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Cross-dominance

Cross-dominance, also referred to as mixed dominance or crossed laterality, is a pattern of motor and sensory lateralization in which an individual demonstrates inconsistent side preferences across different body parts or tasks, such as favoring the right hand for writing while preferring the left eye for sighting or the left foot for kicking.^[1] This phenomenon contrasts with consistent unilateral dominance (e.g., right-sided for all functions) and is distinct from ambidexterity, which involves roughly equal proficiency on both sides for a given task.^[2] Cross-dominance can manifest in various combinations, including hand-eye, hand-foot, or eye-ear mismatches, and is thought to reflect variations in cerebral lateralization, where the brain's functional asymmetries influence behavioral preferences.^[3] The prevalence of cross-dominance varies depending on the specific modalities assessed and the population studied, but mixed-handedness—a core component—affects approximately 9-10% of individuals globally, based on meta-analytic estimates from large-scale handedness inventories.^[4] Broader forms involving eye or foot preferences are more common; for instance, about 30-35% of right-handers exhibit left-eye dominance, contributing to crossed patterns in up to 20-30% of the general population when multiple laterality measures are combined.^[5] Factors influencing cross-dominance include genetic predispositions, prenatal hormone exposure, and environmental influences, as outlined in theories like the right-shift model of handedness, which posits a continuum of lateral preferences rather than strict dichotomies.^[3] Research on cross-dominance has explored its implications for neurodevelopment and cognition, with some studies linking it to atypical brain organization, such as reduced hemispheric asymmetry or increased interhemispheric connectivity.^[6] While early theories suggested associations with learning difficulties or lower academic achievement—stemming from ideas like Samuel Orton's crossed laterality hypothesis in dyslexia—systematic reviews have found no consistent evidence for such links in reading, spelling, or intelligence.^[1] However, mixed-handedness has been associated with elevated risks for certain mental health outcomes, including a twofold increase in ADHD symptoms and psychiatric disturbances in children and adolescents, potentially due to underlying differences in neural processing. More recent research, including a 2023 meta-analysis, has identified associations between mixed-handedness and dyslexia, while a 2025 study reports elevated risks for a range of neurodevelopmental and mental health conditions in non-right-handers.^[7]^[8]^[9] In adults, it may correlate with greater age-related decline in brain regions like the hippocampus, though these findings are preliminary and require further replication.^[6] Overall, cross-dominance highlights the spectrum of human laterality and its subtle influences on behavior and brain function.

Definition and Terminology

Core Definition

Cross-dominance, also known as mixed-handedness or mixed dominance, refers to a pattern of motor skill preference in which an individual consistently favors one hand for specific tasks while preferring the opposite hand for others, resulting in inconsistent handedness across activities.^[6] This phenomenon is typically assessed using standardized tools like the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory, which evaluates preferences for 10 common tasks—such as writing, throwing a ball, using a toothbrush, and holding a spoon—on a scale that yields a laterality quotient ranging from -100 (strong left preference) to +100 (strong right preference); scores between -60 and +60 generally indicate mixed-handedness due to varying preferences.^[10]^[11] Common examples include writing or drawing with the right hand but throwing a ball or batting with the left, or vice versa, highlighting how preferences can diverge sharply between fine motor tasks and gross motor actions.^[12] Unlike ambidexterity, which denotes roughly equal proficiency and comfort using either hand for the same task, cross-dominance involves clear but task-specific dominance without equivalent skill symmetry across hands.^[2] Although cross-dominance is most commonly discussed in terms of hand preference, the concept extends to broader laterality patterns involving inconsistencies in dominance across body parts, such as the eyes, feet, and ears, where an individual might exhibit right-hand dominance alongside left-eye or left-foot preference.^[13] However, hand-related manifestations remain the primary focus in psychological and neurological research on this trait.^[11] Cross-dominance is also referred to by several synonyms in psychological and neurological literature, including mixed-handedness, hand confusion, mixed dominance, crossed laterality, and cross laterality.^[1]^[2] The term "crossed laterality," in particular, has historical roots in mid-20th-century research, dating back to studies in the 1960s and 1970s that examined inconsistencies in dominance across body sides, often encompassing mismatches between hand and eye preferences.^[13] These terms evolved within psychology to describe patterns of motor skill preferences that deviate from uniform sidedness, with "cross-dominance" gaining prominence in later neurological discussions to emphasize task-specific variations.^[1] This phenomenon is distinct from consistent left- or right-handedness, where an individual exhibits a stable preference for one hand across most tasks, and from true ambidexterity, which involves comparable skill and preference in both hands for the same activity and affects approximately 1% of the population.^[14] Unlike ambidexterity, cross-dominance does not imply equivalent performance bilaterally but rather inconsistent dominance that varies by task.^[2] Cross-dominance extends to multi-limb laterality, where preferences differ across body parts such as hands, eyes, feet, or ears, often termed crossed laterality in this broader context.^[1] For instance, an individual may be right-handed for writing but left-eyed for sighting, creating a cross-dominance pattern that influences coordinated activities.^[15] This multi-limb aspect highlights how laterality is not always aligned, a concept refined in neurology to account for integrated sensory-motor functions.^[1]

