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Cram school

A cram school is a private institution, particularly prevalent in East Asia, that employs an accelerated curriculum to intensively prepare students for standardized entrance examinations, such as those for high schools or universities.^[1]^[2] These schools, often operating after regular school hours, emphasize repetitive drilling, test-taking strategies, and subject-specific tutoring to maximize performance on high-stakes assessments that determine educational and career trajectories.^[3] Originating in countries like Japan and South Korea amid post-war expansions in competitive education systems, cram schools evolved from supplementary tutoring for underperforming students to ubiquitous fixtures driven by parental investment in academic success as a pathway to social mobility.^[3] In Japan, known as juku, they trace roots to selective private academies predating modern exam systems, while in South Korea (hagwon), their proliferation followed centralized reforms emphasizing merit-based university admissions after the Korean War.^[4] Similar models emerged in Taiwan and China, where entrance exams like the gaokao intensified demand, transforming cram schools into a multi-billion-dollar industry sustained by cultural emphasis on scholastic achievement over holistic development.^[5] Cram schools boast high enrollment rates, with empirical data indicating that around 78% of South Korean students participate, averaging 7.2 hours weekly, and parents collectively spending over US$20 billion annually on such programs.^[6] In Taiwan, a majority of students attend, correlating with gains in analytical skills and exam scores, though access often favors higher socioeconomic groups, perpetuating inequality.^[7] While studies affirm causal benefits for academic outcomes, such as improved mathematics performance from targeted timing of enrollment, critics highlight drawbacks including reduced physical activity and elevated negative emotions linked to extended study loads.^[8]^[9]^[10] This tension underscores cram schools' role in fueling East Asia's high PISA rankings alongside documented pressures on youth mental health.^[11]

Definition and Characteristics

Core Definition

A cram school is a for-profit private institution offering supplementary academic instruction outside formal schooling, with the primary objective of intensively preparing students for high-stakes standardized examinations, such as those for secondary school or university admission.^[2] These establishments, often termed juku in Japan, hagwon in South Korea, or buxiban in Taiwan, deliver accelerated curricula focused on exam-specific content, employing repetitive drills, mock tests, and targeted skill-building to maximize test scores.^[12] Unlike public schools, cram schools operate on a fee-based model, attracting students seeking competitive advantages in meritocratic systems where exam performance determines educational and career trajectories.^[13] The core function of cram schools stems from their role as "shadow education," paralleling mainstream curricula but emphasizing efficiency in content mastery over holistic development, often filling gaps in regular classroom instruction perceived as insufficient for exam success.^[14] In East Asian contexts, where entrance exams like Japan's National Center Test or Korea's College Scholastic Ability Test serve as gateways to elite institutions, cram schools provide specialized tutoring that prioritizes rote memorization and strategic test-taking over broader pedagogical goals.^[13] This supplementary system thrives due to parental investment in academic achievement as a pathway to socioeconomic mobility, with enrollment driven by the causal link between high exam scores and access to prestigious universities and jobs.^[7]

Distinguishing Features

Cram schools differ from conventional public or regular schools primarily through their narrow specialization in high-stakes exam preparation, emphasizing rote memorization, repetitive drills, and test-specific strategies over broad curricular development or holistic student growth.^[15] These institutions, often privately operated and for-profit, target supplemental instruction outside standard school hours—typically evenings, weekends, and school holidays—to equip students for competitive entrance exams determining access to elite secondary institutions or universities.^[11] In contrast to regular schools' integration of extracurriculars, moral education, and varied teaching methods, cram schools maintain a streamlined focus on core examinable subjects such as mathematics, sciences, and languages, employing timed practice sessions and analytical skill-building tailored to exam formats.^[16] A hallmark of cram schools is their reliance on high-intensity, structured repetition, which public schools often delegate to these private entities to prioritize foundational skill reinforcement amid broader educational mandates.^[15] Student attendance is voluntary and parent-funded, fostering environments of elevated motivation and peer competition, with class structures varying from large lecture-style sessions to smaller remedial groups, but consistently prioritizing quantifiable performance gains over creative or exploratory learning.^[11] In East Asian contexts like Japan (juku) and South Korea (hagwon), this model supports massive participation rates—such as over 70% of junior high students in Taiwan engaging in cram schooling for an average of six hours weekly—driven by systemic pressures for academic advancement.^[12] Unlike regular schools bound by national curricula and standardized daytime schedules, cram schools exhibit flexibility in pedagogical innovation, such as specialized remedial tracks or advanced previewing of upcoming school material, though this often intensifies workload without regulatory oversight on hours or content depth.^[17] Their private nature enables rapid adaptation to exam changes but also introduces variability in quality, with effectiveness linked to institutional reputation and teacher expertise in exam patterns rather than formal credentials.^[18] This supplemental role underscores cram schools' position as "shadow education" systems, amplifying regular schooling's outputs through targeted intervention while potentially exacerbating inequities based on family resources.^[19]

Historical Development

Ancient and Imperial Origins

The imperial examination system, known as keju, originated in the Sui dynasty in 605 CE as a merit-based method for selecting civil servants, emphasizing knowledge of Confucian classics over hereditary privilege. This system, which endured until 1905 CE, created intense demand for specialized preparation due to its rigorous testing of rote memorization, essay composition, and classical interpretation, often requiring candidates to master the Four Books and Five Classics. Government schools from the Sui through Yuan dynasties aligned their curricula to exam content, but private tutoring and academies emerged early to address gaps, with unsuccessful examinees frequently becoming instructors in local preparatory settings.^[20] Private academies, or shuyuan, first appeared during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) as venues for classical study, evolving into dedicated exam preparation hubs by the Southern Song dynasty (960–1279 CE). These institutions offered intensive drills on exam formats, such as composing policy discourses and essays, exemplified by Lize Academy founded by scholar Lü Zuqian, which provided structured courses and model texts like his Study on The Commentary of Zuo containing 168 sample essays. Similarly, White Deer Cave Academy in the Southern Song period functioned as a key center for teaching classics alongside exam-specific skills, fostering a cram-like environment focused on high-stakes success.^[21]^[22] By the Ming (1368–1644 CE) and Qing (1644–1912 CE) dynasties, shuyuan proliferated, with thousands established explicitly for imperial exam training, incorporating simulated tests and debate sessions to mimic examination conditions. Government schools also transformed into de facto cram academies, prioritizing pass rates over broader scholarship, while private tutors—often repeat test-takers—offered personalized coaching on techniques like the eight-legged essay format. This preparatory ecosystem, driven by the exams' role in social mobility, laid foundational practices for intensive, outcome-oriented education that paralleled modern cram schools, though critiqued even then for prioritizing rote success over substantive learning, as noted by Southern Song scholar Liu Fu regarding superficial "Yellow Book" cram materials.^[20]^[21]^[23]

Post-War Modernization and Expansion

Following the Allied occupation's educational reforms in 1947, Japan implemented a single-track 6-3-3-4 system under the Fundamental Law of Education, which democratized access to secondary schooling and spurred mass enrollment. Advancement rates to upper secondary schools rose from 42.5% in 1950 to 57.7% in 1960 and 82.1% in 1970, creating intense competition for limited spots in prestigious universities via standardized entrance exams.^[24] This bottleneck, amid the 1950s-1970s economic miracle emphasizing merit-based mobility, drove the modernization of juku from informal tutoring to structured, exam-focused operations with professional curricula and facilities. Juku attendance escalated in the 1970s as public schools struggled to match rising parental aspirations for credentials signaling economic success, transforming them into a parallel system supplementing daytime instruction with evening and weekend drills.^[25] In South Korea, post-Korean War reconstruction from 1953 prioritized universal education to foster human capital for industrialization under regimes like Park Chung-hee's, with secondary enrollment expanding rapidly alongside GDP growth from export-led manufacturing. Hagwon, evolving from early missionary-founded academies, proliferated as private responses to the high-stakes College Scholastic Ability Test (suneung), which determined access to elite universities and white-collar jobs. By the 1980s, hagwon had modernized into large-scale chains offering specialized subjects, with their numbers surging from 381 in 1980 to 14,043 by 2000, reflecting household expenditures rivaling public school budgets to gain competitive edges in a credential society.^[26] Taiwan's buxiban similarly expanded during its post-1949 economic takeoff, as the Kuomintang regime invested in compulsory education to support export-oriented growth, achieving near-universal primary and secondary coverage by the 1970s. Cram schools modernized in the 1980s-1990s amid democratization and curriculum reforms that reduced school hours but heightened exam pressures for joint university entrance tests, prompting parents to seek supplementary intensive training. The sector boomed from approximately 4,300 outlets in the late 1990s to 17,400 by 2008, incorporating advanced teaching aids and subject-specific tracks to address perceived public school deficiencies in rote mastery for meritocratic advancement.^[27] Across these contexts, cram school growth correlated with state-driven modernization, where public systems provided broad access but private entities filled gaps in high-yield exam preparation, entrenching a dual-track approach to educational attainment.^[28]

