative name servers, and manage the zone file containing domain and contact information.[29][30] In addition, registries oversee dispute resolution processes; for instance, DENIC provides a dedicated DISPUTE service allowing domain holders or third parties to request blocking of .de domains during legal proceedings over rights disputes, without evaluating the claims themselves.[31] This decentralized model ensures that ccTLDs operate independently from ICANN's direct oversight, aligning with national laws and priorities.[32] Policies for ccTLD registrations vary significantly by country, reflecting diverse national interests in sovereignty, economic development, and accessibility. Some impose strict local presence requirements, such as Japan's .jp domain, which mandates a physical address or registered business in Japan for eligibility.[33] In contrast, more open policies like that of the .io domain (British Indian Ocean Territory) permit global registrations without residency restrictions, attracting international users for its tech-friendly appeal.[34] Pricing and restrictions also differ; for example, the .tk domain (Tokelau) offers free registrations for non-commercial use to promote digital inclusion, though premium options exist for commercial purposes.[35] These variations enable ccTLDs to serve both local identity needs and broader commercial opportunities. The Country Code Names Supporting Organization (ccNSO), an ICANN advisory body, facilitates coordination among ccTLD managers by promoting voluntary best practices in areas like technical stability and policy development.[36] Membership is open to all ccTLD operators, providing a forum for consensus-building on shared challenges without imposing binding rules.[37] Common issues include combating spam and cybersecurity threats, which registries address through proactive measures; Russia's .ru ccTLD, for instance, implements anti-abuse protocols via self-regulation, collaborating with registrars to suspend domains hosting phishing or illegal content based on reports from authorities.[38] From 2023 to 2025, ccTLD management has emphasized enhanced privacy protections and sustainability. European Union-based registries have intensified GDPR compliance by minimizing personal data collection in WHOIS databases and implementing privacy-by-default measures to balance transparency with data protection rights.[39][40] Simultaneously, there is growing focus on sustainability, with some registries reporting on their carbon footprints and adopting energy-efficient infrastructure to reduce environmental impact amid rising stakeholder demands for eco-responsible operations.[41]Relation to ISO 3166-1
Standard Correspondence
The standard correspondence between country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes forms the foundational principle of their assignment, with most ccTLDs directly adopting the exact two-letter codes designated by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for countries and territories.[28] For instance, the ccTLD .fr corresponds to France (FR), and .ca to Canada (CA), ensuring a one-to-one mapping that aligns domain nomenclature with internationally recognized country identifiers.[28] This direct adoption applies to approximately 250 active ASCII two-letter ccTLDs, which mirror the ISO codes for United Nations member states, dependent territories, and other recognized entities.[42] The ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA) is responsible for assigning and maintaining these alpha-2 codes, drawing from official short names in six official UN languages and other sources to promote global consistency. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), under ICANN, mirrors these codes in its delegation process to maintain stability in the Domain Name System (DNS) root zone, avoiding disruptions to existing internet infrastructure.[4] This coordination, established since the 1980s and formalized in documents like RFC 920, ensures that ccTLD delegations reflect current ISO standards without introducing variability.[4] This alignment provides key benefits, including enhanced international recognition of domains tied to specific jurisdictions and simplified automation in software applications for geolocation, localization, and compliance with international protocols.[4] For example, email systems and web browsers can reliably parse .jp (Japan) to infer regional context, supporting seamless global operations.[28] Updates to the ISO 3166-1 standard, such as the addition of codes for newly independent states or territorial changes, can prompt corresponding requests for ccTLD delegation through IANA's process, which evaluates eligibility based on the revised ISO listing to uphold the correspondence.[4] This mechanism allows the DNS to evolve in tandem with geopolitical developments while preserving the integrity of the two-letter code system.[6]Exceptions and Special Cases
While most country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) correspond directly to ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes, several ISO-assigned codes lack delegated ccTLDs or have them in a non-operational state. For instance, no ccTLD has been delegated for .bv (Bouvet Island), as the domain remains unallocated in the IANA root zone despite the ISO code's assignment. Similarly, .bl (Saint Barthélemy), .mf (Saint Martin), and .eh (Western Sahara) are absent from the root zone, with no sponsoring organization or name servers configured. The .um (U.S. Minor Outlying Islands) ccTLD was explicitly revoked in 2008 following a recommendation by IANA due to lack of use and administrative issues. For .sj (Svalbard and Jan Mayen), a delegation exists to Norid A/S in Norway since 1997, but no domain registrations are permitted, rendering it effectively unused. The .gb (United Kingdom) ccTLD is delegated to Jisc but has been inactive since 1996, with all registrations redirected to .uk; the UK government has considered its full retirement to avoid maintenance costs. Exceptions also arise from non-standard assignments