Prevalence and Distribution

In the General Population

Cross-dominance, or mixed-handedness, is characterized by an individual's preference for using different hands for different tasks, rather than a consistent dominance of one hand. In the general population, strict forms of mixed-handedness—where individuals exhibit no clear preference or equal proficiency across hands for most activities—are relatively rare, with prevalence estimates around 1%. This figure is derived from large-scale studies assessing hand use across multiple everyday tasks, such as a cohort analysis of nearly 8,000 children where 1.1% were classified as mixed-handed based on using both hands for at least three out of eight activities.^[16] Meta-analyses estimate mixed-handedness at approximately 9.3% globally.^[17] When considering broader task-specific variations in hand preference, the occurrence of cross-dominance rises significantly, affecting 10% to 30% of individuals depending on the criteria used. For instance, in a large adolescent cohort of over 11,000 participants from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study, 13.5% were identified as mixed-handed using a handedness questionnaire that evaluated preferences across various motor tasks. These estimates highlight that while consistent right-handedness dominates at approximately 90% and left-handedness at about 10%, cross-dominance represents a notable subset within the non-right-handed population, often captured through inventories that reveal inconsistencies rather than outright ambidexterity.^[18]^[17] Demographic patterns show a slightly higher prevalence of cross-dominance among males compared to females, with some studies reporting ratios as high as 3.6:1 in younger children exhibiting mixed hand use. This distribution appears stable across cultures, with similar rates observed in Western and non-Western populations, though underreporting is common due to societal pressures favoring right-handed norms, such as training left-handers to use their right hand for writing or eating. Handedness, including cross-dominance, is typically measured via self-report questionnaires like the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory, which evaluates preferences for 10 common tasks—such as writing, throwing, and using utensils—to compute a laterality quotient ranging from strong right- to strong left-handedness, with intermediate scores indicating mixed patterns.^[19]^[20]^[11]

Task-Specific Variations

Cross-dominance often manifests inconsistently across motor tasks, with notable differences in hand preference between fine motor activities like writing and gross motor activities like throwing. In a large-scale analysis of 10,635 individuals, 28.8% of those who write with their left hand threw a ball with their right hand, indicating a substantial shift toward right-hand use in gross motor tasks among left-hand writers. Conversely, only 1.6% of right-hand writers threw with their left hand, suggesting greater consistency for right-handers but highlighting that fine motor dominance (typically right-sided) is more stable than gross motor dominance, where left-sided preferences emerge more frequently. This pattern aligns with broader observations that mixed-handedness, involving inconsistencies across hand tasks, affects approximately 9-10% of the population, as per meta-analytic estimates.^[17] Eye-hand cross-dominance is similarly prevalent, particularly among right-handers. A meta-analysis of 54,087 subjects across 54 studies found that 34.43% of right-handers exhibit left-eye dominance, representing a common form of crossed laterality in visuomotor coordination. For left-handers, the rate of right-eye dominance is approximately 42.86%, though overall eye-hand concordance is only moderately strong, with an odds ratio of 2.53 for same-sided preferences. These rates underscore that around 25-30% of individuals show mismatched eye and hand dominance, influencing activities requiring precise alignment, such as aiming or tracking.^[5] Foot involvement in cross-dominance is less extensively documented but reveals mixed preferences in about 26-35% of the general population. Studies distinguish between skilled unipedal tasks like kicking a ball and unskilled bipedal movement tasks like stepping forward or onto an object, with mixed-footedness rates of 23.7% for kicking and 23.9% for stepping in sampled adults. Approximately 20% of individuals demonstrate inconsistencies between these foot tasks, such as preferring the left foot for kicking but the right for stepping, indicating task-dependent variations similar to those in hand laterality. Ear dominance shows even sparser research, but crossed hand-ear laterality occurs in a minority of cases, with a general right-ear advantage observed. These task-specific variations typically emerge early in development, with hand preferences becoming observable by age 2 and stabilizing into a clear direction by age 3-6 for most children. In longitudinal observations, 60-70% of children show consistency in their preferred hand from 18-30 months onward, with full adult-like stability achieved between ages 10-12 through repeated practice. Over the lifespan, dominance patterns remain relatively stable, though elderly individuals experience attenuation of dominant hand superiority, with reduced performance asymmetries by ages 70-90.