Pedagogical Approaches

Intensive Exam Preparation Techniques

Cram schools prioritize pedagogical techniques that align closely with the format and demands of high-stakes entrance examinations, such as Japan's university entrance tests or South Korea's College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT). These methods emphasize rapid knowledge acquisition through repetition and simulation rather than deep conceptual exploration, aiming to maximize performance under timed conditions. Instruction typically occurs in extended sessions, often 3-5 hours daily outside regular school hours, with classes structured around teacher-led lectures followed by immediate application.^[29] A core technique is drill and practice, involving repetitive exercises on exam-style questions to build automaticity in skills like grammar, vocabulary, and problem-solving. In Japanese juku, students engage in multiple-choice grammar drills and past exam practices, with teachers providing model answers and explanations to reinforce patterns observed in real tests. Similarly, Korean hagwon for TOEFL reading preparation dedicate significant time to isolated vocabulary drills (e.g., synonyms) and syntactic analysis, with over 200 mentions of word-specific training in analyzed courses, fostering breadth over depth. This approach yields measurable gains in test scores, as evidenced by studies showing cram attendance improves analytical abilities by enabling faster recall and pattern recognition.^[29]^[30]^[12] Mock examinations and timed simulations form another pillar, replicating exam environments to reduce anxiety and hone pacing. Students in cram settings frequently complete full-length practice tests under strict time limits, followed by detailed debriefs on errors, which enhances familiarity with question types—such as reading comprehension passages weighted heavily in exams (up to 70% in some cases). In digital hagwon, this extends to strategies like reading questions before passages or revisiting texts selectively, practiced across multiple lectures to build efficiency. Empirical data from Taiwanese contexts indicate such simulations contribute to higher achievement by conditioning responses to high-pressure scenarios.^[29]^[30]^[7] Test-taking strategies are explicitly taught to exploit exam structures, including process of elimination, keyword identification, and scanning techniques. In reading-focused prep, 12 distinct strategies—such as confirming inferences or skimming for main ideas—are drilled, with test-management tactics like prioritizing easier questions comprising up to 27% of instruction time. These methods, while effective for score inflation, prioritize procedural savvy over broader comprehension, as washback effects narrow curricula to testable elements, evident in disparities like higher reading scores (7.1 on IELTS equivalents) versus lower speaking proficiency (5.4). Critics note this fosters short-term gains but limited transfer to non-exam contexts, though causal links to outcomes remain supported by attendance-performance correlations.^[30]^[29]^[12]

Curriculum Design and Instruction Methods

Curriculum design in cram schools prioritizes alignment with national standardized entrance examinations, supplementing public school syllabi with targeted content in core subjects like mathematics, sciences, Japanese or Chinese language, and English. In East Asian contexts such as Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, curricula feature modular structures emphasizing exam-specific topics, often delivered through graded lecture notes and drilling exercises that address gaps between school textbooks and test demands.^[13] These designs facilitate efficient coverage of high-yield material, with subject-specific modules in hagwon (Korea) focusing on repetitive problem-solving for exams like the College Scholastic Ability Test.^[13] Instruction methods center on teacher-led pedagogy, characterized by rote memorization, intensive repetition, and skill-building for exam formats rather than broader conceptual exploration. Teachers provide direct instruction via lectures, worksheets, and repetitive drills, fostering familiarity with question types through daily practice sessions that reinforce recall and application under timed conditions.^[13] In Japanese juku, small-group or one-on-one formats allow for personalized feedback, sometimes incorporating communicative tasks for language subjects to enhance grammatical uptake alongside exam drills.^[31] Frequent mock examinations form a core component, simulating real test environments to build endurance and error correction skills; students receive detailed breakdowns of performance to refine strategies.^[13] Technological aids, including PowerPoint presentations, satellite videos, and interactive ICT tools, support delivery in settings like Hong Kong tutorial schools and Korean hakwon, enabling scalable access to revision materials.^[13] Self-paced systems, such as worksheet-based progression in some juku (e.g., Kumon-style methods), permit individualized advancement while maintaining emphasis on mastery through iteration.^[13] Overall, these approaches prioritize measurable proficiency in exam-oriented tasks over creative or interdisciplinary learning.^[13]

Empirical Benefits

Academic Performance Enhancements

Empirical studies consistently associate cram school attendance with elevated scores on standardized tests and entrance examinations, with several quasi-experimental and experimental designs indicating causal contributions to performance gains. A three-level meta-analysis of 22 experimental private tutoring interventions, encompassing 6,750 participants, reported moderate positive effects on academic achievement, yielding standardized mean differences of 0.42 for independent-groups posttests and 0.67 for pretest-posttest designs.^[32] These effects were moderated by factors such as region and subject, but persisted across contexts resembling cram school formats, including intensive supplementary instruction.^[32] In South Korea, hagwon participation demonstrably enhances outcomes on the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT), a high-stakes university entrance exam, with analyses of high school students revealing significant score improvements attributable to tutoring intensity and duration.^[33] Longitudinal data from the Korean Educational Longitudinal Survey further support causal positive impacts of private tutoring on achievement metrics, controlling for baseline ability and family background.^[34] Comparable patterns emerge in Japan, where juku attendance correlates with superior performance on secondary school entrance exams, as inferred from growing household investments signaling perceived efficacy.^[35] In Taiwan, heterogeneous participation trajectories in shadow education yield exam score increments ranging from 0.767 to 1.942 points relative to non-participants, with robust associations across adopter subgroups in panel data analyses.^[36] These enhancements stem from targeted drill in exam techniques and content reinforcement, though endogeneity from student motivation complicates full causal isolation without instrumental variable approaches.^[37]