outside strict ISO 3166-1 mappings. The .eu ccTLD represents the European Union as a supranational entity under an exceptional ISO 3166-1 reservation (code EU), delegated to EURid since 2005 for use by EU residents and organizations. Another case is .ac (Ascension Island), which shares administrative ties with .sh (Saint Helena) as part of the same British Overseas Territory; while .ac is fully operational for Ascension-specific use, .sh serves the broader territory, reflecting historical delegation practices. These deviations often stem from political, historical, or practical considerations. The preference for .uk over .gb in the United Kingdom arose because .uk was already in use via the pre-existing JANET network scheme before formal ISO assignment, leading to .gb's reservation but non-adoption. Reservations for future use, such as .bv and .sj, preserve codes for potential activation without immediate need. Special delegations like .su (Soviet Union) have been retained post-dissolution in 1991 for legacy purposes, managed by Russia despite the entity's obsolescence; however, ICANN announced plans in 2025 to retire .su by 2030 due to its ineligibility. The .tp ccTLD for East Timor was retired in 2015 after ISO 3166-1 updated the code to .tl for Timor-Leste, with all delegations transferred to avoid disruption. IANA's policy on such exceptions emphasizes adherence to ISO 3166-1, delegating ccTLDs only for listed entities and requiring strong justification for deviations, such as supranational status or legacy continuity; post-2000, new exceptions have been rare, with most changes involving retirements or redelegations to align with updated standards.Internationalized ccTLDs
Implementation and Standards
Internationalized country code top-level domains (IDN ccTLDs) enable the use of Unicode characters in top-level domain labels, extending beyond the ASCII Latin script to support scripts such as Arabic, Cyrillic, and Chinese. This is achieved through the Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) protocol, which maps non-ASCII characters to an ASCII-compatible encoding format called Punycode. For instance, the Cyrillic domain .рф for Russia is encoded as .xn--p1ai in the Domain Name System (DNS), allowing seamless resolution while preserving the original script in user interfaces.[43][44] The primary standards governing IDN implementation are outlined in the IDNA2008 specifications, documented in RFC 5890 through RFC 5894. These RFCs define the framework for processing Unicode strings, including validation rules, character categorization (e.g., permitted, disallowed, or contextual), and mapping procedures to ensure compatibility across applications. To facilitate the delegation of IDN ccTLDs, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) introduced the Fast Track Process in November 2009, specifically targeting non-Latin scripts associated with ISO 3166-1 country codes. This process involves three stages: preparation by the requesting country, string evaluation by ICANN to assess linguistic and technical viability—including risks of visual confusion with existing top-level domains—and final delegation by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). The first IDN ccTLD delegations occurred in May 2010, coinciding with the signing of the DNS root zone, which integrated cryptographic security to support these new entries.[45][46][47][48] Technical challenges in IDN ccTLD implementation include handling character variants, particularly in scripts like Chinese where simplified and traditional forms represent the same concept but differ visually (e.g., 国 in simplified vs. 國 in traditional). These variants are managed through predefined tables, such as the Simplified Chinese Variant Table (SCVT) and Traditional Chinese Variant Table (TCVT), which ensure that related forms are treated equivalently during registration to prevent fragmentation or disputes. Additionally, compatibility with DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC) requires careful encoding, as Punycode representations must be digitally signed without altering the underlying Unicode integrity; each IDN ccTLD delegation operates as a separate zone, allowing independent DNSSEC key management. By 2025, over 60 IDN ccTLDs have been delegated, primarily in Arabic (e.g., for Arab states), Cyrillic (e.g., for Russia and Ukraine), and Chinese scripts (e.g., for Taiwan and the People's Republic of China), with no significant new delegations reported between 2023 and 2025.[49][50][7]Delegated IDN ccTLDs
The first internationalized country code top-level domains (IDN ccTLDs) were delegated in May 2010 through ICANN's fast-track process, marking a milestone in enabling non-Latin scripts at the top level of the domain name system. These initial delegations included Egypt's .مصر (Punycode: xn--wgbh1c), Saudi Arabia's .السعودية (Punycode: xn--mgberp4a5d4ar), and the United Arab Emirates' .امارات (Punycode: xn--mgbaam7a8h).[51][52] By 2020, delegations had grown to 60 IDN ccTLDs across 40 countries and one supranational entity, reflecting broader global adoption of IDN technology.[53] Adoption of delegated IDN ccTLDs varies by region, with notable success in non-Latin script environments. Russia's .рф (Punycode: xn--p1ai), introduced in Cyrillic script, has seen significant uptake, reaching over 760,000 registered domains by mid-2025, primarily for Russian-language websites and services.[54][55] Similarly, China's .中国 (Punycode: xn--fiqs8s) serves domestic purposes, supporting Chinese-character domains for local businesses and government entities, though its registration volume remains more modest at around 185,000 as of late 2025.[56] Management policies for IDN ccTLDs frequently impose stricter criteria than their ASCII equivalents to ensure cultural and linguistic relevance, such as mandating the use of native scripts in second-level labels and requiring local presence or residency for registrants.[5] For instance, .рф requires domain labels to be in Cyrillic characters, aligning with Russia's linguistic policies, while .