Causes and Development

Genetic Factors

Cross-dominance, also known as mixed-handedness, exhibits a modest genetic influence, with heritability estimates from large-scale twin and family studies indicating that genetic factors account for approximately 24-25% of the variance in handedness preferences, including atypical forms like cross-dominance.^[21] This suggests a polygenic architecture rather than dominance by a single gene, where multiple genetic variants contribute cumulatively to the trait's expression across a spectrum from strong right-handedness to mixed dominance.^[22] Such estimates are derived from analyses of over 25,000 twin pairs, highlighting that while genetics play a role, environmental factors explain the majority of variation.^[23] Specific genetic variants have been implicated in handedness atypicality, including cross-dominance. The gene LRRTM1, located on chromosome 2p12, shows associations with non-right-handedness, particularly when inherited paternally, influencing synaptic development and potentially contributing to mixed hand preferences in tasks.^[24] Similarly, variants in PCSK6, which encodes a proprotein convertase involved in nodal signaling for left-right asymmetry during embryonic development, are linked to the degree of handedness consistency rather than direction, with stronger effects observed in populations with dyslexia where mixed-handedness is more prevalent.^[25] These findings from genome-wide association studies underscore PCSK6's role in modulating the strength of lateralization, potentially leading to cross-dominance as an intermediate phenotype.^[25] Familial aggregation supports the genetic basis of cross-dominance, with twin studies revealing higher concordance rates in monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins. For instance, meta-analyses of 36,217 twin pairs indicate modestly elevated concordance for handedness overall in monozygotic pairs (odds ratio 1.11 relative to dizygotic; MZ 80.5%, DZ 79.3%), consistent with shared genetic effects.^[26] This pattern aligns with polygenic inheritance models observed in broader handedness research.^[27] Cross-dominance often emerges as a milder manifestation of alleles predisposing to non-right-handedness, where genetic variants like those in LRRTM1 and PCSK6 contribute to a continuum of lateralization rather than binary left- or right-handedness. Recent genome-wide association studies, including analyses identifying over 48 common variants as of 2021 and further insights into microtubule-related genes in 2025 reviews, reinforce this polygenic spectrum underlying ~25% heritability.^[22]^[28]

Environmental and Developmental Influences

Cross-dominance, or mixed laterality, can emerge through various non-genetic influences during prenatal and postnatal development, shaping hand and other motor preferences without altering underlying genetic predispositions. Prenatal factors play a key role in initial lateralization, with ultrasound studies indicating that fetal hand preferences begin to manifest as early as 10 weeks gestation through spontaneous arm movements and self-touch behaviors.^[29] Thumb-sucking patterns, observed via ultrasound from around 12 weeks gestation, show a right-hand bias of approximately 85-95% and reliably predict postnatal handedness with up to 94% accuracy.^[30] Postnatally, environmental pressures can further modify or induce cross-dominance patterns. Cultural practices that enforce right-hand use among left-preferring individuals, common in certain societies, often result in mixed dominance for specific tasks, as individuals adapt partially to societal norms while retaining innate preferences for others.^[31] Injuries to the dominant hand, particularly if occurring in childhood or requiring long-term adaptation, can force reliance on the non-dominant hand, leading to task-specific cross-dominance; studies of injury-induced transfers show that while full switches are rare, partial adaptations create mixed profiles in motor skills like writing or tool use.^[32] The developmental timeline of cross-dominance reflects a period of plasticity, with initial signs appearing in infancy and stabilizing later. Reaching preferences for objects emerge around 6 months, where consistent right-hand use predicts stronger laterality, though many infants exhibit variability at this stage.^[33] By 18 months to 2 years, hand dominance typically consolidates for basic tasks, but early childhood remains malleable, allowing environmental influences to shift patterns until school age, when preferences become more fixed.^[34] The ATNR, which normally integrates by 6 months, when retained prompts involuntary arm extension contralateral to head turns, hindering the establishment of unified hand preferences.^[35]

Neurological Basis

Brain Lateralization

Cerebral lateralization refers to the tendency for certain cognitive and motor functions to be predominantly controlled by one hemisphere of the brain, with the left hemisphere typically dominant for fine motor control in right-handed individuals. In right-handers, the left primary motor cortex (M1) primarily governs skilled movements of the right hand, integrating with Broca's area in the left inferior frontal gyrus for the planning and execution of speech-related motor sequences.^[36] This asymmetry arises from crossed corticospinal projections, where the left hemisphere exerts contralateral control over the right side of the body, facilitating precise manipulation tasks.^[37] In mixed-handedness, a key aspect of cross-dominance, this typical lateralization is atypical, characterized by reduced hemispheric asymmetry in the motor cortex and task-dependent shifts in activation patterns. Individuals with mixed-handedness often exhibit less pronounced left-hemisphere dominance for motor functions, resulting in more balanced or variable recruitment of both hemispheres depending on the specific task, such as writing versus throwing.^[38] Neuroimaging studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have demonstrated that mixed-handers show bilateral activation in the sensorimotor cortex during unilateral motor execution tasks, contrasting with the more contralateral-focused patterns in consistent right-handers.^[39] Hemispheric models provide frameworks for understanding these patterns in cross-dominance. The right-shift theory, proposed by Marian Annett, posits a genetic bias toward right-handedness through a right-shift (RS+) gene that enhances left-hemisphere advantage for motor and language functions, with mixed-handedness occurring in individuals lacking this gene (RS--) or experiencing random asymmetries.^[3] In contrast, pathologic models suggest that mixed dominance in some cases stems from early brain insults or developmental perturbations that disrupt typical lateralization, leading to compensatory bilateral involvement rather than a genetic predisposition alone.^[40]