Long-Term Economic and Societal Outcomes

Attendance at cram schools, particularly in East Asian contexts like Japan and South Korea, facilitates improved performance on high-stakes entrance examinations, enabling greater access to prestigious universities that serve as gateways to high-paying professions in credential-driven economies. In South Korea, where private supplementary education expenditure reached 2.57% of GDP in 2006 for primary and secondary students, this pathway has contributed to a highly skilled workforce underpinning rapid post-war economic growth, with tertiary attainment rates exceeding 70% by 2020 correlating with GDP per capita surpassing $35,000.^[38] However, direct causal links to lifetime earnings premiums remain understudied; while university prestige yields earnings advantages—for instance, graduates from top Japanese institutions earn 20-30% more over their careers than those from lower-tier schools—cram school effects often fade post-exam, with no robust evidence of sustained skill enhancements beyond rote preparation.^[39] Critically, empirical analyses question cram schools' role as primary drivers of long-term economic productivity. In Japan, high TIMSS scores among fourth-graders (593 in math, international average 536 in 2015) occur despite minimal juku participation at early ages (under 15% for math), suggesting formal schooling and cultural factors better explain human capital formation than supplementary tutoring. Moreover, intensive cram school reliance may hinder innovation-oriented outcomes; South Korea's education system, emphasizing exam discipline over creativity, has been critiqued for producing graduates suited to industrial replication but struggling in a post-industrial economy requiring adaptability, as evidenced by lagging R&D commercialization rates despite high patent filings.^[40] Societally, cram schools amplify inequality by favoring affluent households able to invest heavily—South Korean low-income families in Seoul allocate over 27% of income to such tutoring—perpetuating intergenerational mobility barriers and widening class divides rather than equalizing opportunities.^[41] This dynamic reinforces a "cycle of poverty," where poorer students lag without equivalent access, undermining meritocratic ideals despite nominal equality in public schooling.^[42] On broader scales, the cultural entrenchment of cram school attendance correlates with adverse outcomes like South Korea's fertility rate of 0.78 births per woman in 2022—the world's lowest—partly attributable to prohibitive child-rearing costs including tutoring fees exceeding $20 billion annually, deterring family formation amid work-education pressures.^[43] Elevated youth suicide rates (24.1 per 100,000 in South Korea, 2021) further reflect psychological tolls, with studies linking prolonged hagwon hours to chronic stress without offsetting societal resilience gains.^[44] While some peer-reviewed work posits tutoring bolsters overall learning environments, systemic biases in academic critiques—often equity-focused—may overemphasize negatives, yet causal evidence prioritizes formal education's foundational role over shadow systems for sustainable societal progress.^[34]

Criticisms and Empirical Challenges

Health and Psychological Strain Claims

Critics assert that attendance at cram schools exacerbates psychological strain among students through extended study hours, sleep deprivation, and heightened academic pressure, potentially contributing to depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation.^[45] In South Korea, where hagwon participation rates exceed 70% among middle and high school students, academic stress is linked to approximately 12% of adolescent suicides, with cram schools implicated in fostering intense competition and fatigue.^[46] Empirical analyses of hagwon curfew policies, which limit operations to earlier hours, indicate that a one-hour reduction correlates with a 2.93 percentage point decrease in suicide ideation and a 0.563 percentage point drop in attempts among adolescents, suggesting a causal pathway mediated by improved sleep duration.^[47] Studies further identify sleep deprivation as a partial mediator between after-school tutoring and depressive symptoms, with longer cram school sessions directly associated with reduced sleep and elevated negative emotions.^[45] In Taiwan, empirical investigations using panel data from junior high students reveal that ninth-grade cram schooling positively predicts depression levels alongside academic gains, implying a trade-off where intensified preparation worsens mental health outcomes.^[48] Similarly, selective educational systems in Japan, intertwined with juku attendance, correlate with higher fatigue, sleep problems, daytime sleepiness, and depressive tendencies among students facing exam pressures.^[49] However, self-reported perceptions among Japanese students challenge the severity of these claims; in surveys of over 350 high school and university attendees, only 7-9% cited psychological stress or exhaustion from juku competition, with most viewing it as a motivator for persistence rather than a detriment.^[50] While correlational evidence abounds, isolating cram schools' causal role remains challenging amid broader cultural emphases on high-stakes testing, though policy interventions like curfews provide quasi-experimental support for strain via overwork.^[43] Academic sources, often from Western-influenced psychology journals, may overemphasize negative outcomes, potentially overlooking adaptive resilience in high-achieving East Asian cohorts where such pressures yield sustained performance benefits.^[48]^[50]

Inequality and Access Debates

Access to cram schools is disproportionately available to students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds across East Asia, contributing to debates over whether these institutions widen educational inequalities by favoring those who can afford intensive supplementary instruction. Empirical analyses consistently show a positive correlation between family income and participation rates in private tutoring, with lower-income households facing barriers due to costs that can consume a significant portion of disposable income. For instance, in South Korea, private tutoring expenditure as a share of household income averaged 10.7% per student in 2010, with low-income families often unable to cover fees ranging from 1 million to several million Korean won monthly, leading to reduced access and perpetuation of achievement gaps.^[51]^[52] In Japan, shadow education such as juku exhibits strong socioeconomic stratification, where participation is restricted by family background, and economic factors have grown in importance since the 1990s, as lower-income parents struggle to fund private preparatory classes amid rising costs. Studies indicate that higher parental education and income predict greater likelihood of enrolling children in such programs, reinforcing intergenerational inequality rather than equalizing opportunities. Similarly, in Taiwan, cram schools (buxiban) are linked to family socioeconomic status, with empirical evidence from longitudinal data showing that attendance enhances analytical skills and academic performance but primarily benefits students from advantaged backgrounds, exacerbating disparities in exam outcomes.^[53]^[54]^[55]^[56] China's 2021 "Double Reduction" policy, which prohibited for-profit tutoring in core subjects, explicitly targeted these access inequities, as government rationale emphasized alleviating financial burdens on families and promoting educational equality by curbing an industry that disproportionately served urban, affluent students preparing for the gaokao exam. Proponents of cram schools argue they democratize access to high-stakes exam preparation in systems with uneven public schooling, yet causal analyses reveal that socioeconomic status remains a key determinant of both enrollment and subsequent gains, suggesting limited leveling effects and instead a mechanism for advantaged families to secure elite university placements. Critics, including policymakers, contend that without subsidies or regulation, cram schools amplify inequality, as evidenced by persistent gaps in enrollment rates across income quintiles in comparative East Asian studies.^[57]^[58]^[59]

Causal Analysis of Negative Outcomes

Empirical studies indicate that participation in cram schools can causally contribute to elevated depressive symptoms among junior high students through mechanisms such as extended study hours displacing sleep and leisure time. A study of Taiwanese 9th graders found that cram schooling increased depressive symptoms by approximately 0.034 on the Item Response Theory (IRT) scale, attributing this to intensified academic pressure and reduced recovery time, though the effect size remained modest relative to academic gains.^[60] Similarly, research on Chinese middle school students demonstrated that after-school tutoring negatively impacts mental health primarily via sleep deprivation, which mediates poorer emotional well-being and academic performance; mediation analysis showed tutoring hours directly reducing sleep duration by 0.5-1 hour nightly on average, exacerbating fatigue and irritability.^[45] These findings align with causal models isolating tutoring participation from baseline family stress, using instrumental variable approaches based on local cram school density.^[61] Regarding broader psychological strain, including potential links to burnout, evidence suggests cram schools amplify selective educational pressures inherent in high-stakes exam systems, but isolated causation is challenging to establish due to confounding factors like parental expectations. In Japan, qualitative analyses of juku attendance highlight how prolonged evening sessions (often 3-5 hours post-school) correlate with heightened fatigue and social isolation, yet quantitative causal estimates from propensity score matching show no significant net increase in burnout beyond what occurs in public school tracks alone, implying cram schools channel rather than originate the pressure.^[49] South Korean data on hagwon similarly reveal strong associations between academic stress—including tutoring—and adolescent suicidal ideation (reported by 27-40% of students in 2020 surveys), but prospective cohort studies fail to demonstrate direct causation, with multivariate models attributing only 10-12% of variance to tutoring intensity after controlling for socioeconomic status and school performance.^[46]^[62] Claims of cram schools as primary drivers of elevated suicide rates thus rely more on temporal correlations than rigorous counterfactuals, with cultural factors like collectivist achievement norms exerting stronger upstream influence. Cram schools also causally perpetuate educational inequality by disproportionately benefiting higher-socioeconomic-status (SES) families, who invest more in tutoring to secure advantages in meritocratic systems. Quasi-experimental evidence from China estimates that private tutoring accounts for 20-30% of SES-based gaps in cognitive ability and achievement test scores, using regression discontinuity designs around income eligibility thresholds for subsidized alternatives; lower-SES students without access experience stagnant outcomes, widening disparities by 0.15-0.25 standard deviations per tutoring year.^[63] In East Asian contexts, this operates via resource allocation: wealthier households allocate 10-20% of disposable income to cram schools, enabling cumulative advantages in exam preparation that public education cannot match, as confirmed by fixed-effects models controlling for innate ability.^[56] Such dynamics do not stem from cram schools' existence per se but from their privatization of supplementary learning in unequal markets, though policy interventions like subsidies have shown limited reversal of these effects due to quality differences.^[50]