中国 emphasizes compliance with Chinese internet regulations for content and ownership.[54][57] Growth in IDN ccTLD registrations has been steady but limited, accounting for less than 5% of the global total of over 350 million domains as of 2022, though uptake is increasing in regions with non-Latin scripts like Cyrillic, Arabic, and Chinese.[58][59] Since 2022, the landscape has stabilized with no new delegations under the original fast-track mechanism, maintaining 61 active IDN ccTLDs through standard ICANN processes.[7] Persistent challenges include varying levels of browser support, where some older systems may not fully render IDN characters, leading to display issues or Punycode fallbacks, and the need for user education to promote familiarity with entering and recognizing non-Latin domains.[60][61] These factors have slowed broader adoption despite technical standards enabling seamless integration in modern DNS infrastructure.[62]Lists of ccTLDs
Active ASCII ccTLDs
As of November 2025, there are 248 active ASCII country code top-level domains (ccTLDs) delegated in the DNS root zone by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), each associated with an ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code for a country, territory, or other geographic entity.[2] These domains are managed by designated sponsoring organizations or registries, which handle registration policies, technical operations, and often support features like Internationalized Domain Names (IDN) for non-Latin scripts and DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC) for enhanced security. Sponsorship details are maintained in IANA's root zone database, ensuring stable delegation without significant changes to the roster between 2023 and 2025.[2] The distribution of registrations varies widely, with the top performers driving the majority of the 144.8 million total ccTLD domains reported at the end of Q3 2025. Leading examples include .cn (China), with over 20 million registrations managed by the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC); .de (Germany), exceeding 17 million under DENIC eG; .uk (United Kingdom), surpassing 10 million via Nominet UK; .nl (Netherlands), operated by SIDN; and .ru (Russia), handled by the Coordination Center for TLD .RU/.РФ.[8] These high-volume ccTLDs reflect strong national digital economies, particularly in Asia and Europe, where adoption rates are elevated due to local regulations favoring country-specific domains.[8] To illustrate the diversity among active ASCII ccTLDs, the following table highlights representative examples, including top performers and notable cases with unique policies. Most support IDN variants and DNSSEC, though restrictions such as residency requirements or usage limits apply in some jurisdictions.[2]| Code | Country/Territory | Registry/Sponsor | IDN Support | DNSSEC Support | Notes on Restrictions |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| .cn | China | China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) | Yes | Yes | Requires real-name verification; prioritizes Chinese entities. |
| .de | Germany | DENIC eG | Yes | Yes | Open to all, but NIS2 compliance mandates contact data from March 2025. |
| .uk | United Kingdom | Nominet UK | Yes | Yes | Open registration; .co.uk second-level preferred for commercial use. |
| .nl | Netherlands | SIDN | Yes | Yes | No residency required; focuses on Dutch-language content encouragement. |
| .ru | Russia | Coordination Center for TLD .RU/.РФ | Yes | Yes | Open but monitors for compliance with Russian data laws. |
| .tk | Tokelau | Tokelau Government | Limited | Yes | Free registrations ended in 2024 following Freenom's cessation; many domains shut down, with ongoing re-delegation efforts.[63] |
| .io | British Indian Ocean Territory | Internet Computer Bureau Limited | Yes | Yes | Popular globally for tech; no territorial restrictions enforced. |
| .ca | Canada | Canadian Internet Registration Authority (CIRA) | Yes | Yes | Requires Canadian presence or trademark for registration. |
Internationalized ccTLDs
As of November 2025, 61 Internationalized country code top-level domains (IDN ccTLDs) have been delegated into the DNS root zone, enabling the use of native scripts for country-specific domains and complementing traditional ASCII ccTLDs.[65] These delegations, primarily through ICANN's Fast Track Process, support linguistic diversity across scripts such as Arabic, Chinese, Cyrillic, Devanagari, and Thai, with many countries operating both ASCII and IDN variants for broader accessibility. IDN ccTLDs typically feature lower registration volumes than their ASCII equivalents due to factors like browser support and user familiarity with Latin scripts, yet they play a vital cultural role in promoting local identity and content creation.[65] For instance, Iraq's .عراق (xn--mgbtx2b) facilitates Arabic-language websites and has seen adoption for government and community sites despite modest overall numbers.[66] The following table presents representative examples of delegated IDN ccTLDs, highlighting their native representations and key operational details:| Native Script | Punycode | Country | Registry/Sponsor | Evaluation Completion Date | Registration Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ไทย | xn--o3cw4h | Thailand | Thai Network Information Center Foundation | 16 July 2010 | Open to public registration in Thai script; integrated with .th for hybrid use.[67][68] |
| भारत | xn--h2brj9c | India | National Internet Exchange of India (NIXI) | 5 February 2011 | Available for second-level registrations in Devanagari; one of seven IDN variants for India.[69][70] |
| عراق | xn--mgbtx2b | Iraq | Communications and Media Commission (CMC) | 29 September 2014 | Restricted to Iraqi residents and entities; focuses on Arabic content promotion.[66][71] |
| ليبيا | xn--mgbb7fyab | Libya | General Post and Telecommunication Company | October 2024 | Evaluated via Fast Track; delegation pending as of November 2025, with registration implementation forthcoming for Libyan users.[72] |