Structural and Functional Associations

Brain imaging studies have revealed volumetric differences in key limbic structures associated with cross-dominance, particularly mixed-handedness. A longitudinal MRI study of 327 cognitively healthy older adults aged 60-66 years found that mixed-handed individuals exhibited greater age-related volume decline in the hippocampus and amygdala over a 4-year period compared to consistent right-handers. Specifically, the strength of handedness predicted atrophy rates, with mixed-handers showing higher annual decline in the left hippocampus (β = 0.118, p = 0.013) and right hippocampus (β = 0.116, p = 0.010), and right amygdala (β = 0.105, p = 0.040), after controlling for sociodemographic and health factors. These findings suggest that reduced lateralization in cross-dominance may contribute to accelerated structural degeneration in these regions, potentially linked to genetic or developmental factors.^[41] Recent research as of 2024 has shown strong associations between handedness and the laterality of functional connectivity patterns in the brain, particularly in resting-state networks, without corresponding differences in structural connectivity.^[18] This indicates that cross-dominance may influence dynamic neural interactions across hemispheres. Functional outcomes in cross-dominance include variations in interhemispheric transfer times during tasks requiring bimanual coordination. Studies using reaction time paradigms, such as the crossed-uncrossed difference (CUD) method, have shown that mixed-handed individuals exhibit distinct transfer dynamics compared to strong right-handers, with patterns influenced by the degree of lateralization. For instance, less strongly handed young adults demonstrated altered CUD values (mean 2.48 ms), indicating differences in the speed of information relay across the corpus callosum during coordinated motor tasks, though not always statistically slower overall. These functional differences underscore the role of mixed dominance in modulating neural efficiency for bilateral actions.^[42]

Implications in Daily Life

Developmental and Learning Impacts

Cross-dominance in children is associated with a higher incidence of developmental coordination delays compared to those with consistent lateral preferences. A longitudinal study of early childhood development found that mixed-handed children exhibited significantly poorer performance in gross motor skills, such as walking and balance, than right-handed peers, with delays persisting into school age.^[40] Children with cross-dominance often face learning challenges related to inconsistent laterality, including difficulties in language processing and scholastic performance. Research from a large birth cohort study indicated that mixed-handed children have approximately twofold increased odds of language and scholastic difficulties at age 8, potentially due to less efficient brain lateralization affecting cognitive integration.^[7] Despite these challenges, cross-dominance can confer positive aspects in skill acquisition, particularly through enhanced bilateral coordination that supports activities requiring integrated use of both body sides. If cross-dominance leads to persistent motor or learning delays, occupational therapy interventions can help establish clearer dominance patterns, typically targeting children by ages 7 to 8 when hand preference should be well-defined. Therapists use targeted activities, such as midline-crossing exercises and fine motor tasks, to promote hemispheric integration and reduce coordination inconsistencies.^[43]

Advantages and Challenges

Cross-dominance offers certain advantages in everyday activities by enhancing flexibility and adaptability. This versatility extends to creative endeavors, where mixed-handers demonstrate superior performance on measures of fluency, originality, detail, and categorical distinctiveness in divergent thinking tasks compared to strong right- or left-handers.^[44] Historical figures like Leonardo da Vinci, who exhibited ambidexterity by inscribing mirror writing with his left hand and standard script with his right on the same drawing, exemplify how such mixed abilities may facilitate innovative problem-solving in artistic and technical pursuits.^[45] Despite these benefits, cross-dominance presents challenges in a predominantly right-handed environment, particularly with tools and interfaces designed for right-hand use. For instance, right-handed scissors or kitchen utensils can cause inefficiency or discomfort when a left hand is preferred for fine cutting tasks, leading to suboptimal performance or the need for specialized adaptations.^[46] Similarly, eye-hand mismatches in cross-dominance—such as a dominant right eye paired with a left writing hand—may introduce minor coordination hurdles in activities like driving, where spatial alignment between visual input and manual control is critical, potentially increasing initial adaptation time.^[43] Many cross-dominant adults adapt effectively to these challenges through targeted practice, which promotes neural plasticity and reduces reliance on a single hand for routine tasks. Studies on non-dominant hand training show rapid improvements in skill acquisition, with learning curves indicating bilateral transfer of proficiency that minimizes everyday disruptions.^[47] Over the lifespan, cross-dominance may evolve toward greater consistency due to aging or repeated practice. Asymmetry diminishes with age as non-dominant hand performance declines less sharply or improves relatively, potentially leading to more balanced usage in older adults.^[48] Conversely, deliberate training can further shift preferences, reducing one-hand bias and enhancing overall adaptability in routine activities.^[49]