Regulatory Responses and Reforms

Government Policies and Bans

In China, the government enacted the "Double Reduction Policy" on July 24, 2021, banning for-profit cram schools from providing tutoring in core subjects such as mathematics, Chinese, and English to students below senior secondary level, prohibiting operations on weekends and public holidays, and restricting foreign investment and curricula in the sector.^[64]^[65] These measures dismantled a $100 billion industry, resulting in the closure of over 90% of registered tutoring firms by late 2021 and widespread job losses estimated at 3-5 million, though underground tutoring persists due to persistent parental demand for exam preparation.^[65]^[66] South Korea has imposed operational restrictions on hagwons since the 1980s, including a nationwide curfew limiting classes to end by 10 p.m. for middle and high school students (implemented in 2007 and tightened in subsequent years) and bans on new hagwon establishments in oversaturated districts to curb excessive private tutoring expenditures, which reached 26.8 trillion won (about $20 billion) in 2022.^[43]^[67] Outright bans on private tutoring were attempted in the 1960s and 1980s but ruled unconstitutional by courts, leading to regulatory approaches like randomized school admissions to diminish cram school advantages; recent proposals in 2025 include prohibiting English hagwons for children under 36 months and capping daily lessons at 40 minutes for ages 3-7 to address early academic pressure.^[68]^[69] Enforcement challenges persist, as hagwon attendance rates remain high at over 70% for elementary students, driven by competitive university entrance exams.^[43] Japan's approach to juku emphasizes indirect measures over bans, with the Ministry of Education promoting "relaxed education" reforms since the 1990s to reduce exam pressure, including guidelines discouraging excessive juku attendance for elementary students and encouraging school-based supplementary programs.^[70]^[71] No comprehensive federal regulations or prohibitions exist, as juku operate as private entities with self-regulation through industry associations, though local policies in some prefectures limit advertising and fees; government efforts to integrate juku into public education partnerships have aimed to mitigate inequality without curtailing market-driven operations.^[72]^[73] Elsewhere, policies vary: Taiwan enforces caps on cram school hours and fees under the 2014 Supplementary Education Act to prevent overwork, while Singapore's Ministry of Education subsidizes school-based tuition but regulates private centers to align with national curricula, avoiding outright bans.^[74] These interventions generally target health risks and equity, with empirical studies showing operating-hour restrictions can reduce tutoring hours by 10-20% in regulated markets, though demand often shifts to informal or online alternatives.^[74]

Recent Global Developments (2020-2025)

In July 2021, China implemented the "Double Reduction" policy, prohibiting for-profit tutoring in core academic subjects for compulsory education students and restricting operations of tutoring firms, which led to an immediate 89% decline in online job postings for tutoring-related positions within four months.^[75] The policy triggered a sharp contraction in the education technology sector, with private tutoring companies facing severe financial losses and widespread layoffs, as foreign investment in such firms was banned alongside restrictions on advertising and profit-oriented models.^[76] By 2024, however, some private tutoring operations began re-emerging through informal or underground channels to meet persistent parental demand, though official policy remained unchanged, highlighting unintended consequences such as higher costs for illegal services without addressing root causes like exam pressures.^[77]^[78] This crackdown also disrupted global English language teaching markets, reducing opportunities for international online tutors as China's K-9 for-profit ESL programs were curtailed.^[79] India saw accelerated regulatory efforts amid safety concerns and industry growth, with the Ministry of Education issuing national guidelines in January 2024 mandating minimum infrastructure standards, such as one square meter per student, fire safety compliance, and bans on misleading advertisements or enrolling students under age 16.^[80] States followed suit; Rajasthan passed the Coaching Centres (Control and Regulation) Bill in September 2025, requiring registration for centers with at least 100 students, fee transparency, and counseling services, while prohibiting operations in basements or unsafe buildings following incidents like the 2024 Delhi coaching center flooding that killed students.^[81]^[82] Assam's 2025 law similarly enforced tutor qualifications, e-commerce platform accountability for ads, and student welfare measures, reflecting a broader push to mitigate risks in densely packed coaching hubs like Kota, where competitive exam preparation drives high-stakes attendance.^[83] These reforms aimed to curb exploitation but faced criticism for potentially driving operations underground without resolving underlying demand from entrance exam systems. In South Korea, private education expenditures surged 40% from 2020 to 2023, reaching 27 trillion won ($18.5 billion) despite declining student numbers, with participation rates holding steady at around 80% amid limited success in curbing hagwon proliferation.^[84] Experts in 2025 highlighted risks of early-age private tutoring impeding cognitive and social development, calling for stricter limits on testing and investments in public after-school programs like Neulbom School, though no comprehensive bans materialized, perpetuating debates over equity and student burnout.^[85]^[86] Japan maintained reliance on juku through self-regulatory frameworks via associations like the Japan Juku Association, which emphasize quality assurance and privacy without significant new government-imposed restrictions, as prior attempts to reduce attendance proved ineffective.^[87] Globally, the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated online tutoring adoption, but post-2021 regulatory waves in Asia underscored tensions between access to supplemental education and concerns over inequality, health strains, and market distortions.^[88]

Regional Implementations

Japan

In Japan, cram schools known as juku serve as private supplementary education providers, operating primarily after regular school hours, on weekends, and during vacations to prepare students for competitive entrance examinations to high schools and universities. These institutions emerged prominently in the 1960s amid rapid economic growth and increasing demand for exam-oriented preparation, supplementing the public education system's focus on standardized testing for academic advancement. Juku cater to diverse needs, including remedial support for struggling students and advanced coaching for high achievers, with curricula tailored to specific exams like those for junior high school promotion or university admission.^[73]^[89] Prevalence of juku attendance is high, with national surveys indicating that approximately 45.9% of students participate, rising sharply in upper grades as entrance exam pressures intensify; for instance, over 50% of high school students attend, often combining multiple sessions weekly. The sector includes tens of thousands of facilities, with tutorial and exam-prep centers numbering in the tens of thousands as of 2023, reflecting a market-driven response to perceived deficiencies in public schooling's exam preparation. Empirical data from longitudinal studies show juku attendance correlates positively with academic outcomes, such as higher scores on national assessments and successful entry into elite institutions, though selection effects—where motivated or higher-SES families opt in—complicate causal attribution.^[90]^[91]^[92] Juku play a central role in Japan's meritocratic education hierarchy, where progression to prestigious high schools and universities determines future socioeconomic opportunities, filling gaps left by public schools' emphasis on holistic development over intensive drilling. Government efforts to reduce reliance on juku, such as the 2002 yutori curriculum reforms aiming for relaxed education, inadvertently increased attendance by heightening competition for limited spots in top schools. Costs vary but impose financial burdens, with average monthly fees ranging from 20,000 to 50,000 yen per student, exacerbating inequality as lower-income families face barriers, leading to persistent gaps in access to high-quality juku. Studies confirm that family socioeconomic status strongly predicts juku enrollment, perpetuating intergenerational disparities in educational attainment.^[71]^[93] Regulatory responses have been limited, with juku largely self-regulated through associations like the Japan Juku Association, which enforces voluntary standards on curriculum and ethics rather than strict government oversight. Past policies to curb excess attendance, including advisories against over-reliance for young children, have failed to diminish the sector's influence, as public exam systems remain unchanged. To mitigate inequality, the government introduced subsidized programs like Chiiki Mirai Juku in 2015, offering free or low-cost tutoring to low-income students via public-private partnerships, covering costs through central and local funding under poverty alleviation acts. These initiatives aim to level access without banning private juku, acknowledging their entrenched utility in a system where empirical evidence links supplementary tutoring to exam success.^[87]^[94]^[95]

South Korea

In South Korea, cram schools known as hagwons form a pervasive component of the education system, providing supplementary instruction primarily aimed at preparing students for high-stakes examinations such as the College Scholastic Ability Test (suneung). These for-profit institutions offer classes in subjects like mathematics, English, and sciences, often extending into evenings and weekends to supplement public schooling. As of 2023, over 24,000 hagwons operated in Seoul alone, outnumbering convenience stores in the city by a factor of three.^[43] Nationwide, approximately 80% of students participated in private education through hagwons in 2024, a rate consistent with trends over the past two decades despite a declining school-age population.^[96] The hagwon industry has expanded to include even preschoolers, with cram programs for kindergarteners focusing on early literacy and creative skills as foundational preparation for competitive university admissions. Enrollment data indicate near-universal attendance among middle and high school students, driven by parental investment averaging significant household expenditures—reaching a record 29 trillion South Korean won (approximately $21 billion USD) in private tutoring spending in 2023.^[97] ^[98] This spending surge persists amid demographic declines, with hagwon revenues and profits hitting new highs in 2024 due to premium offerings like elite boarding programs and online modules.^[84] Government implementation of hagwons is governed by the Act on the Establishment and Operation of Hagwons, which mandates registration, curriculum oversight, and operational limits to curb excesses. Key regulations include curfews prohibiting classes after 10 p.m. for most students and caps on tuition fees, intended to reduce academic pressure and promote equitable access to public education.^[99] Enforcement involves inspections by the Ministry of Education, yet compliance remains uneven; in 2023, violations of teaching hour limits rose over threefold to 174 cases from 49 the prior year, reflecting persistent demand for extended sessions.^[100] Recent initiatives, such as 2023 crackdowns and proposals for stricter oversight on early childhood programs, aim to integrate hagwons more closely with public systems, but parental preferences for specialized instruction have sustained underground and premium alternatives.^[43]

China

In China, after-school tutoring institutions, often referred to as peiyusuo, proliferated in the decades leading up to 2021, primarily to prepare students for the gaokao, the high-stakes national college entrance examination that determines university admission. By 2019, the shadow education sector had expanded to serve millions of K-12 students, with urban participation rates exceeding 70% in some surveys, driven by parental perceptions of competitive necessity amid limited public school resources.^[101] This industry, valued at around $100 billion annually before regulatory intervention, intensified educational inequalities, as affluent urban families could afford premium tutoring unavailable to rural or lower-income households, widening the urban-rural divide in gaokao outcomes.^[102]^[103] The Chinese government's "Double Reduction" policy, announced on July 24, 2021, targeted these institutions by banning for-profit tutoring in core academic subjects (Chinese, mathematics, and English) for students in compulsory education (ages 6-15), prohibiting operations during holidays and weekends, and restricting foreign investment in the sector.^[104] The policy aimed to reduce student workloads, curb family expenditures on education (which averaged 20-30% of household income in urban areas pre-ban), and mitigate demographic pressures by alleviating the perceived need for "tiger parenting" that discouraged childbirth.^[76] Formal implementation dismantled much of the overt industry, shrinking the market size by over 90% from its peak and leading to widespread closures, with major firms like New Oriental and TAL Education pivoting to non-core subjects or vocational training.^[105] Despite these measures, enforcement challenges persisted, fostering underground tutoring networks by 2023, where clandestine sessions—often held in private homes or via online proxies—commanded premiums of 2-3 times pre-ban rates due to scarcity and legal risks.^[102]^[78] Empirical analyses indicate the policy reduced formal participation but failed to eliminate demand, particularly for gaokao preparation in senior high school (exempt from core bans), with wealthier families sustaining access through informal channels, thus perpetuating inequality rather than resolving it.^[57] By late 2024, select tutoring entities began resurfacing in hybridized forms compliant with regulations, such as non-profit models or focus on extracurricular skills, amid relaxed scrutiny in some regions.^[77] Ongoing draft regulations in 2024 sought to formalize oversight of remaining after-school programs, emphasizing quality controls over outright prohibition.^[106]

Taiwan

In Taiwan, cram schools, known as buxiban, offer after-hours supplementary instruction focused on core subjects and test preparation for entrance exams such as the Comprehensive Assessment Program for Junior High School Students and university admissions tests. These institutions operate alongside the formal 12-year compulsory education system, filling perceived gaps in public schooling by providing intensive drilling and skill-building in mathematics, languages, and sciences.^[107] Attendance is driven by parental emphasis on academic credentials amid limited spots in elite high schools and universities, with empirical studies showing buxiban participation correlates with higher test scores and reduced ethnic achievement gaps in subjects like mathematics.^[8] ^[108] As of June 2025, Taiwan registered 17,710 buxiban, including 15,599 test-preparation focused operations, reflecting a net increase of 328 institutions over the prior five years despite a shrinking student population from low birth rates.^[109] Approximately 70% of senior high school students and 60% of junior high students enroll, often attending 2-4 hours daily after public school, sustaining a K-12 tutoring sector valued at roughly NT$150 billion annually.^[110] ^[111] The 1994 "410 Education Reform," intended to ease competition by expanding high school and university access, instead amplified buxiban demand as families sought advantages in a credentialist system where public curricula were seen as insufficiently rigorous for top placements.^[111] ^[107] Under the Supplementary Education Act, buxiban must register with local authorities, employ qualified instructors (including minimum weekly teaching hours for foreign language specialists, such as 14 hours in a primary institution), and adhere to operational guidelines limiting classes to after-school hours, typically 4 p.m. to 10 p.m. on weekdays, to safeguard student rest.^[112] ^[110] Subsequent reforms, including the 2014 rollout of 12-year basic education, aimed to de-emphasize rote exams but failed to diminish reliance on buxiban, as attendance rose post-reform due to persistent parental incentives for performance edges.^[107] While buxiban empirically boost cognitive outcomes and credential attainment, they exacerbate student fatigue and anxiety, with surveys indicating widespread parental concerns over academic lag and links to mental health strains from extended study loads exceeding 12 hours daily.^[113] ^[114] No outright bans exist, unlike in mainland China, but regulatory enforcement targets unlicensed operations and overwork, though growth persists amid unmet public education demands.^[111]

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, cram schools—commonly termed tutorial schools or cram centers—constitute a dominant feature of the supplementary education landscape, concentrating on intensive preparation for the high-stakes Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) examinations, which determine university admission since their implementation in 2012.^[115] The sector emerged prominently in the 1980s amid economic expansion, compulsory primary education (established 1971), and broadened secondary access, evolving into a competitive market by the 1990s with mass-scale "evening schools" accommodating hundreds per class.^[115] Major chains such as Beacon College (founded 1989, with 19 branches and 300 tutors by 2019), Modern Education, and King's Glory have consolidated dominance, leveraging aggressive advertising that elevates select instructors to "star tutor" status, akin to celebrities, with billboards and media campaigns promising superior exam outcomes.^[115] ^[116] Participation rates are exceptionally high, reflecting systemic pressures from limited university quotas (approximately 15-20% of secondary graduates secure local degree places) and parental emphasis on academic credentials for socioeconomic mobility. Surveys indicate over 70% of senior secondary students (Forms 4-6) attend tutorial classes, with 71.8% of sampled secondary students reporting attendance in the prior 12 months and Form 6 participants averaging 4.76 hours weekly during exam preparation seasons.^[117] Earlier data from 1994 showed 67.3% of Forms 4 and 6 students requiring tutoring, underscoring sustained demand driven by peer pressure, institutional cultures in elite schools, and perceived gaps in mainstream schooling.^[115] The industry, estimated at US$255 million in 2013, supports diverse formats including large-group sessions (up to 45 students, per regulatory caps), one-on-one sessions, and post-2020 online hybrids accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, though students often favor in-person for interaction despite digital conveniences.^[118] ^[117] Regulatory oversight falls under the Education Bureau, classifying tutorial schools as providers of non-formal curricula; registration is mandatory for centers serving eight or more students simultaneously or 20+ daily, requiring licensed premises, qualified tutors (e.g., holders of Hong Kong Certificate of Education passes), disclosed fees, and adherence to class size limits.^[119] Non-compliance, such as operating unregistered or exceeding capacities, incurs penalties, with 27 convictions for unregistered management and 11 for advertising infringements recorded by December 2013.^[119] Teachers face no outright ban on tutoring but are guided by the Code for the Education Profession (1995) against exploiting school relationships for private gain, a norm reinforced by competitive public-sector salaries that deter widespread moonlighting.^[119] The framework prioritizes market self-regulation over curriculum or fee controls, avoiding overreach that could stifle supply, though critics note inadequate monitoring of small-scale or online operators amid rising inequality, as tutoring efficacy—per student perceptions—boosts exam scores but correlates with household income disparities and heightened adolescent stress from extended study loads.^[115] ^[117]