Cross-Dominance in Sports

In Baseball

Cross-dominance manifests in baseball primarily through players who bat left-handed but throw right-handed, a pattern observed in over two-thirds (approximately 70%) of left-handed batters, representing a substantial subset of the league's roughly 25% left-handed hitters overall.^[50] Switch-hitting, where batters alternate sides to optimize matchups, occurs in about 10% of Major League Baseball (MLB) players and is frequently paired with right-handed throwing, allowing flexibility against the predominant right-handed pitchers.^[51] Notable examples include Mickey Mantle, a switch-hitter who threw right-handed and amassed 536 home runs across his career with the New York Yankees from 1951 to 1968, and Pete Rose, who batted left-handed and threw right-handed, achieving a record 4,256 hits primarily with the Cincinnati Reds in the 1960s through 1980s.^[52]^[53] This cross-dominant setup provides advantages in batting by enabling left-handed swings against right-handed pitchers, which constitute the majority of MLB hurlers, resulting in improved plate coverage and visibility of the ball's trajectory. Left-handed batters collectively maintain a batting average approximately 0.007 points higher than right-handed batters due to the platoon advantage and closer proximity to first base on ground balls. Eye-hand cross-dominance further aids some batters by enhancing pitch tracking, with college-level studies showing such players twice as prevalent as in the general population, suggesting a selective performance edge. Historical MLB data from the 1950s to 2020s indicate that mixed-handed configurations contributed to elevated success rates, though specific batting averages for cross-dominant players varied across studies, with some reporting situational improvements in on-base percentages.^[54]^[55]^[56] Challenges arise from the rarity of training for switch-throwing, as nearly all players specialize in right- or left-handed throws to maximize fielding efficiency, limiting ambidexterity in defensive roles. Eye-hand mismatches in cross-dominant individuals can disrupt fielding alignment, particularly in infield positions requiring precise visual-motor coordination for throws to first base, though empirical studies find no overall association with reduced fielding skill. MLB records from the 1950s to the 2020s show a peak in switch-hitters during the 1990s (111 active players) before declining to 48 by 2018 and further to around 50 active as of 2024, reflecting evolving training emphases that favor specialized handedness over mixed profiles.^[57]^[58]

In Other Sports

In combat sports such as boxing, left-handed fighters often exhibit advantages due to the unpredictability of their movements, such as delivering a left jab from a right-handed stance, which disrupts opponents accustomed to right-dominant fighters; this may extend to cross-dominant patterns contributing to left-orientation.^[59] Studies indicate that left-handed fighters achieve a small but significant advantage, with win percentages approximately 2-4% higher than right-handers in professional bouts (e.g., 52.4% for male boxers), attributed to tactical surprise in interactive confrontations.^[59] This edge is particularly evident in fencing, where mixed-footedness correlates with improved performance in martial arts disciplines, enhancing agility and response times.^[60] In precision sports like archery and shooting, cross-dominance—where the dominant eye opposes the dominant hand—presents notable challenges, often requiring stance adjustments or eye occlusion techniques to align visuomotor coordination for accurate aiming. Approximately 10-30% of participants in target sports experience this crossed hand-eye laterality profile (C-HELP), leading to biomechanical adaptations that can initially hinder performance until compensated. High-level performers in these sports predominantly exhibit uncrossed profiles (UC-HELP), with 82.3% in archery and 93.1% in shooting favoring same-side dominance to optimize precision.^[61] Team sports also highlight benefits of mixed-handedness, with elite basketball players showing a prevalence of about 16.6% mixed-handed individuals, compared to approximately 10% in the general population, conferring versatility in dribbling and ambidextrous play.^[62] In soccer, crossed laterality profiles reach 53% among athletes—higher than the general 10-30%—supporting diverse kicking patterns and enhanced agility in dynamic scenarios.^[61] A 2022 systematic review underscores that mixed laterality facilitates superior visuomotor integration in interactive and dynamic sports, linking it to improved reaction times and overall performance adaptability.^[63]