India

In India, coaching centers—intensive preparatory institutions for competitive examinations such as the Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) for engineering admissions and the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) for medical admissions—form a massive parallel education industry, particularly concentrated in hubs like Kota, Rajasthan. These centers attract hundreds of thousands of students annually, with Kota alone hosting around 110,000 to 250,000 aspirants during peak seasons, driven by the promise of high success rates in securing seats at premier institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs). The industry generates an estimated ₹6,000-10,000 crore (approximately $720-1,200 million USD) in annual revenue in Kota, underscoring its economic scale amid India's hyper-competitive exam system where success often hinges on outperforming millions of peers. Major institutes like Allen Career Institute enroll over 275,000 students yearly across India, claiming to produce a significant share of top performers, including every fourth IIT entrant originating from Kota-based coaching.^[120]^[121]^[122]^[123] The coaching model emphasizes grueling schedules—often 10-12 hours daily of classes, self-study, and mock tests—fostering a high-pressure environment that has drawn scrutiny for contributing to mental health breakdowns. Kota has earned notoriety as India's "suicide capital" for students, with at least 20-30 reported cases annually in recent years, linked to exam stress, isolation from family, and fear of failure in a system where only a tiny fraction qualify for elite seats. The Supreme Court of India in 2025 described this as a "suicide epidemic" among students, estimating over 13,000 annual deaths nationwide tied to academic pressures, including coaching-related strains. Critics argue that while centers tout success metrics like multiple top-100 NEET ranks in 2024, the opaque advertising of guaranteed results and inadequate counseling exacerbate vulnerabilities, particularly among adolescents relocating to unfamiliar urban settings.^[124]^[125]^[126]^[127] In response to rising suicides and unregulated growth, the Ministry of Education issued national Guidelines for Regulation of Coaching Centers on January 18, 2024, mandating registration with district authorities, prohibition on enrolling students under 16 years old, minimum infrastructure standards (e.g., 1 square meter per student in classrooms), qualified faculty with relevant degrees, transparent fee structures with refund policies, and mandatory counseling for mental health support. Violations carry penalties up to ₹1 lakh (about $1,200 USD) or center closure. Rajasthan, home to Kota, introduced the Coaching Centres (Control and Regulation) Bill in March 2025, establishing a two-tier oversight body, requiring fire safety and anti-ragging measures, and imposing fines up to ₹5 lakh ($6,000 USD) for non-compliance, aiming to curb exploitative practices while preserving access to preparation resources. These reforms reflect acknowledgment of the industry's role in exam success but highlight tensions between deregulation advocates, who view coaching as a market-driven necessity amid perceived school curriculum shortcomings, and reformers prioritizing student welfare over unchecked commercialization.^[128]^[129]^[130]^[81]^[131]

Singapore

Private tuition, often conducted through registered tuition centres, is a pervasive feature of Singapore's supplementary education landscape, driven by the high-stakes national examinations such as the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) and GCE O-Levels. Resident households collectively spent S$1.8 billion on private tuition in 2023, marking a nearly 30% increase from 2018 levels and reflecting an average monthly expenditure of S$104.80 per household.^[132]^[133] This spending is disproportionately higher among affluent families, with the top income quintile averaging S$162.60 monthly compared to S$36.30 for the bottom quintile, exacerbating socioeconomic disparities in access to such services.^[132] A 2015 survey indicated that approximately 80% of households with primary school children engaged private tuition, underscoring its normalization across demographics despite varying motivations from remedial support to competitive edge-seeking.^[134] Under the Education Act, tuition centres serving 10 or more students must register with the Ministry of Education (MOE) as private schools, ensuring compliance with standards for facilities, curricula, and teacher qualifications; unregistered operations risk penalties.^[135] MOE requires tutors at registered centres to declare serious criminal convictions, adding safeguards against unqualified or unsuitable instructors, though enforcement relies on self-reporting and periodic audits.^[136] In response to concerns over aggressive marketing—such as unsubstantiated claims of guaranteed results or targeting of Gifted Education Programme streams—MOE announced in February 2025 plans to collaborate with the advertising industry on a voluntary code of conduct to curb "undesirable practices" by outlier operators, while Education Minister Chan Chun Sing emphasized avoiding over-regulation that could stifle legitimate providers.^[137]^[138] Empirical evidence on tuition's efficacy in Singapore is mixed, with longitudinal studies showing targeted private tutoring can enhance specific facets of mathematics achievement without necessarily widening performance gaps, yet broader participation correlates with elevated student stress and burnout amid the system's emphasis on rote preparation.^[139] Singapore's consistent top rankings in international assessments like PISA—attributed primarily to teacher quality and systemic rigor rather than supplementary tutoring alone—coexist with reports of tuition contributing to mental health strains, as parental investment in it often stems from anxiety over peer competition rather than proven deficiencies in public schooling.^[140]^[141] Critics argue this "tuition mania" perpetuates inequality, as lower-income students derive less marginal benefit from generic cram-style sessions compared to personalized interventions, potentially reinforcing rather than mitigating achievement divides.^[142] Despite these drawbacks, the sector's growth to a projected S$2.14 billion by 2025 reflects sustained demand, with centres evolving beyond rote drilling to incorporate technology and holistic skill-building to address parental preferences.^[143]

United States

In the United States, cram schools—typically termed test preparation centers, tutoring academies, or supplementary education programs—offer intensive, focused instruction to help students prepare for standardized exams like the SAT, ACT, GRE, and Advanced Placement tests, as well as academic subjects such as mathematics and reading. These programs emerged prominently in the late 20th century alongside the expansion of college admissions testing, with major providers including Kaplan (founded 1938) and The Princeton Review (established 1981), which deliver classroom-based, online, or one-on-one sessions emphasizing test-taking strategies, content review, and practice drills. Unlike in East Asia, where cram schools often dominate due to high-stakes national exams, U.S. equivalents are largely private and optional, serving an estimated 10-20% of high school students seeking competitive edges in holistic college admissions processes that also weigh grades, extracurriculars, and essays.^[144]^[145] The industry has grown substantially, with the U.S. test preparation market valued at $37.6 billion in 2024, driven by demand from affluent families and post-pandemic learning recovery efforts. Programs like Kumon, a Japan-originated franchise with over 2,000 U.S. centers as of 2023, exemplify cram-style methods through repetitive, mastery-based worksheets in math and reading, enrolling hundreds of thousands of students annually for after-school sessions averaging 2-3 hours weekly. Similar operations, such as Mathnasium (focusing on diagnostic math tutoring) and Sylvan Learning Centers, cater to K-12 students, often in strip malls or online formats, with costs ranging from $100-300 monthly per subject. In immigrant communities, particularly Korean-American enclaves in areas like Queens, New York, imported "hagwon"-style academies provide rigorous prep for selective public high schools like Stuyvesant, blending cultural expectations of academic diligence with local exam pressures.^[146]^[147]^[148] Empirical evidence indicates these programs can boost test scores by 20-50 points on average for SAT/ACT participants, though effects diminish without underlying skill-building, and high-dosage tutoring (3+ sessions weekly) yields stronger outcomes per randomized evaluations. Critics argue that intensive test prep fosters superficial "teaching to the test," potentially undermining deeper learning, as seen in analyses of rote-heavy models akin to banking education where knowledge deposit replaces critical thinking. Participation is uneven, concentrated in higher socioeconomic groups—only about 13% of public school students engage in academically focused after-school programs in 2024-25, per federal surveys—with lower uptake in rural or low-income areas due to cost barriers and less emphasis on exam-centric success. No federal or widespread state regulations ban or cap cram schools, operating instead under general business licensing and consumer protection laws, though some districts scrutinize for-profit tutoring contracts amid equity concerns.^[149]^[150]^[151]

Other Countries

In Greece, frontistiria operate as private cram schools specializing in preparation for the Panhellenic university entrance examinations, supplementing public secondary education amid perceptions of inadequate formal schooling for competitive success. Participation is extensive, with 84% of upper secondary students attending formal tutoring institutions and rates reaching 95.6% in the final year, driven by the exams' role in determining access to free public universities.^[152] These centers focus on intensive review of core subjects like mathematics, sciences, and languages, often extending into evenings and weekends, and represent a cultural norm embedded in family expectations for higher education attainment.^[153] Turkey's dershanes historically paralleled cram schools by offering targeted coaching for the national university placement exam (YKS), enrolling students primarily on weekends or after regular classes to drill exam-specific content. By 2015, around 3,800 such centers existed, employing over 100,000 staff and generating approximately $2 billion annually, though they faced criticism for exacerbating inequality and diverting focus from broader learning.^[154] Government reforms from 2013 onward sought to eliminate them, culminating in a 2018 ban on private exam-prep institutions to integrate preparation into public schools, resulting in their formal closure but persistence of informal or online tutoring equivalents.^[155] In Iran, cram schools and private tutoring institutes proliferate to prepare candidates for the Konkur, a high-stakes 4.5-hour multiple-choice exam covering high school curricula that solely determines university admission rankings nationwide. This sector forms a vast, profitable industry, with widespread enrollment fueled by limited public university seats—around 15% acceptance rates for top programs—yet it widens socioeconomic gaps as affluent families access superior coaching unavailable to poorer students.^[156]^[157] Preparation often begins in early secondary years, emphasizing rote memorization and test strategies over conceptual depth, mirroring patterns in other exam-centric systems.^[158] Brazil's cursinhos function as intensive preparatory courses for the ENEM national exam and institution-specific vestibular tests, which govern entry into subsidized public universities amid fierce competition for limited spots. These private entities, often full-time or modular, normalize a parallel education track for final-year high school students and repeaters, prioritizing exam techniques in subjects like Portuguese, mathematics, and sciences, and have evolved into a commercialized industry reflecting neoliberal influences on access.^[159] Enrollment surged with ENEM's expansion since 2009, though exact figures vary by region, with urban centers like São Paulo hosting dense networks that correlate with higher admission rates but also reinforce class disparities.^[160]