Associated Health Conditions

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Cross-dominance, particularly mixed-handedness, has been associated with an increased risk of dyslexia, with meta-analyses indicating a significant elevation in mixed-handedness among affected individuals compared to the general population. A comprehensive review of 68 studies involving over 4,600 individuals with dyslexia and more than 40,000 controls found an odds ratio of 1.57 for mixed-handedness, suggesting approximately a 1.5-fold increase, though some earlier studies report rates up to 20% in dyslexic populations versus 1-10% generally. This association is thought to stem from lateralization deficits that impair phonological processing, as reduced brain asymmetry—potentially influenced by genes affecting cilia function and structural development—disrupts the typical left-hemisphere dominance for language-related tasks.^[64] In attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), mixed-handedness occurs at elevated rates exceeding the general population rate and is linked to challenges in motor inhibition. Meta-analyses from the 2010s and early 2020s, synthesizing data from multiple studies, confirm a trend toward higher mixed-handedness in ADHD (p=0.07), with overall non-right-handedness significantly elevated (p=0.02), pointing to atypical cerebral lateralization contributing to inhibitory control issues. Longitudinal cohort research, such as a study of nearly 8,000 children followed from ages 7-8 to 15-16, demonstrates that mixed-handed individuals face about twice the risk of ADHD symptoms, particularly inattention, persisting into adolescence.^[65]^[7] Associations between cross-dominance and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) yield mixed results, but evidence suggests higher rates of crossed laterality, often manifesting as elevated mixed-handedness that may influence social coordination. A review of 12 studies encompassing 497 individuals with ASD reported 44% mixed-handedness and 16% left-handedness, totaling 60% non-right-handedness—substantially above general population norms of around 10% non-right-handedness—potentially reflecting atypical brain lateralization affecting motor and social integration. However, findings vary across studies, with some showing no consistent link beyond overall laterality disruptions.^[66] Longitudinal studies, including birth cohorts like the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), support early mixed dominance as a predictor rather than a cause of these neurodevelopmental disorders. For instance, assessments in ALSPAC and similar cohorts reveal that mixed-handedness in early childhood correlates with later risks for dyslexia and language difficulties, with odds ratios around 1.2 for reading impairments, while a separate Finland cohort shows odds ratios around 2 for ADHD symptoms and persistent attention difficulties, emphasizing its role as an early marker for monitoring. These associations highlight the importance of brain asymmetry in development but underscore that cross-dominance is one of multiple risk factors.^[67]^[7]

Mental Health and Cognitive Risks

Cross-dominance, often manifesting as mixed-handedness, has been associated with elevated risks for certain mental health conditions, particularly in neurodevelopmental contexts. Studies indicate that individuals with mixed-handedness exhibit approximately twice the odds of experiencing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, including inattention and combined subtypes, as well as probable psychiatric disturbances during childhood and adolescence.^[16] This association persists longitudinally, with mixed-handed children showing heightened language and scholastic difficulties at age 8 and ongoing school-related challenges by age 16.^[16] In neurodevelopmental disorders, cross-dominance correlates with increased prevalence and severity. For instance, mixed-handedness is more common in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), affecting up to 38% of cases, and is linked to lower overall functioning and motor impairments; nonverbal individuals with ASD were more likely to be mixed-handed (40%).^[68] Similarly, genetic factors influencing brain asymmetry, such as variants in the LRRTM1 and PCSK6 genes, connect non-right-handedness—including mixed forms—to higher schizophrenia risk, with meta-analyses reporting an odds ratio of 1.81 for left-handedness in affected individuals.^[21] Cross-dominance, especially when combined with left-eye dominance, further predicts treatment resistance in schizophrenia, observed in 57.8% of resistant cases compared to 30% in remission.^[69] A 2025 meta-analysis confirms elevated non-right-handedness across multiple conditions including autism, schizophrenia, and ADHD, with odds ratios of 1.5 to 3.5.^[70] Cognitive risks extend to age-related decline, where mixed-handedness predicts accelerated atrophy in brain regions critical for memory and emotion regulation. In cognitively healthy older adults, mixed-handed individuals demonstrate greater volume loss in the hippocampus (beta coefficients of 0.116–0.118) and amygdala over four years, potentially elevating vulnerability to neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer's disease.^[6] Dyslexia also shows genetic overlaps with atypical handedness through genes involved in ciliogenesis and left-right asymmetry, though direct causal links remain under investigation.^[21] Despite these associations, not all research supports broad cognitive impairments; a systematic meta-analysis of 26 studies found no significant correlation between crossed laterality and academic achievement or intelligence (effect size d = -0.03, p = 0.46).^[1] These findings underscore the need for nuanced assessment, as risks may vary by disorder subtype and developmental stage.

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PCSK6 is associated with handedness in individuals with dyslexia
To date, only two specific genes have been suggested as candidates for handedness. The imprinted gene LRRTM1 in 2p12-q11 has been associated with handedness ...
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Common Variants in Left/Right Asymmetry Genes and Pathways Are ...
The strongest associated variant is in the gene PCSK6, an enzyme that cleaves NODAL into an active form. NODAL plays a key role during the establishment of left ...
[24]
Handedness in twins: meta-analyses | BMC Psychology | Full Text
Jan 15, 2022 · The authors further found that the prevalence of this mid-category is 9.3%, suggesting that a strong lateralization towards the right side is ...<|separator|>
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(PDF) Handedness in twins: meta-analyses - ResearchGate
Moreover, (iii) studies have shown a higher rate of handedness concordance in monozygotic compared to dizygotic twins, in line with genetic factors playing a ...
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Does Left-Handedness Develop Before or After Birth?
Jun 7, 2020 · Scientific studies show that left-handedness actually develops much earlier to in primary school. In fact, it actually develops before we are even born.
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The origin of human handedness and its role in pre-birth motor control
Dec 1, 2017 · We propose an approach that explains postnatal handedness starting from 18 gestational weeks using a kinematic analysis of different fetal arm movements.
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[PDF] The influence of vestibular system and fetal presentation on ... - HAL
Oct 28, 2022 · In addition, prenatal vestibular asymmetries resulting from a lateralized fetal pre- sentation can be related to behaviors other than handedness ...
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Prenatal Stress and Mixed-Handedness | Pediatric Research - Nature
Mixed handedness was defined as using the opposite hand for one or more of the tested activities. Logistic regression analysis showed that more maternal daily ...
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Might culture impact the assessment of handedness in Black ...
Oct 14, 2024 · Participants born to West African immigrants were more likely to report mixed hand use or forced hand conversion. These individuals were ...
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injury-induced hand dominance transfer - UKnowledge
Mar 10, 2011 · When loss of dominant hand function is permanent, a forced shift of dominance is termed injury-induced hand dominance transfer (I-IHDT).
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Early handedness in infancy predicts language ability in toddlers - NIH
Children with a consistent right-hand preference as infants (measured from 6–14 months) scored higher on the language scale of the Bayley when tested at 24 ...
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5973 History of hand preference - Archives of Disease in Childhood
Hand dominance usually develops in children around 18 months old, while earlier hand preference may indicate cerebral palsy.
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Retained Primitive Reflexes Contributing to Mixed Dominance Delays
Oct 7, 2024 · Children who are prone to mixed dominance delays often have one or more retained Primitive Reflexes that contribute to the confusion with in the brain.
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Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex - Physiopedia
This reflex is elicited by turning the child's head to one side. A normal response is seen if the baby's extensor tone increases on the side the head is facing.
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Handedness and hemispheric language dominance in healthy ...
Abstract. In most people the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant for language. Because of the increased incidence of atypical right-hemispheric langua.<|separator|>
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Lateralization of Brain Function & Hemispheric Specialization
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Left-Handers Are Less Lateralized Than Right-Handers for Both Left ...
Apr 22, 2021 · The results demonstrate that left-handers with typical cerebral asymmetries are less lateralized for language, faces, and bodies than their right-handed ...
[39]
Handedness impacts the neural correlates of kinesthetic motor ... - NIH
Jan 3, 2022 · The human brain functional lateralization has been widely studied over the past decades, and neuroimaging studies have shown how activation ...
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Nature's Experiment? Handedness and Early Childhood Development
We find that left-handed children are 4–6 percentage points more likely to be classified as “less competent” than right-handed children.
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https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.24
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https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/79464/rdtriv.pdf
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Ambidexterity or Mixed Dominance - The OT Toolbox
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10 Benefits of Music - MozArt Music Academy
Sep 27, 2024 · It encourages ambidexterity and enhances coordination which is useful for other activities such as sports. 8. Develops Self-Discipline.
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Hand Dominance Activities 3 Simple Tips - The OT Toolbox
Jun 24, 2019 · Development of Hand Dominance True hand dominance can develop as late as 8 or 9 years of age, but typically children begin to demonstrate ...
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Manual and Cognitive Benefits of Two-Handed Input:
Two-handed input provides manual benefits from increased efficiency and cognitive benefits by reducing mental load, leading to faster performance.
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https://www.imse.iastate.edu/files/2021/03/SchweigerDrew-thesis.pdf
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Was Leonardo da Vinci, a Famous Lefty, Actually Ambidextrous?
Apr 11, 2019 · A study finds that one inscription on an early Leonardo drawing was penned with the artist's left hand, while another was written with his right.Missing: cross- dominance
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[PDF] A study of learning curve of the non-dominant hand
This study examines improving office performance by training the non-dominant hand on the computer mouse, including the learning curve and bilateral transfer ...