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Oct 14, 2021 · Dozens of new rules published in July forbid for-profit tutoring of core school subjects and banned such teaching on weekends and holidays, ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
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China's $100 billion tutoring ban backfires, spawning black market
Jul 22, 2023 · In July 2021, the government launched a sweeping clampdown on its private tutoring sector, banning them from providing for-profit classes on school curriculum ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
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https://english.www.gov.cn/policies/policywatch/202111/03/content_WS6181c447c6d0df57f98e46c7.html
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[PDF] Regulating private tutoring consumption in Korea
Being concerned about the soaring private tutoring expenditure, they may support the policy of strengthening the hagwon curfew or it may be the opposite case if ...<|separator|>
[68]
[PDF] Best Practices in Regulation of Private Education
The government of South Korea started imposing regulations on Hagwon after the. Supreme Court ruling citing outright bans to be unconstitutional. The long ...
[69]
Korea weighs banning 'English kindergartens' amid parental backlash
Oct 6, 2025 · For children ages 3 to 7, such lessons would be limited to a maximum of 40 minutes a day. If passed, the law would effectively shut down these ...
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Japanese Government Policies in Education, Science, Sports and ...
A:You need to be careful not make an elementary school age child attend a juku to excess. It is important for children to study for a certain goal.
[71]
Japan • NCEE
Known as juku, these tutoring schools are attended by more than half of all Japanese students. They have raised concerns about access for all students, as they ...Missing: lifetime | Show results with:lifetime
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Juku Policy: Areas of Regulation | Jukupedia • Shadowing Education
Jul 11, 2011 · Not only are juku not regulated in Japan, but the Ministry of Education continues to ignore them, at least officially when it comes to policy- ...Missing: government | Show results with:government
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shapes and functions of juku in Japan - Taylor & Francis Online
Patterns underline a government move to mobilize profit-driven juku to serve the public good. The inclusion of juku in public schooling necessitates ...
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[PDF] Do governmental regulations for cram schools decrease the number ...
Governmental laws that regulate the operating hours of cram schools contributed to a decrease in private tutoring usage.
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Unraveling the economic impact of banning private tutoring in China
Jul 31, 2025 · We find that within four months after the policy implementation, online job postings for tutoring-related firms decreased by 89%, tutoring- ...
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The Economic Toll of China's Tutoring Ban - VoxChina
Aug 27, 2025 · China's 2021 “Double Reduction'' policy, which banned for-profit K12 academic tutoring, triggered an abrupt contraction in the education ...
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China's private tutoring firms emerge from the shadows after ...
Oct 28, 2024 · Starting in 2021, a government crackdown known as the "double reduction" policy prohibited for-profit tutoring in core school subjects, with the ...Missing: inequality | Show results with:inequality
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Private English tutors' agency amid China's 'double reduction' policy
When private tutoring is banned without addressing the demand side, unintended consequences occur – such as more costly illegal underground tutoring activities ...
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How China's 2021 ESL Tutoring Ban Impacts Online Teachers Abroad
Jun 7, 2025 · China's 2021 crackdown on for-profit K–9 English tutoring transformed the ESL landscape in ways that continue to unfold in 2025. Offline ...
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Ministry Of Education Releases New Guidelines For Coaching Centres
Basic Infrastructure and Limited Study Hours: Coaching centers should allocate a minimum of one square meter per student in each class. Safety: Compliance with ...
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The Rajasthan Coaching Centres (Control and Regulation) Bill, 2025
Sep 1, 2025 · Regulation of fees: Fees charged by a coaching centre must be fair and reasonable. It must make information about fees and refunds publicly ...
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Centre plans stricter coaching rules, stronger role for schools
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Jul 15, 2025 · Assams new Coaching Regulation Law setting strict norms on coaching ads, e-commerce platforms, tutor qualifications, and student safety in ...
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Korea's private education sector rakes in profits despite fewer students
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Excessive private education at early age hinders children's cognitive ...
Jun 19, 2025 · They argue that bold reforms are needed, including stricter limits on early academic testing and greater investment in play-based, age- ...
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Ministry of Education > Key Policies > Government Policies and Goals
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[PDF] The Self-regulation and Quality Assurance of the Juku:
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Impact of China's 2021 Education Policy on ESL Training Centers
May 28, 2025 · In 2021, China's private education industry was shaken by sweeping reforms designed to ease academic pressure on students and reduce inequality in the system.
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Changing schooling, changing shadow: shapes and functions of ...
Sep 6, 2017 · Since then, institutions providing tutoring known as juku have provided a wide range of services to supplement mainstream education. During ...
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Japanese shadow education institutions in Hong Kong, Beijing, and ...
Mar 22, 2024 · From Cook's (2013) study, it is evident that peer influence (insider counseling) and contextual influence may be key factors, with juku ...
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Japan Education Statistics Statistics: ZipDo Education Reports 2025
May 30, 2025 · Over 50% of Japanese high school students attend after-school juku (cram schools) ... The dropout rate at Japanese high schools is less than 2% ...
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(PDF) An Empirical Investigation of Relationships between Junior ...
This study is therefore intended to empirically investigate these relationships by analyzing nationally representative data of Japanese eighth-grade students.
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Japan | NON-STATE ACTORS IN EDUCATION
Dec 2, 2021 · Providers are self-regulated through professional associations, such as the Japan Juku Association (JJA) which have set up standards for ...
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[PDF] Rise of public juku in Japan: A possible new role of supplementary ...
Chiiki Mirai Juku were established to extend opportunities for free tutoring to children from low-income families. Costs are jointly covered by central and ...<|separator|>
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Private education spending hits all-time high of 29 trillion won ...
Mar 13, 2025 · Private education spending in Korea reached a record 29 trillion won in 2023, despite a declining student population, with 80 percent of ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
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College prep in South Korea now includes cram schools for ...
Jun 10, 2025 · Cram schools for kindergartners are the latest in South Korean college prep. Parents are increasingly preparing their 5-year-olds to eventually ...
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[PDF] The Cause of Institutionalized Private Tutoring in Korea - ERIC
The same is true for limiting hagwon operating hours. Specifically, in accordance with the “Act on the Establishment and Operation of Hagwons,” the ...Missing: enrollment | Show results with:enrollment<|separator|>
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Cram or crime? Demand for illegal late-night hagwon classes ...
Aug 23, 2024 · The number of private cram schools, or hagwon, caught violating regulated teaching hours jumped to 174 last year, an over threefold increase from 49 cases in ...
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[PDF] The evolution of shadow education in China: From emergence to ...
Jan 5, 2021 · By 2019, China's private tutoring industry had grown into a prominent sector providing educational services to millions of students and parents.
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China's $100 Billion Tutoring Ban Backfires, Spawning Black Market
Jul 20, 2023 · In July 2021, the government launched a sweeping clampdown on its private tutoring sector, banning them from providing for-profit classes on school curriculum ...Missing: implementation | Show results with:implementation<|control11|><|separator|>
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Unraveling the Economic Impact of Banning Private Tutoring in China
Apr 13, 2024 · Shadow education in China is a significant social issue and a leading factor in exacerbating education inequality that fosters over-competition.
[104]
China Bans For-Profit Tutoring Firms, Releases Guidelines for ...
Sep 27, 2021 · China has banned for-profit tutoring in core education, following the release of strict new regulations on the lucrative sector.Missing: cram underground
[105]
[PDF] The Impact of the Double Reduction Policy on China's Education ...
After the implementation of the policy, the market size of subject based training has significantly shrunk. Compared with the peak period, the market.
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After-School Tutoring in China: Key Points in the Draft Regulations
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[107]
[PDF] Buxiban in Taiwan
Reform efforts not only have not succeeded in alleviating students' stress, but instead they have increased the number of students attending cram schools.
[108]
[PDF] The Effects of Cram Schooling on Ethnic Learning Achievement Gap:
Some empirical studies reveal that cram schooling has a positively significant influence on students' academic achievement (Dang 2007; Kuan 2011; Liu 2012).<|separator|>
[109]
Cram school boom continues, despite birthrate drop - Taipei Times
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[110]
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[111]
Taiwan's cram schools hit 5-year high of 17710 | Taiwan News
Jul 8, 2025 · From 2023 to 2025, test prep cram schools increased by 209, a 1% rise. Private estimates value Taiwan's K–12 tutoring industry at about NT$150 ...Missing: prevalence 2020-2025
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What are the working hours rules for foreign language teachers ...
A foreign language teacher shall work at least 14 hours weekly in the first cram school and from the second on, at least 6 hours weekly.
[113]
https://journals.openedition.org/ries/3800
[114]
Educational Challenges in Taiwan: Mental Health in Taiwanese ...
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Aug 18, 2013 · Star tutors and cram schools are popular across the more affluent parts of East Asia, including in China, Japan, Singapore and South Korea.
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[PDF] Perspectives from Secondary School Students and Private Tutors
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Rich and Famous: Why Hong Kong's Private Tutors Are Millionaire ...
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[PDF] Regulating Private Tutoring for Public Good
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Kota's Coaching Kingdom in Crisis: A deep dive into the ... - LinkedIn
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Pressure To Succeed At India's Educational Institutes Is Driving ...
May 5, 2025 · In 2025, the Supreme Court said a “suicide epidemic” was raging among India's students, with over 13000 dying every year: hanging themselves ...Missing: cram controversies<|control11|><|separator|>
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Kota Coaching Institutes Shine with Multiple Students in Top 100
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Centre issues guidelines for regulation of coaching centres
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[PDF] GUIDELINES FOR REGULATION OF COACHING CENTER
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[130]
Coaching Centres New Rules: Age restriction, fees, study hours
Jan 18, 2024 · The Ministry of Education in India has rolled out the 2024 Guidelines for Registration and Regulation of Coaching Centers.
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Rajasthan government tables bill to regulate coaching centres
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Spending by S'pore families on private tuition rises to $1.8 billion in ...
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Singapore's Private Tutoring Boom Reveals the Hidden Cost of ...
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MOE working with advertising industry on code of conduct to rein in ...
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[138]
Tuition centres say they advertise ethically, welcome potential ...
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Differential effects of private tutoring on facets of students ...
This longitudinal study analysed the differential effect of PT on various facets of students' mathematics achievement throughout the school year.
[140]
Why Do Singapore Students Outperform the Rest of the World?
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The rise of the cram school phenomenon in the US: well intended ...
May 16, 2016 · Cram schools have long been a part of supplementary or shadow education in Japan, Korea, and other Asian countries. I argue that they are on the ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[146]
Test Preparation - MarketResearch.com
Oct 1, 2025 · The Test Preparation market in the U.S. is estimated at US$37.6 Billion in the year 2024. China, the world`s second largest economy, is forecast ...
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Korean “Cram Schools” in the New York Metropolitan Area
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10 Kumon Alternatives in 2025 - Brighterly
Oct 3, 2025 · If you'd like to juggle online and offline studying, you can check out Best Brains, Sylvan Learning Center, Mastermind Abacus, and Mathnasium.
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J-PAL North America's Tutoring Evidence Review summarizes the evidence from a meta-analysis of 96 randomized evaluations of tutoring programs.
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[PDF] State Requirements for Test Administrators, Proctors, and ...
Ensure that all test administrators, proctors, and accommodations providers receive training on accommodations and how to appropriately administer tests to ...
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Most U.S. Public K–12 Schools Offer After–School Programs but ...
Nov 14, 2024 · School leaders estimate that 13 percent of students will participate in academically focused after-school programs in 2024–25, federal data show.
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Shadow Education in Europe: Growing Prevalence, Underlying ...
Jan 13, 2020 · Private supplementary tutoring, widely known as shadow education, has long been visible in East Asia, and now has spread to other parts of ...<|separator|>
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Aug 18, 2025 · In Greece, frontistiria are not merely exam prep centres but culturally embedded institutions that families rely on as a norm. This ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Student Assessment in Turkey | OECD Reviews of Evaluation and ...
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Turkey's Private Tutoring Sector Shutdown: Blessing or Chaos?
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Iran's 'fair' university entrance exam is exacerbating inequality
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Education in Iran - WENR
Feb 7, 2017 · Given the competitive nature of the examination, a cram industry providing exam-preparation classes thrives in Iran, giving rise to widespread ...
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The validity of Iran's national university entrance examination ...
Jul 28, 2012 · In addition, test preparation has become the focus of teaching in schools, which has turned schools into centers for examination cramming.
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Neoliberalization of education in Brazil: The impact of cursinhos and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The normalization of a profitable industry of preparatory courses (cursinhos) for the Brazilian university entrance exams vestibular and ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
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Nov 14, 2019 · Visas are relatively easy to obtain, and Brazil's national university exams are directly accepted for admission by 30 Portuguese universities.