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Handedness and cognitive ability: Using meta-analysis to make ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... mixed-handed individuals. Papadatou-Pastou's meta-analysis ... minimal impact on intelligence and quality of life. This study aims ...
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Age-related changes in hand dominance and functional asymmetry ...
The aim of the study was to investigate fine motor performance and ascertain age-related changes in laterality between the dominant and non-dominant hand.
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(PDF) Plasticity of human handedness: Decreased one-hand bias ...
Our results showed that the right-hand (i.e. dominant hand) bias in basketball players is reduced with increasing expertise (i.e., competitive level).
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I noticed a good number of players that hit left handed but throw right ...
Apr 22, 2020 · Of those 2.724 players 2,136 (78.41%) bat lefty and throw right. Just 588 (21.59%) bat righty but throw lefty. Compared to overall # of mlb ...How many active players in the MLB bat righty and throw lefty? Who ...Is it easier to hit opposite side of the field as a right or left handed ...More results from www.reddit.com
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Pitcher VS Batter - Applied Vision Baseball
A right-handed hitter will have a bigger advantage facing a lefty pitcher since the pitch will come from the outer half of the plate.
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Switch Hitting 101 - Becoming a Skilled Switch Hitter | JustBats
While switch hitting is extremely rare, with only about 9-10% of all MLB players today capable of batting this way, several MLB players are known for their ...
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Mickey Mantle Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Rookie Status & More | Baseball-Reference.com
### Mickey Mantle's Batting and Throwing Handedness Summary
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Pete Rose Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Rookie Status & More | Baseball-Reference.com
### Pete Rose Batting and Throwing Handedness Summary
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Advantages of Being a Left Handed Hitter - Pro Baseball Insider
Mar 7, 2012 · The answer is yes, for 3 reasons. Statistically, left handed batters have a batting average that is 7 points higher than right handed batters.
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Eye And Hand Dominance - Baseball Performance - Psyched Online
If persons are divided into only right or left eye dominance, then about 65% of the population is right eyed dominant and 35% are left eye dominant. An ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] of Eye Dominance and Baseball Batting
Dominance pattern. Number of players. Right handed batters. 44. R eyed. 20. Leyed. Left handed batters. R eyed. 17 .249. L eyed. 11 .242. All batters uncrossed ...
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Why one of baseball's unique skills, switch hitting, is trending toward ...
Aug 7, 2024 · That's down from an all-time high of 111 switch hitters in 1998. American-born switch hitters peaked at 78 in 1987, according to Stathead.
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Association between eye and hand dominance and hitting, fielding ...
Conclusions: Results indicate that there is no association between eye dominance, and hitting, fielding, or pitching skill in baseball.Missing: .020 higher
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Left-handedness is associated with greater fighting success in humans
Oct 28, 2019 · Left-handed fighters have greater fighting success. This held for both male and female fighters, and for both percentage of fights won and an objective measure ...Missing: fencing | Show results with:fencing
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Footedness Is Associated with Self-reported Sporting Performance ...
Aug 10, 2016 · Study 1 revealed replicable beneficial effects of mixed-footedness and left-footedness in team sports, martial arts and fencing, dancing, skiing, and swimming.
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Eye Dominance: Are You Shooting the Right Way? - Bowhunter
Jun 7, 2021 · Cross-dominance —when your dominant hand is opposite of your dominant eye —can pose a real challenge for bowhunters.
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Could hand-eye laterality profiles affect sport performance? A ...
Nov 17, 2022 · A systematic review of the literature was carried out to determine the prevalence of hand-eye laterality profiles in the different sports modalities.Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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Hand preference patterns in expert basketball players: Interrelations ...
Mixed-handed individuals are overrepresented among expert basketball players as compared to the general population. •. Everyday life and basketball-specific ...
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Could hand-eye laterality profiles affect sport performance ... - PeerJ
Nov 17, 2022 · The present systematic review aims to analyze the literature available to date on hand-eye laterality profiles in the different sports ...
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Handedness in ADHD: Meta-Analyses - PubMed
We report the results of three meta-analyses (left-, mixed-, and non-right-handedness) comparing handedness in individuals with ADHD to controls.Missing: 2010s | Show results with:2010s
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The Prevalence of Left-Handedness Is Higher Among Individuals ...
In a review of 12 studies including a total of 497 individuals diagnosed with ASD, Rysstad and Pedersen (2016) found 16% left-handers and 44% mixed-handers, ...
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Language and reading impairments are associated with increased ...
Handedness has been studied for association with language‐related disorders because of its link with language hemispheric dominance.
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Handedness in autism spectrum disorders and intellectually ...
Feb 10, 2024 · A higher rate of atypical handedness prevalence (non-right-handedness or left-, mixed-hand dominance) has been recurrently reported in ...
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Comparative Analysis of Lateral Preferences in Patients With ...
Cross-dominance and left eye dominance are associated with a higher probability of symptom resistance than other forms of lateralization (left-handed or right- ...